AN Assignment

On
Partial Differential Equation
Differential equation (DE)
An equation involves derivatives of one or more dependent variables with respect to one or more
independent variables is said to be a differential equation.
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example: 𝑑𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 = 4𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE)

An equation involves derivatives of one or more dependent variables with respect to one or more
independent variables is said to be an ordinary differential equation.
𝑑𝑦
Example:𝑑𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥

Linear Differential Equation

An ordinary differential equation having no product of dependent variable and/ or its derivatives
and no transcendental function of dependent variable is called linear ODE.
Example: ux+ uy= 0
Non- Linear ODE
An ordinary differential equation which is not linear is called non- linear ODE.
Example: uux + uy= 0
Homogeneous ODE
An ordinary DE of the form:
M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy = 0
Is said to be the homogenous ODE if N(x,y) and M(x,y) are homogenous function of game
degree.
Example: (x2+y2)dx + 2xy dy = 0
Inhomogeneous ODE
An ordinary DE of the form which is not homogenous is an inhomogeneous ODE.
Example: (x3+y3)dx + (x2+y2)dy = 0
Partial differential equation (PDE)
A differential equation is involving partial derivatives respect to more than on independent
variable is called PDE.
Example: u2x+uxt=2ut

2
Linear PDE
A partial differential equation is called linear if
i. The power of the dependent variable and each partial derivatives contained in the
equation is one
ii. The co-efficient of the dependent variable and each partial derivatives are constants or
independent variables
Example: y11+py1+qy=0
Non-Linear PDE: A PDE which is not linear is called a non-linear PDE.
Example:𝑦𝑦" + 𝑦𝑦′ = 0
Homogenous PDE: If all the terms of a PDE contains the dependent variable or its partial
derivatives, then such a PDE is called homogenous PDE.
Example:𝑢𝑥 + 𝑦𝑢𝑦 = 3𝑢
Inhomogeneous PDE: A PDE which is not homogeneous is called inhomogeneous PDE.
Example:𝑢𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
Order and Degree: The largest derivative present in the differential equation is called the order
of the PDE.
The degree of the highest order derivative occurs in the DE.
Example:𝑢𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦 = 0, first order.
𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦 = 0, second order.
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
And 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑑𝑡 = 0, first order.
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
( 𝑑𝑡 2 )2 + 𝑑𝑡 = 0, second

Initial value problem: An initial value problem is a DE together with a point in the domain of f.
Boundary value problem: A boundary value problem is a DE together with a set of additional
constraints, called boundary conditions.
General Solution: The general solution to a differential equation is the most general form that
the solution can take doesn’t take any initial condition into account.
Actual Solution: The specific solution that not only satisfies the DE but also satisfies the given
initial conditions.
Particular Solution: The particular solution is obtained by assigning particular value to the
arbitrary constants in the general solution.
Series Solution: Series solution to a DE is such a solution that assumes a power series with
unknown co-efficient.

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Closed form Solution: An equation is said to be a closed form solution if it solves a given
problem in terms of functions and mathematical operations from a given generally accepted sets.

Example: The solution of any quadratic equation with complex coefficient can be expressed in
closed form in terms of addition, substraction, multiplication, division and square root extraction,
each of which is an elementary function. The quadratic equation,
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0,

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
Travelling wave solution: The KdV equation posses travelling wave solutions. One particular
travelling wave solutions and it was discovered experimentally by John Scott Russel I 1834.
Decomposition method: The adomian decomposition method(ADM) is a powerful method
which considers the approximate solution of a non linear equation as an infinite series which
usually converges to the exact solution.It was developed and introduced by George Adomian and
this method is applied to a wide class of linear and non-linear ODE and PDE and integral
equations.It consists of decomposing the unknown function u(x,y) of any equation into a sum of
an infinite number of components define by the decomposition series,
∞

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑛=0

Where,the components 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦),n≥0 are to be determined into a recursive manner.

Decompostion of the method: Consider the linear differential equation written in an operator
form by
Lu+Ru = g,
where L is, mostly, the lower order derivative which is assumed to be invertible, R is other linear
differential operator, and g is a source term. We next apply the inverse operator L−1 to both sides
of equation (2.2) and using the given condition to obtain
𝑢 = 𝑓 − 𝐿−1 (𝑅𝑈)

Where the function f represents the terms arising from integrating the source term g and from
using the given conditions that are assumed to be prescribed. Adomian method defines the
solution u by an infinite series of components given by
∝

𝑢 = ∑ 𝑢𝑛 … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖 )
𝑛=0

Where the components 𝑢0 , 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 … … … …. are usually recurrently determined. Substituting (ii)

into both sides of (i),

4
 ∝ ∝
−1
∑ 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑓 − 𝐿 (𝑅 (∑ 𝑢𝑛 )) … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

Equation (iii) can be rewritten as :

𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ … … … … . = 𝑓 − 𝐿−1 (𝑅(𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ … … ))
The formal recursive relation is defined by,
𝑢0 = 𝑓
𝑢𝑘+1 = −𝐿−1 (𝑅(𝑢𝑘 )), 𝑘 ≥ 0 … … … … … . (𝑖𝑣)
The relation (iv) reduced the differention equation under consideration into an elegant
determination of computable components. Having determined these components, we then
substitute it into (ii) to obtain the solution in a series form.
1. Use Adomian decomposition method to solve the following inhomogeneous PDE,
𝒖𝒙 + 𝒖𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝒚, 𝒖(𝟎, 𝒚) = 𝟎, 𝒖(𝒙, 𝟎) = 𝟎.
Solution: In an operator form,
𝐿𝑥 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝐿𝑦 𝑢
𝜕 𝜕
Where, 𝐿𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 , 𝐿𝑦 = 𝜕𝑦

It is clear that 𝐿𝑥 is invertible, hence 𝐿−1

𝑥 exists and given by,
𝑥
𝐿−1
𝑥 (. ) = ∫ (. )𝑑𝑥
0

Applying 𝐿−1
𝑥 to both sides,
𝐿−1 −1 −1
𝑥 𝐿𝑥 𝑢 = 𝐿𝑥 (𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝐿𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 𝑢)
1
Or equivalently, 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢(0, 𝑦) + 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝐿−1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 𝑢)

1 2
= 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝐿−1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 𝑢) … … … … … … … (𝑖)[𝑢(0, 𝑦)]
2
The decomposition method sets the solution u(x,y) in a series form by,
∝

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦) … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)

𝑛=0

Substituting (ii) into (i),

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 ∝ ∝
1
∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝐿−1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 (∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦)))
2
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

1
𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ … … … … . = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝐿−1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ … ))
2
The decomposition method identifies the zeroth component 𝑢0 by all terms arising from the given
condition and from
Integrating 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑦 , therefore we set ,
1 2
𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦
2
𝑢𝑘+1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝐿−1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 (𝑢𝑘 )),k≥0

Thus in turn gives ,

1 2 1 2
𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝐿−1 −1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 (𝑢0 )) = −𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 ( 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦) = − 𝑥
2 2
1 2
𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝐿−1 −1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 (𝑢0 )) = −𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 (− 𝑥 ) = 0
2
accordingly ,𝑢𝑘 = 0, 𝑘 ≥ 2 .
Hence ,
𝑢 = 𝑢0 +𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯
1 2 1
= 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2
2 2
= 𝑥𝑦
The exact solution of the equation.
02. Solve the following homogeneous partial differential equation
𝒖𝒙 − 𝒖𝒚 = 𝟎 ,
𝒖(𝟎, 𝒚) = 𝒚 , 𝒖(𝒙, 𝟎) = 𝒙
Solution: In an operator form ,
𝐿𝑥 u(x,y)=𝐿𝑦 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) (1)
Applying the inverse operator 𝐿−1
𝑥 to both sides of (1) ,

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 + 𝐿−1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 𝑢)(2)[𝑢(0, 𝑦) = 0]

Define the unknown function u(x,y) by decomposition series ,

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 ∞

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∑ 𝑢 (𝑥, 𝑦)(3)

𝑛=0 𝑛

Using (3) in (2) we get ,

∞

∑ 𝑢 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 + 𝐿−1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 𝑢)
𝑛=0 𝑛

⇒ 𝑢0 +𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ = 𝑦 + 𝐿−1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ ))

The components𝑢0 , 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ,……. , are determined in a recursive manner,

𝑢0 , (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦

𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐿−1 −1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 𝑢0 ) = 𝐿𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 (𝑦)) = 𝑥

𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐿−1 −1
𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 𝑢1 ) = 𝐿𝑥 (𝐿𝑦 (𝑥)) = 0

Clearly ,𝑢𝑘 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 , 𝑘 ≥ 2

Then the solution is given by ,
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + ⋯ = 𝑦 + 𝑥
The Noise Terms Phenomenon: The noise forms phenomenon accelerates the convergence of the
Adomian decomposition method. It appear onlyfor inhomogeneous PDEs. The noise terms are
deigned as the identical terms with opposite signs that may appear in the components u0 and u1.

1. Use the decomposition method and the noise terms phenomenon to solve the
following inhomogeneous PDE
ux+ uy=(1+x)ey , u(0,y) = 0, u(x,0) = x

Solution: The inhomogeneous PDE can be rewriter in an operator form by

Lxu = (1+x) ey- Lyu
Clearly, Lx is invertible and therefore the inverse operator Lx-1 exists. Applying Lx-1to both sides
of (1),
𝑥2
u(x,y) = (x + ) ey - Lx-1 Ly (u)
2!

Using the decomposition series u (x,y) =∑∞

𝑛=0 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦),

𝑥2
∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦)= (x + ) ey - Lx-1 Ly(∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦))
2!

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 𝑥2
 u0+ u1+ u2 + ……………= (x + )ey - Lx-1 Ly (u0+ u1+ u2 + ……)
2!

The components u0+ u1+ u2 + …………… are determined in a recursive manner,

𝑥2
u0(x,y) = (x + )ey
2!

𝑥2 𝑥3
u1(x,y) = Lx-1 Ly (u0) = -( 2! + 3! ) ey

𝑥3 𝑥4
u2(x,y) = Lx-1 Ly (u1) = ( 3! + 4! ) ey

𝑥2 y
Considering the first two components uo and u1, it is easily observed that the noise terms e and
2!
𝑥2 y
- e appear in u0 and u1 respectively. By canceling the noise terms, we find that the exact
2!
solution is given by,

u (x,y) = xey

2. Use the decomposition method and the noise terms phenomenon to solve the following
PDE,

ux+ uy = x2 +4xy+ y2, u(0,y) = o, u(x,0) = 0.

Solution: The inhomogeneous PDE can be rewritten as,

Lxu(x,y) = y x2 +4xy+ y2- Ly u(x,y)

Applying the inverse operator Lx-1 to both sides,

𝑥3 𝑥2
u(x,y) = + 4y + y2x - Lx-1 Ly (u)
3 2

Using the decomposition series, u(x,y) =∑∞

𝑛=0 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦),

𝑥3
∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦) = + 2yx2 + y2x - Lx-1 Ly(∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦))
3

𝑥3
equivlently, u0+ u1+ u2 + ……………= 3 + 2yx2 + y2x - Lx-1 Ly(u0+ u1+ u2…….)

The components u0+ u1+ u2……. are determined in a recursive manner

𝑥3
𝑢0 = + 2𝑦𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑥
3
𝑥3
𝑢1 = −𝐿−1
𝑥 𝐿𝑦 ( + 2𝑦𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑥)
3
8
 =−𝐿−1 2
𝑥 (2𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑥)

𝑥3 𝑥2
= − (2 + 2 𝑦)
3 2
2
= − ( 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 𝑦)
3
𝑥3
𝑢2 = 𝐿−1
𝑥 𝐿𝑦 (2 + 𝑥 2 𝑦)
3
= 𝐿−1 2
𝑥 (𝑥 )

𝑥3
=
3
𝑥3
𝑢3 = 𝐿−1
𝑥 𝑦𝐿 ( )=0
3
𝑢𝑘 = 0, 𝑘 ≥ 0.
We can easily observe that the two components 𝑢0 and 𝑢1 do not contain noise terms.
Hense, 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ … … … … ..
1 3 2 1
= 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 3 = 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 𝑦
3 3 3

The Modified Decomposition method: The modified decomposition method was developed by
Wazwaz which will accelerate the convergence of the series solution. It can be applied to all
PDE’s of any order.
Description of the method: Consider, the partial differential equation in an operator form
𝐿𝑢 + 𝑅𝑢 = 𝑔
Where, L is the highest order derivative, R is a linear differential operator of less order or equal
order to L, any g is the source term. Operating with the inverse operator L-1,
u=f-L-1(Ru)
Where, f represents the terms arising from the given initial condition and from integrating the
source term g. Defining the decomposition series,
∝

𝑢 = ∑ 𝑢𝑛
𝑛=0

9
Which admits the use of the recursive relation,
U0=f,
Uk+1=-L-1(Ruk), k≥0
The modified decomposition method introduces a slight variation to the recursive relation that
will lead to the determination of the components of u in a faster and easier way. We can set,
𝑓 = 𝑓1 + 𝑓2
We identify the zeroth component 𝑢0 by one part of f, namely 𝑓1 𝑜𝑟 𝑓2 . The other part of f can
be added to component 𝑢1 among other terms. The modified recursive relation can be identified
by,
𝑢0 = 𝑓1
𝑢1 = 𝑓2 − 𝐿−1 (𝑅𝑢0 )
𝑢𝑘+1 = −𝐿−1 (𝑅𝑢𝑘 ), 𝑘 ≥ 1
1. Use the modified decomposition method to solve the first order partial differential
equation:
𝒖𝒙 +𝒖𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒖(𝟎, 𝒚) = 𝟎.

Solution: In an operator form:

𝐿𝑥 𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 𝑢𝑦

Applying the inverse operator 𝐿−1

𝑥
3
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 + 𝑥 4 𝑦 2 − 𝐿−1
𝑥 (𝑢𝑦 )
4

The function f(x,y) consists of two terms,

𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 𝑦 3
3
𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 4 𝑦 2
4

Introducing the modified recursive relation,

𝒖𝟎 (x,y)=𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑
3
𝑢1 (x,y)=4 𝑥 4 𝑦 2-𝐿𝑥 −1 (𝑢0)𝑦
3
=4 𝑥 4 𝑦 2 -𝐿𝑥 −1 (3𝑥 3 𝑦 2 )
3 3
=4 𝑥 4 𝑦 2 -4 𝑥 4 𝑦 2

=0

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 𝑢𝑘+1 (x,y)=0, k≥ 1
Then the exact solution is,
u(x,y)=𝑥 3 𝑦 3

2.Use the modified decomposition method to solve the first order partial differential
𝟏
equation: 𝒖𝒙 -𝒖𝒚 =𝒙𝟑 - 𝒚𝟑 , u(0,y)=𝟒 𝒚𝟒
Solution: In an operator form ,
𝐿𝑥 (u)=𝑥 3 -𝑦 3 +𝐿𝑦 (u)
Applying the inverse operator 𝐿𝑥 −1 on both sides,
𝑥4 𝑦4
u(x,y)= 4 + 4 -x𝑦 3 +L𝑥 −1 𝐿𝑦 (u)

Defining the decomposition series,

u(x,y)= ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑢𝑛 (x,y)

𝑥4 𝑦4
we get, 𝑢0 +𝑢1 +.........= 4 + 4 -x𝑦 3 +L𝑥 −1 𝐿𝑦 (𝑢0 +𝑢1 +...........)
1
=4(𝑥 4 +𝑦 4 )-x𝑦 3 +𝐿𝑥 −1 𝐿𝑦 (𝑢0 +𝑢1 +..........)

split the function f(x,y) as follows,

1
𝑓1 (x,y)=4(𝑥 4 +𝑦 4 )

𝑓2 (x,y)=-x𝑦 3
Consequently, We set the modified recursive relation,
1
𝑢0 (x,y)=4(𝑥 4 +𝑦 4 )
1
𝑢1 (x,y)=-x𝑦 3 +𝐿𝑥 −1 (4(𝑥 4 +𝑦 4 ))

=-x𝑦 3 +𝐿𝑥 −1 (𝑦 3 )
=-x𝑦 3 +x𝑦 3
=0
𝑢𝑘+1 (x,y)=0, k≥1
1 1
The exact solution, u(x,y)=4 𝑥 4 +4 𝑦 4

11
3.Use the modified decomposition method to solve the first order partial differential
equation:
𝒖𝒙 +𝒖𝒚 =coshx+coshy, u(x,0)=sinhx
Solution: We can rewrite in an operator form,
𝐿𝑦 u=coshx+coshy-𝑢𝑥
Applying the universe operator 𝐿𝑦 −1 ,
u(x,y)=sinhx+sinhy+ycoshx-𝐿𝑦 −1 𝐿𝑥 (u)
The function f(x,y) can be wtitten as,
𝑓1 (x,y)=sinhx+sinhy
𝑓2 (x,y)=ycoshx
The decomposition series,
𝛼

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑛=0

Then
𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 … … … … … … … = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦 + 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 − 𝐿−1
𝑦 (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 … … )𝑥

Set the modified recursive relation

𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦
𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 − 𝐿−1 𝑦 (𝑢0 )𝑥
−1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥
= 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 − 𝐿𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦)𝑥
−1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦)
= 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 − 𝐿𝑦
= 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 − 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥
=0

𝑢𝑘+1 = 0, 𝑘≥1

The exact solution 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦

12
The variational iteration method

Introduction: The variational iteration method established by Ji-Huan He, is thoroughly used by
mathematicians to handle a wide variety of scientific and engineering applications: linear and non-
linear, and homogeneous and inhomogeneous as well. It was shown that this method is effective
and reliable for analytic and numerical purpose. This method gives rapidly convergent successive
approximations of the exact solution if such a solution exists. The VIM does not require specific
treatments for nonlinear problems as in Adomian method and others. In what follows, we present
the main steps of the method.

Methodology: Consider the differential equation is given by

Lu  Nu  g  t  (1)

Where L and N are linear and nonlinear operators respectively, and g(t) is the source
inhomogeneous term.
The VIM method presents a correction functional for Eq. (1) in the form
t
un 1  t   un  t        Lun    Nun    g    d  (2)
0

Where  is a general Lagrange multiplier, which can be identified optimally via the variational
theory, and un is a restricted variation which means  un  0.
It is obvious now that the main steps of the He’s variational iteration method require first.
The determination of the Lagrange multiplier    that will be identified optimally. Integration

by parts is usually used for the determination of the Lagrange multiplier    . In other words, we

can use

    u   d     u         u   d
n n n

    u    d      u          u         u   d
n n n n (3)

and soon. The last two identities can be obtained by integrating by parts.

13
Having determined the lagrange multiplier    , the successive approximations un 1 , n  0 of the

solution u will be readily obtained upon using any selective function u0 . Consequently, the
solution
limn un (4)
In other words, the correction function (2) will give several approximations, and therefore the exact
solution is obtained as the limit of the resulting successive approximations.

Example 1: Use variational iteration method to solve the following inhomogeneous PDE

𝑼 𝒙 + 𝑽𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝒚 U(0,y) = 0 U(x,0) = 0

Solution: Given equation

𝑈𝑥 + 𝑉𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 ...........(I)
The correction functional for eq. (I) is given by
𝑥 𝛿𝑈𝑛 (𝜉,𝑦) 𝛿 2 𝑈𝑛 (𝜉,𝑦)
𝑈𝑛+1 (x,y) = 𝑈𝑛 (x,y) + ∫0 𝜆(𝜉) ( + -𝜉-y) d 𝜉.........(II)
𝛿𝜉 𝛿𝑦

This gives the stationary conditions 1+ 𝜆| = 0

𝜉=x
λ’| = 0
𝜉=x
This in turn gives λ = -1 putting this value in eq. (II)

𝑥 𝛿𝑈𝑛 (𝜉,𝑦) 𝛿 2 𝑈𝑛 (𝜉,𝑦)

𝑈𝑛+1 = 𝑈𝑛 -∫0 𝑦 ( + -𝜉-y)dξ , n ≥ 0 ..............(III)
𝛿𝜉 𝛿𝑦

As stated before we can select 𝑈0 (x,y) = U (0,y) = 0 from the given conditions. using this selection
into (III) we obtain the successive approximations

𝑈0 (x,y) = 0
𝑥 𝛿𝑈 𝛿𝑈
𝑈1 (x,y) = 0-∫0 (( 𝛿𝜉0 + 𝛿𝑦0 - 𝜉-y) d 𝜉)

𝑥
= ∫0 (0 + 0 − 𝜉-y) d 𝜉

𝑥2
= + 𝑥𝑦
2

14
 𝑥2 𝑥 𝛿𝑈 𝛿𝑈1
𝑈2 (x,y) = ( + xy)- ∫0 ( 𝛿𝜉1 + − 𝜉-y) d 𝜉 = xy
2 𝛿𝑦

𝑥 𝛿𝑈 𝛿𝑈2
𝑈3 (x,y) = xy - ∫0 ( 𝛿𝜉2 + − 𝜉-y) dξ = xy
𝛿𝑦

.
.
.
𝑈𝑛 (x,y) = xy

The VIM admits the use of U (x,y) = lim 𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑛→∝

=> U (x,y) = lim 𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑛→∝

That gives the exact solution by U (x, y) = xy.

Example 2: Solve the following homogeneous PDE by variational iteration method

𝑼𝒙 − 𝑼𝒚 = 0, U(0,y) = y , U(x,0) = x

Solution: Given equation

𝑈𝑥 − 𝑈𝑦 = 0 ............... (I)

The correction functional for (I) is given by

𝑥 𝛿𝑈 𝛿𝑈𝑛
𝑈𝑛+1 = 𝑈𝑛 + ∫0 𝜆 ( 𝛿𝜉𝑛 − ) dξ .............(II)
𝛿𝑦

The stationary conditions 1+ 𝜆| = 0

𝜉=x
λ’| = 0
𝜉=x
This gives λ = - 1 , putting this value in (II), we get
𝑥 𝛿𝑈 𝛿𝑈𝑛
𝑈𝑛+1 = 𝑈𝑛 - ∫0 𝜆 ( 𝛿𝜉𝑛 − ) dξ.................(III)
𝛿𝑦

We now select 𝑈0 (x,y) = U (0,y) = y from the given condition.

Using this selection into (III) we obtain the successive approximation

15
Approximation u0(x,y)=y

𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢0
u1(x,y) = y- ∫0 ( 𝜕𝜁0 − ) 𝑑𝜁
𝜕𝑦

𝑥
=y- ∫0 (0 − 1)𝑑𝜁
=y+x
=x+y.
𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢1
u2(x,y)=x+y- ∫0 ( 𝜕𝜁1 − ) 𝑑𝜁
𝜕𝑦

=x+y
.
.
.
un(x,y)=x+y.

The VIM admits the use of u(x,y)= lim 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦) that gives the exact solution by u(x,y)=x+y.
𝑛→∞

Method of characteristics

Introduction: The first mathematician (who used the methods of characteristics for differential
equations) seems to be Paul de villecourt (June 30,1784).

Methodology: In this section, the first order PDE

𝑎𝑢𝑥 + 𝑏𝑢𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑘𝑢, 𝑢(0, 𝑦) = ℎ(𝑦) … … … … … . (1)

will be investigated by using the traditional method of characteristics. It is important to note that
a,b and f depend on x,y and u but not on the derivative of u. In addition, we also assume that a,b
and f are continuously differentiable of their arguments.
Assuming that u(x,y) is a solution of (1), then by using the chain rule we obtain

du= uxdx+uydy …………………(2)

A close examination of (1) and (2) leads to the system of equations

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑎
= 𝑏
= 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)+𝑘𝑢 …………(3)

16
 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
The pair =
𝑎 𝑏

⇒ bx-ay=c …………...(4)

Where, c is a constant.
we next consider the pair
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)+𝑘𝑢
𝑎

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢
⇒ = 𝑏𝑥−𝑐
𝑎 𝑓(𝑥, )+𝑘𝑢
𝑎

𝑑𝑦 𝑘 1 𝑏𝑥−𝑐
⇒𝑑𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑢 = 𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥, )……. (5)
𝑎

Which is a first order linear ODE. The integrating factor of (5) is given by
𝑘 𝑘
I.F = 𝑒 ∫ −𝑎𝑑𝑥 =𝑒 −𝑎𝑥

According to the solution of (5) is

u= G(x,e)+c1, where e1=g(c) …………..(6)

Where g is an arbitrary function. equation (6) can be written as

u=G(x,e)+ g(c) …………………………(7)
Using the given condition leads to the determination of g  c  . Based on this and using (4), the

solution u  x, y  is readily obtained.

Example 1: Use the method of characteristics to solve the first order Partial differential
equation𝑼𝒙 +𝑼𝒚 =x+y,U(x,0)=0

Solution: Here U(x,y). The total differentiation of U(x,y) is

dU=𝑈𝑥 dx+𝑈𝑦 dy………..(1)

And given equation x+y=𝑈𝑥 +𝑈𝑦 …………(2)

From (1) and (2),

𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
𝟏
= 𝟏 =𝒙+𝒚

17
Then dx=dy

x-y=c, where c is a constant.

𝒅𝒖
and dy=𝒙+𝒚

=>du=(x+y)dy

=>du=(2y+c)dy

=>U=𝑦 2 +y+g(c), 𝑐1=g(c)

Then U(x,y)=𝑦 2 +y(x-y)+g(x-y)………….(3)

Where g(x-y) is an arbitrary function. To determine g(x,y).We substitute the given condition into
(3), then U(x,0)=0+0+g(x-0)

Then g(x)=0

And therefore g(x-y)=0

Hence the solution is therefore given by U(x,y)=𝑦 2 +y(x-y)=𝑦 2 +xy-𝑦 2 =xy

Then U(x,y)=xy.

Example 2: Use the method of characteristics to solve the first order partial differential
equation x𝒖𝒙 +𝒖𝒚 =xsinhy +u,u(0,y)=0

Solution: Here u=u(x,y)

Then du=𝑢𝑥 dx +𝑢𝑦 dy………………………….(1)

And xsinhy+u=u𝑢𝑥 +𝑢𝑦 ……………………….(2)

𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
From (1) and (2), = = 𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒚+𝒖
𝒙 𝟏

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
Then =
𝑥 1

=> ln 𝑥=y+ln 𝑐

18
 𝑥
=> 𝑐 =𝑒 𝑦

Then x=c𝑒 𝑦

𝑑𝑢
And 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦+𝑢=dy

𝑑𝑢
=>dy=𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦+𝑢

𝑑𝑢
=> 𝑑𝑦=xsinhy+u

𝑑𝑢
=> 𝑑𝑦-u=xsinhy…………(3)

That can be reduced to the first order linear ODE

Hence I.F=𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑢 =𝑒 ∫ −𝑑𝑢 =𝑒 −𝑥

Then solution of (3) is given by 𝑒 −𝑥 u=∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 xsinhydy

=> 𝑒 −𝑥 xcoshy +𝑐1

Then U(x,y)=xcoshy+𝑒 𝑥 g(c)……...(4)

To determine g(c), using given condition into (4),

U(0,y)=0+𝑒 0 g(c)

Then g(c) =0

The exact solution is therefore given by U(x,y)=xcoshy.

Systems of linear PDEs by Adomian method

Introduction: Systems of PDEs, linear or nonlinear have attracted much concern in studying
evolution equations that describe wave propagation in investigating shallow water wave and in
examining the endemial relation-diffusion model for Brusselator. The general ideas and the
essential features of this systems are of wide applicability. To solve the systems of linear PDEs.
Adomian decomposition method is more easy and simple. For simplicity reasons, we will use
Adomian method to solve this section.

19
Methodology: Consider the systems of linear PDEs written in an operator form as
Lt u  Lx v  g1
(1)
Lt v  Lx u  g2
With initial data
u  x, 0   f1  x 
(2)
v  x, 0   f 2  x 

Where Lt and Lx are considered, without loss of generality first order partial differential operator

and g1 and g 2 are in homogeneous term. Now applying inverse operator into (1) and using initial
condition,
u  x, t   f1  x   Lt 1 g1  Lt 1 Lx v
(3)
v  x, t   f 2  x   Lt 1 g 2  Lt 1 Lx u

The adomian method suggested that the linear terms u  x, t  and v  x, t  be decomposed by an

infinite term of series


u  x, t    u n  x, t 
n 0

(4)
v  x, t    vn  x, t 
n 0

Where un  x, t  and vn  x, t  , n  0 are the component of un  x, t  and v  x, t  that will be elegantly

determined in a recursive manner. Substituting (4) into (3) gives

 

 u  x, t   f  x   L
n 0
n 1 t
1
g1  Lt 1 ( Lx  vn  x, t )
n 0
 
(5)
 v  x, t   f  x   L
n 0
2 t
1
g 2  Lt ( Lx  un  x, t )
1

n 0

From (5), we get the recursive relation

u0  x, t   f1  x   Lt 1 g1
(6)
uk 1  x, t    Lt 1 Lx v, k 0
and
v0  x, t   f 2  x   Lt 1 g 2
(7)
vk 1  x, t    Lt 1 Lx u , k 0

20
Equation (6) and (7) will give the solution of the system u  x, t  and v  x, t  respectively.

Example-1: We first consider the linear system

𝒖𝒕 + 𝒗𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒗𝒕 + 𝒖𝒙 = 𝟎
With the initial data 𝒖(𝒙, 𝟎) = 𝒆𝒙 , 𝒗(𝒙, 𝟎) = 𝒆−𝒙 .

Solution: Given the linear system

𝑢𝑡 + 𝑣𝑥 = 0
𝑣𝑡 + 𝑢𝑥 = 0

Written in an operator form as 𝐿 + 𝑢 + 𝐿𝑥 𝑣 = 0

𝐿 + 𝑣 + 𝐿𝑥 𝑢 = 0
𝑜𝑟 𝐿 + 𝑢 = −𝐿𝑥 𝑣
𝐿 + 𝑣 = −𝐿𝑥 𝑢
Taking 𝐿−1
𝑡 to both sides of equation 1,

𝐿−1 −1
𝑡 (𝐿 + 𝑢) = −𝐿𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑣

𝐿−1 −1
𝑡 (𝐿 + 𝑣) = −𝐿𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑢

𝑜𝑟 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑣

𝑣(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑢

According to decomposition method

∞

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑛=0
∞

𝑣(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∑ 𝑣𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑛=0
∞ ∞

∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 ∑ 𝑣𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞ ∞
−𝑥
∑ 𝑣𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 − 𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

𝑜𝑟 (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + ⋯ … … … … … … ) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 (𝑣0 + 𝑣1 + ⋯ … … … … … … . . )

21
 𝑣0 + 𝑣1 + ⋯ … … … … … … . ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + ⋯ … … … … … … … )

By decomposition method, the zeroth component of the linear systems are 𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑣0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑘+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑣𝑘 , 𝑘 ≥ 0

𝑣𝑘+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐿−1

𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑢𝑘 , 𝑘 ≥ 0

And the remaining component are thus determined by

𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐿−1 −𝑥
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑣0 = 𝑒 𝑡

𝑡2
𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑣1 =𝑒𝑥
2!
𝑡3
𝑈3 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐿𝑡 −1 𝐿𝑥 𝑉2 = 𝑒 −𝑥
3!
𝑡4
𝑈4 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐿𝑡 −1 𝐿𝑥 𝑉3 = 𝑒 −𝑥
4!
⋮
𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐿𝑡 −1 𝐿𝑥 𝑈0 = −𝑡𝑒 𝑥
𝑡2
𝑉2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐿𝑡 −1 𝐿𝑥 𝑈1 = 𝑒 −𝑥
2!
𝑡4
𝑉3 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝐿𝑡 −1 𝐿𝑥 𝑈3 = 𝑒 −𝑥
4!
⋮
Now 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑈0 + 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 + 𝑈3+⋯⋯
𝑡2 𝑡3
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 + ⋯
2! 3!
𝑡2 𝑡4 𝑡3
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 (1 + + ) + 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑡 + + ⋯ )
2! 4! 3!
and 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑉0 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯
𝑡2 𝑡3
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑡𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥 + ⋯
2! 3!
𝑡2 𝑡4 𝑡3
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥 (1 + + + ⋯ ) − 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑡 + + ⋯ )
2! 4! 3
Hence the exact solution is given by

22
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑡
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑡 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑡
(𝑈, 𝑉) = (𝑒 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑡, 𝑒 −𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑡 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑡)

Example-2: Consider the linear system of PDE

𝑼𝒕 + 𝑼𝒙 + 𝟐𝑽 = 𝟎
𝑽𝒕 + 𝑽𝒙 − 𝟐𝑼 = 𝟎
with the initial idea
U(x,0) = Cosx
V(x,0) = Sinx
Solution: Given the linear system of PDE
𝑈 + 𝑈𝑥 + 2𝑉 = 0
𝑉 + 𝑉𝑥 − 2𝑈 = 0
written is an operator form as,we get
𝐿 + 𝑈 = −2𝑉 − 𝐿𝑥 𝑈
𝐿 + 𝑉 = 2𝑈 − 𝐿𝑥 𝑉 ..............................(i)
Applying 𝐿−1
𝑡 to both sides of (i), we get

𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 2𝐿−1 −1

𝑡 𝑉 − 𝐿𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑈

𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 2𝐿−1 −1

𝑡 𝑈 − 𝐿𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑉

According to decomposition the zeroth component of both the equation are

𝑈0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑉0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥
and 𝑈𝑘+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −2𝐿−1 −1
𝑡 𝑉𝑘 − 𝐿𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑈𝑘 , 𝑘 ≥ 0

𝑉𝑘+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝐿−1 −1

𝑡 𝑈𝑘 − 𝐿𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑉𝑘 , 𝑘 ≥ 0

The remaining component are thus determined by

𝑈𝐿 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −2𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑈0 = −2𝑡𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑡𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑈𝐿 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −2𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑈0 = −𝑡𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑡2
𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −2𝑙𝑡−1 𝑣1 − 2𝑙𝑡−1 𝑙𝑥 𝑢1 = cos(𝑥)
2!
𝑡3
𝑢3 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −2𝑙𝑡−1 𝑣2 − 2𝑙𝑡−1 𝑙𝑥 𝑢2 = cos(𝑥)
3!
23
.
.
.
𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝑙𝑡−1 𝑢0 − 2𝑙𝑡−1 𝑙𝑥 𝑣0 = 𝑡 cos(𝑥)
𝑡2
𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝑙𝑡−1 𝑢1 − 2𝑙𝑡−1 𝑙𝑥 𝑣1 = − s 𝑖𝑛(𝑥)
2!
𝑡3
𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝑙𝑡−1 𝑢2 − 2𝑙𝑡−1 𝑙𝑥 𝑣2 = − cos(𝑥)
3!
.
.
.
Now 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢3 + ⋯
𝑡2 𝑡3
= cos(𝑥) (1 − + ⋯ ) − sin(𝑥) (𝑡 − + ⋯ )
2! 3!
And
𝑡2 𝑡3
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = sin(x) (1 − + ⋯ ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) (𝑡 − + ⋯ )
2! 3!
The pair (u,v) is known in a closed form by
(𝑢, 𝑣) = (cos(𝑥 + 𝑡) , sin(𝑥 + 𝑡))
By obtained upon using Taylor and trigonometric identities

Systems of Linear PDEs by Variational Iteration Method

Methodology: In this section we will apply the variational iteration method for solving systems
of linear partial differential equations. We write a system in an operator form by

𝑙 + 𝑢 + 𝑅1 (𝑢. 𝑣) = 𝑔1
𝑙 + 𝑢 + 𝑅2 (𝑢. 𝑣) = 𝑔2
where u = u(x,t), with initial data
𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑓1 (𝑥)
𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑓2 (𝑥)

24
Where Lt is considered a first order partial differential operator and Rj,1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 3 are linear
operators and g1,and g2 are source terms.
the following correction functionals for the system (i)can be set in the form
𝑡
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) + ∫ 𝜆1 (𝐿𝑢𝑛 (𝜉) + 𝑅1 (𝑢𝑛 , 𝑣𝑛 ) − 𝑔1 (𝜉)𝑑𝜉
0
𝑡
𝑣𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑣𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) + ∫ 𝜆2 (𝐿𝑢𝑛 (𝜉) + 𝑅2 (𝑢𝑛 , 𝑣𝑛 ) − 𝑔2 (𝜉)𝑑𝜉
0

Where λ j, j = 1,2 are general Lagrange multipliers which can be identified optimally via the
variational theory and un, and vn as restricted variations which means δun = 0 and δvn = 0. The
Lagrange multipliers λj, j = 1,2 will be identified optimally via integration by parts as introduced
before as,

∫ 𝜆1 ( 𝜉)𝑢𝑛, (𝜉)𝑑𝜉 = 𝜆1 (𝜉)𝑢𝑛 (𝜉) − ∫ 𝜆1, 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝜉

∫ 𝜆1 ( 𝜉)𝑢𝑛,, (𝜉)𝑑𝜉 = 𝜆1 (𝜉)𝑢𝑛, (𝜉) − 𝜆1, 𝑢𝑛 + ∫ 𝜆1,, 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝜉

And

∫ 𝜆1 ( 𝜉)𝑣𝑛, (𝜉)𝑑𝜉 = 𝜆1 (𝜉)𝑣𝑛 (𝜉) − ∫ 𝜆1, 𝑣𝑛 𝑑𝜉

∫ 𝜆1 ( 𝜉)𝑣𝑛,, (𝜉)𝑑𝜉 = 𝜆1 (𝜉)𝑣𝑛, (𝜉) − 𝜆1, 𝑣𝑛 + ∫ 𝜆1,, 𝑣𝑛 𝑑𝜉

To successive approximation 𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡), 𝑣𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑛 ≥ 0 of the solution u(u.t) and v(u,t) are
obtained by using Lagrange multipliers and selective functions u0 and v0.
Consequently, the solutions are given by,
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = lim 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑛→∞

𝑣(𝑥, 𝑡) = lim 𝑣𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)

𝑛→∞

Example 1: We first consider the linear system

ut  vx  0
vt  ux  0
With the initial data

25
 u  x, 0   e x
v  x, 0   e  x

Where u  u  x, t  , v  v  x, t  .

Solution: The correction functionals for the given equations are

t
 u v 
un 1  x, t   un   1  n  n  d 
0   x 
(1)
t
 v u 
vn 1  x, t   vn   2  n  n  d
0   x 
This gives the stationary conditions
1  1 | t  0 and 1  2 | t  0
1 | t  0 2 | t  0

As a result, we find 1  2  1. Substituting this values of  in (1), we get

t
 u v 
un 1  x, t   un    n  n  d 
0
 x 
(2)
t
 v u 
vn 1  x, t   vn    n  n  d  , n0
0
 x 

We can select u0  x, t   e x and v0  x, t   eu from given initial condition. By using this selection,

we get
u0  x, t   e x

v0  x, t   e x

u1  x, t   e x  te x

v1  x, t   e x  te x

1 2 x
u2  x, t   e x  te  x  t e
2!
1 2 x
v2  x, t   e x  te  x  t e
2!

26
 1 2 x 1 3 x 1 4 x
un  x, t   e x  te  x  t e  t e  t e  ........
2! 3! 4!
1 2 x 1 3 x 1 4 x
vn  x, t   e  x te x  t e  t e  t e  ........
2! 3! 4!
 u  x, t   limn un  x, t   e x cosh t  e x sinh t

v  x, t   limn vn  x, t   e x cosh t  e x sinh t

 u, v    e x cosh t  e x sinh t , e x cosh t  e x sinh t 

Obtained by using Taylor series and trigonometric identities.

Example 2: Consider the linear system of partial differential equations

ux +vy −wt = 1,
vx +wy +ut = 1,
wx +uy +vt = 1,
with the given data
u(0,y,t) = y+t,
v(0,y,t) = y−t,
w(0,y,t) = −y+t.
Solution: The correction functionals for this system read
𝑥
𝜕𝑢𝑛 𝜕𝑣𝑛 𝜕𝑤𝑛
𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑢𝑛 + ∫ 𝜆1 ( + − − 1)𝑑𝜉
0 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡
𝑥
𝜕𝑢𝑛 𝜕𝑣𝑛 𝜕𝑤𝑛
𝑣𝑛+1 = 𝑣𝑛 + ∫ 𝜆2 ( + + − 1)𝑑𝜉
0 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡
𝑥
𝜕𝑢𝑛 𝜕𝑣𝑛 𝜕𝑤𝑛
𝑤𝑛+1 = 𝑢𝑛 + ∫ 𝜆3 ( + + − 1)𝑑𝜉
0 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡
As a result, the stationary conditions are given by,

As a result, we find
λ1 =λ2 =λ3 = −1.

We can select

27
u0 = y+t, v0= y−t, w0= −y+t by using the given initial values. Accordingly, we obtain the
following successive approximations
𝑢0 (x, y, t) = y + t 𝑣0 (x, y, t) = y − t 𝑤0 (x, y, t) = −y + t
𝑢1 = x + y + t 𝑣1 = x + y − t 𝑤1 = x − y + t
. . .
. . .
. . .
𝑢𝑛 = x + y + t 𝑣𝑛 = x + y − t 𝑤𝑛 = x − y + t

Where 𝑛 ≥ 2,
This gives the following equations,
𝑢 = x+y+t 𝑣 = x+y−t 𝑤 =x−y+t

Chapter 3

 Linear PDE with initial-boundary value problem

 The adomian decomposition method

Methodology: An important point can be made here in that the method attacks the problem,
homogeneous or inhomogeneous, in a straightforward manner without any need for transformation
formulas. No need to change the inhomogeneous boundary conditions to homogeneous conditions
as required by the method of separation of variables.
Without loss of generality, we study the initial-boundary value problem
PDE 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋, 𝑡 > 0
BC 𝑢(0, 𝑡) = 0, 𝑡 ≥ 0
And 𝑢(𝐿, 𝑡) = 0, 𝑡 ≥ 0 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
IC 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑓(𝑥), 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
to achieve our goal.
To achieve our goal, equation (1) written in an operator form by
𝐿𝑡 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐿𝑥 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (2)

where the differential operators Lt and Lx are defined by

28
 𝑑 𝑑2
𝐿𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 , 𝐿𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 2
It is obvious that Lt-1 and Lx-1 exist and defined by
𝑡 𝑥
Lt-1 = ∫0 𝑑𝑡 , Lx-1 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥.

This means that,

Lt-1 L+u =u(x1t)- u(x10)
From (2) we get, u(x1t) =f(x) + Lt-1 Lx u(x1t)-------------(3)
The decomposition method defined u(x1t) = ∑∞
𝑛=0 un(x1t).

Here from (3), we get

∑∞ ∞
𝑛=0 ux(x1t)= f(x) + Lt Lu ∑𝑛=0 un(x1t)
-1

or, (u0 + u1 +---) = f(x)+ Lt-1 Lx(u0 + u1+ u2---)-----------(4)

The decompositon method suggests that the zeroth component u0(x1t) is identified by the term arising
from initial conditions and from the source terms.
Hence we find u0(x1t) = f(x)
ukh(x1t)= Lt-1 Lu Uk ,k≥0;
And the remaining component is determined by using the previous component and in a recursive manner,
such that
u1(x1t) = Lt-1 Lx U0 = f11(x)t
𝑡2
u2(x1t) = Lt-1 Lx U1 = f4(x)
2!
𝑡3
u3(x1t) = Lt-1 Lx U2 = f6(x)
3!

Thus the solution obtained in a series form by

u(x1t) = ∑∞
𝑛=0 f2x(x) (tn/n!)---------------------(5)
Here the solution u(x1t) is obtained by using the initial condition only without using boundary condition.
This solution is obtained by using inverse operator Lt-1. The obtained solution can be used to show that it
satisfies the given boundary condition.
However the solution (5) can also be obtained by using the inverse operator Lx-1 , and in this case
both initial and boundary value problem are used. And in this case the computational work is larger than
the Lt-1 .
Homogeneous heat equation.
The Adomian decomposition method will be used to solve the following homogeneous heat equation
where the boundary conditions are also homogeneous.

29
Example -1: Use the Adomian decomposition method to solve the initial boundary value problem
PDE ut = uxx , 0<x<π , t>0
BC u(01t) = 01t , 𝑡 ≥ 0
u(π1t) = 01t , 𝑡 ≥ 0
IC u(x1t) = sinx

Solution: The given equation can be written in an operator form

𝐿 + 𝑢 = 𝐿𝑥 𝑢 ……………………….(i)

𝜕 𝑡
Where, 𝐿𝑡 = , 𝐿−1
𝑡 = ∫0 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑡

𝜕2 𝑥 𝑥
𝐿𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 2 , 𝐿−1
𝑥 = ∫0 ∫0 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥

Applying 𝐿−1
𝑡 to both sides of (i)

𝐿−1 −1
𝑡 𝐿𝑡 𝑢 = 𝐿𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑢

∴ 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐿−1

𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑢

According to decomposition method

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑛=0

∞ ∞

∴ ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐿−1

𝑡 𝐿𝑥 ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

=> (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐿−1

𝑡 𝐿𝑥 (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ )

𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑢0 = −𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

30
 𝑡2
𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐿−1
𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑢1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
2!

Consequently, the solution 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) in a series form

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯

𝑡2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (1 − 𝑡 + −⋯)
2!

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑒 −𝑡

= 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

Which satisfies the PDE, the initial condition and boundary condition.

Inhomogeneous heat equations

Example-1: Use the adomian decomposition method to solve the inhomogeneous PDE

PDE 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋, 𝑡 > 0

BC 𝑢(0, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0

𝑢(𝜋, 𝑡) = −𝑒 −𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0

IC 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

Solution: Given equation,

𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

Written in an operator form as

𝐿 + 𝑢 = 𝐿𝑥 𝑢 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 …………………(i)

𝜕 𝑡
Where, 𝐿𝑡 = 𝜕𝑡 , 𝐿−1
𝑡 = ∫0 𝑑𝑡

𝜕2 𝑥 𝑥
𝐿𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 2 , 𝐿−1
𝑥 = ∫0 ∫0 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥

31
Applying 𝐿−1
𝑡 to both sides of (i), we get

𝐿−1 −1 −1
𝑡 𝐿𝑡 𝑢 = 𝐿𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑢 + 𝐿𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐿−1

𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑢

We know,

∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑛=0

∞ ∞

∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐿−1

𝑡 𝐿𝑥 ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

=> (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐿−1

𝑡 𝐿𝑥 (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ )

By decomposition method the zeroth component

𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

𝑢𝑘+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐿−1

𝑡 𝐿𝑥 𝑢𝑘 , 𝑘 ≥ 0

Now

𝑡2
𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐿𝑡 −1 𝐿𝑥 𝑢0 = − sin 𝑥 − t cos 𝑥.
2!
𝑡3 𝑡2
𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐿𝑡 −1 𝐿𝑥 𝑢1 = sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥.
3! 2!
Hence the solution u(x, t) is given by

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢0 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡2
= sin 𝑥 (𝑡 − 2! + 3! − ⋯ ⋯ ) + cos 𝑥 (1 − 𝑡 + 2! − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ )

𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡2
= sin 𝑥 (1 − 1 + 𝑡 − 2! + 3! − ⋯ ⋯ ) + cos 𝑥 (1 − 𝑡 + 2! − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ )

= sin 𝑥 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 ) + 𝑒 −𝑡 cos 𝑥.

32
 The Variational Iteration Method.
 Homogeneous Heat Equation.

Example -1: Use the variational iteration method to solve the initial-boundary value problem

𝑃𝐷𝐸 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋, 𝑡>0

𝐵𝐶 𝑢(0, 𝑡) = 0 , 𝑢(𝜋, 𝑡) = 0, 𝑡≥0

𝐼𝐶 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = sin 𝑥.

Solution: Given equation 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢𝑥𝑥 (1)

The correction functional for equation (1) is

𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑛
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) + ∫0 𝜆 ( 𝜕𝜉𝑛 − 𝜕𝑥 2
) 𝑑𝝃 (2)

The stationary conditions

1 + 𝜆 ∣𝜉=𝑥 = 0

𝜆′ ∣𝜉=𝑥 = 0

Gives 𝜆 =-1, putting this values of 𝜆 in (2), we get

𝑡 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) − ∫0 𝜆 ( 𝜕𝜉𝑛 − 𝜕𝑥 2
𝑛
) 𝑑𝝃, n ≥ 0 (3)

We now select 𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = sin 𝑥 from the given conditions. Using this selection in (3), we
obtain the following successive approximations

𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = sin 𝑥
𝑡
𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = sin 𝑥 − ∫0 (0 − (− sin 𝑥)) 𝑑ξ = sin 𝑥 − t sin x.

𝑡 𝑡2
𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = sin 𝑥 − t sin 𝑥 − ∫0 {− sin 𝑥 − ( − sin 𝑥 + t sin 𝑥)} 𝑑ξ = sin 𝑥 − t sin x + 2! sin 𝑥.

𝑡2 𝑡3
𝑢3 (𝑥, 𝑡) = sin 𝑥 − t sin x + sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 + 0 + 0.
2! 3!
⋮

𝑡2 𝑡3
𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = sin 𝑥 − t sin x + sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯.
2! 3!
The variational iteration method admits the use of

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = lim 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)

𝑛→∞

∴ 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 sin 𝑥.

Obtained upon by using Taylor series expansion of 𝑒 −𝑡 .

33
 Inhomogeneous Heat Equations.
The variational iteration method handles the inhomogeneous heat problem in a similar way to that used
in the homogeneous type of equation.

Example 1: Use the VIM method to solve the inhomogeneous partial differential equation

PDE 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋, 𝑡 > 0

BC 𝑢(0, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0

𝑢(𝜋, 𝑡) = −𝑒 −𝑡 , 𝑡 ≥ 0

IC 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥.

Solution: The correction function for the given equation is

𝑡
𝜕𝑢𝑛 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑛
𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑢𝑛 + ∫ 𝜆( − − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)𝑑𝝃
0 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑥 2

solving the stationary condition gives 𝜆 = −1.

𝑡
𝜕𝑢𝑛 𝜕 2 𝑢𝑛
𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑢𝑛 − ∫ 𝜆( − − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)𝑑𝝃, 𝑛 ≥ 0
0 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑥 2

We next select 𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥.

𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.

𝑡2 𝑡2
𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥.
2! 2!
𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡2 𝑡3
𝑢3 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 (1 − 𝑡 + − ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (𝑡 − + )
2! 3! 2! 3!

𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡2 𝑡3
𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 (1 − 𝑡 + − + ⋯ ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (𝑡 − + + ⋯ )
2! 3! 2! 3!

Accordingly, the exact solution 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) is given by

∴ 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.

34
Method of separation of variables.

Introduction: The most important feature of the method of separation of variables is that it successively
replace the PDE by a system of ODEs that are usually easy to handle. Unlike the decomposition method,
the method of separation of variables employs specific assumptions and transformation formulas in
handling PDE. In particular the method of separation of variables requires that the boundary conditions be
homogeneous. For inhomogeneous boundary conditions a transformation formula should be employed to
transform inhomogeneous boundary condition to homogeneous boundary conditions.

Analysis of the method: We begin our analysis by writing the homogeneous PDE with homogeneous
boundary conditions, that describes the heat flow by the partial DE

PDE 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑘𝑢𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, 𝑡 > 0

BC 𝑢(0, 𝑡) = 0, 𝑢(𝐿, 𝑡) = 0. (1)

IC 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑓(𝑥)

The method of separation of variables consists of assuming that the temperature U(x,t) is identified as the
product of two distinct functions F(x) and T(x), where F(x) depends on the space variable x and T(x) on t.
This assumption allows us to set

𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑥) 𝑇(𝑡) (2)

Differentiating both sides of (1) with respect to t and twice with respect to 𝑥 , we obtain
𝑈𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑥)𝑇ˈ(𝑥)
(3)
𝑈𝑥𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹ˈˈ(𝑥)𝑇(𝑥)

Substituting (3) in (1) yields

𝐹(𝑥)𝑇ˈ(𝑥) = 𝑘 𝐹ˈˈ(𝑥)𝑇(𝑥)
𝑇ˈ(𝑡) 𝐹ˈˈ(𝑥)
∴ = = - 𝜆2 (say) (4)
𝑘(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑥)

The selection of - 𝜆2 and not 𝜆2 in (4) is the only selection for which non- trivial solution exists. However
we can easily show that selecting the constant to be zero or positive value will lead to the trivial solution
U(x,t) = 0. It is clear that (4) gives two distinct ordinary DE given by

𝑇ˈ(𝑡) + 𝑘 𝜆2 𝑇(𝑡) = 0
(5)
𝐹ˈˈ(𝑥) + 𝜆2 𝐹(𝑥) = 0

This means that The PDE (1) is redueed to the more familiar ODE (5), where each equation relics only on
one variable .

To determine T(t), we solve the first order LODE

𝑇ˈ(𝑡) + 𝑘 𝜆2 𝑇(𝑡) = 0

35
To find that
2𝑡
T(t)= c 𝑒 −𝑘𝜆 (6)

Where c is a constant.

On the other hand. The function F(x) can be easily determined by solving the second order LODE

𝐹ˈˈ(𝑥) + 𝜆2 𝐹(𝑥) = 0

To find that

F(x)= A cos𝜆x + B sin𝜆𝑥 (7)

Where 𝐴 and B are constant .to determine 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝜆 , we use the homogeneous boundary conditions
𝑈(0, 𝑡) = 0
(8)
𝑈(𝐿, 𝑡) = 0
Substituting (8) into the assumption (2) that gives

𝐹(0) 𝑇(𝑡) = 0

𝐹(𝐿) 𝑇(𝑡) = 0

Which gives
𝐹(0) = 0
(9)
𝐹(𝐿) = 0

Using 𝐹(0) = 0 into (7) leads to, 𝐴 = 0

Hence Equation (7) becomes, 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥…………(10)
Substituting the condition 𝑓(𝐿) = 0 into (10) yields
𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝐿 = 0
This means that 𝐵 = 0
Or, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝐿 = 0
Me ignore 𝐵 = 0, since it gives the trivial solution 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡).
It remains that 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝐿 = 0
This gives and infinite number of values for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑛 given by
𝜆𝑛𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ….
𝑛𝜋
Or, 𝜆𝑛 = , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, ….
𝐿

We exclude 𝑛 = 0, since it gives trivial solution 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 0

In view of infinite number of values for 𝜆𝑛, we therefore write

36
 𝑛𝜋
𝐹𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑥)
𝐿
𝑛𝜋 2
−𝑘𝑡( )
𝑇𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝑒 𝐿 ,𝑛 = 1,2,3 … ….
Ignoring the constants 𝐵 and 𝐶, we conclude that the functions, called the fundamental solutions
𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹𝑛 (𝑥)𝑇𝑛 (𝑡)
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 2
𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = sin( 𝑥) 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡( 𝐿 ) , 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … ….
𝐿
That satisfy equation (1) and given boundary conditions using the superposition principle,that
gives the general solution by
∞
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 2
−𝑘𝑡( )
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∑ 𝐵𝑛 sin ( 𝑥) 𝑒 𝐿 … … … … . . (11)
𝐿
𝑛=1

Where the arbitrary constant 𝐵𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 1 are as yet undetermined.to determined 𝐵𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 1, we

substitute 𝑡 = 0 in equation (2) and by using initial condition we find
∞
𝑛𝜋
∑ 𝐵𝑛 sin ( 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
𝐿
𝑛=1

The constant 𝐵𝑛 can be determined in this case by using Fouriar co-efficients given by the
formula
2 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝐵𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝐿 0 𝐿
Having determined the constants 𝐵𝑛 ,the particular solution 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) follows immediately.
𝑛𝜋
On the other hand, if the initial condition 𝑓(𝑥) is given in terms of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝐿 𝑥) , 𝑛 ≥ 1. The
constant 𝐵𝑛 can be completely determined by expanding (11), using the initial condition and by
equating the co-efficient of like terms on both sides.

37
Example 1. Use the method of separation of variables to solve the following initial boundary value problem

PDE 𝑢𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋, 𝑡 > 0,

BC 𝑢(0, 𝑡) = 0, 𝑢(𝜋, 𝑡) = 0, 𝑡 ≥ 0

IC 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

Solution:

We first set

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑥)𝑇 (𝑡). (1)

Now differentiating (1) with respect to t and twice with respect to 𝑥 ,we get

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑥)𝑇’(𝑡)

𝑢𝑥𝑥(𝑥,𝑡)=𝐹′′ (𝑋)𝑇(𝑡)

𝑇 ′ (𝑡) 𝐹 ′′ (𝑥)
From (1) 𝑇(𝑡)
= 𝐹(𝑥) =-𝜆2 (say)

𝑇 ′ (𝑡) + 𝜆2 𝑇(𝑡) = 0

and

𝐹′′ (𝑥) + 𝜆2 𝐹(𝑥) = 0

2𝑡
So that 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 −𝜆 (2)

𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 (3)

To determine 𝐴, 𝐵 and λ . We first use boundary condtion to obtain

𝑈(0, 𝑡) = 𝐹(0)𝑇(0) = 0 , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐹(0) = 0 (4)

𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹(𝜋)𝑇(𝑡), 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐹(𝜋) = 0

Using (4) into (3)

𝐴 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝜋 = 0

Which gives 𝜆𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝜆𝑛 = 𝑛, 𝑛 = 1,2,3. . ..

Here 𝑛 = 0 excluded 𝜆𝑛 because it gives trival solution 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 0.In accordance with the infinite number
of values of 𝜆𝑛 .we therefore write

𝐹𝑛(𝑥) = sin(𝑛𝑥)
2
𝐹𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑛 = 1,2

This gives the arbitrary fundamental set of solution

𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑇𝑛 (𝑡)

38
 2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑡 , 𝑛 = 1, 2,3. ..

Which satisfies the given PDE and boundary value condition .Using superposition, we obtain

2
𝑢𝑡 (x, t) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 Bn e −
x t
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑥

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥+. .. .

Where 𝐵𝑛 ,𝑛 ≥ 1 are arbitrary constant .to determine 𝐵𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 1.we use initial condition and substitute 𝑡 =
0 in (5) to find

𝐵1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥+. . . = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

Equating the coefficient of like terms ,

𝐵1 = 1, 𝐵2 = 3, 𝐵𝑘 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ≥ 3

𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥

𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑥 +3𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝑥

Example-1:

Using the method of separation of variables to solve the following initial-boundary value problem

𝑃𝐷𝐸 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋, 𝑡 > 0

𝐵𝐶 𝑢𝑥 (0, 𝑡) = 0, 𝑡≥0

𝑢𝑥 (𝜋, 𝑡) = 0, 𝑡≥0

𝐼𝐶 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑥,

Solution:

We first set

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑥)𝑇(𝑡). (1)

Following the previous discussions we find

2
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡 , (2)

and

𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜆𝑥) + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜆𝑥). (3)

The Neumann boundary conditions give

𝐵 = 0,

39
 and

𝜆𝑛 = 𝑛, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3,···

Using the results we obtained for 𝜆𝑛 , we write

𝐹𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝑥),
2
𝑇𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑛 𝑡 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2,···

Using the superposition principle, the general solution is given by

2
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝐴𝑛 𝑒
−𝑛 𝑡
cos(𝑛𝑥)

To determine the constants 𝐴𝑛 we use the initial condition to find

∑∞
𝑛=0 𝐴𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑥) = 𝑥 .

The arbitrary constants 𝐴𝑛 are determined by using the Fourier method, therefore we find
1 𝜋 𝜋
𝐴0 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2

2 𝜋 2 1 1
𝐴𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 (𝑛2 cos(𝑛𝜋) − 𝑛2 ) , 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 …

so that
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑛 ≠ 0
𝐴𝑛 = { 4 }
− 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝑛2

Based on these results for the constants An, the particular solution is given by
𝜋 4 1 2
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 4 − 𝜋 ∑∞
𝑚=0 (2𝑚+1)2 𝑒
−(2𝑚+1)
cos(2𝑚 + 1) 𝑥.

Inhomogeneous Boundary Conditions

We begin our analysis by considering the initial-boundary value problem

PDE 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, 𝑡 > 0,

BC 𝑢(0, 𝑡) = 𝛼, 𝑡 ≥ 0,

𝑢(𝐿, 𝑡) = 𝛽, 𝑡 ≥ 0, (1)

IC 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑓 (𝑥).

To convert the boundary conditions from inhomogeneous to homogeneous we simply use the following
transformation formula:

40
 𝑥
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = (𝛼 + (𝛽 − 𝛼)) + 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑡

This means that 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) consists of a steady-state solution, that doesn’t depend on time, defined by
𝑥
𝑊(𝑥) = 𝛼 + (𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝑡
That satisfies the boundary conditions, and a transient solution given by 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡). We can easily show that
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) will be generated by the initial boundary value problem

PDE 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿 , 𝑡 > 0

Be 𝑉(0, 𝑡) = 0 , 𝑉(𝐿, 𝑡) = 0 , 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑥
IC 𝑉(𝑥, 0) = 𝑓(𝑥) − (𝛼 + 𝑡 (𝛽 − 𝛼))

Example-1: Solve the following initial-boundary value problem

PDE 𝑈𝑡 = 𝑈𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 1 , 𝑡 > 0

Be 𝑈(0, 𝑡) = 1 , 𝑈(1, 𝑡) = 2 , 𝑡 ≥ 0

IC 𝑈(𝑥, 0) = 1 + 𝑥 + 2sin(𝜋𝑥)

Solution: Using the transformation we obtain

𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = (1 + 𝑥) + 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) (1)

In view of (1) the given equation is transform to

PDE 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 1 , 𝑡 > 0

Be 𝑉(0, 𝑡) = 0 , 𝑉(1, 𝑡) = 0 , 𝑡 ≥ 0 } (2)
Tc 𝑉(𝑥, 0) = 2sin(𝜋𝑥)

Assuming that 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑥)𝑇(𝑥)

WE obtain that
2𝑡
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 −𝜆

And 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜆𝑥) + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜆𝑥)

Where A, B and C are constants, using boundary condition gives

2 𝜋2 𝑡
𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝐵𝑛𝑒
−𝑥
sin(𝑛𝜋𝑥) (3)

Using the initial condition in (1) and expanding (3),

𝐵1 = 2 , 𝐵𝑘 = 0 , 𝑘 ≥ 2

41
 2
This gives the solution for 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡 sin(𝜋𝑥)

So that the particular solution for

2
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 1 + 𝑥 + 2𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡 sin(𝜋𝑥)

Follows immediately.

 Equation with lateral heat loss:

For a rod with a lateral heat loss, it can be proved that the heat flow is controlled by

The homogeneous PDE

PDE 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑘̅ 𝑢𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑢, 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, 𝑡 > 0,

BC 𝑢(0, 𝑡) = 0, (4)

𝑢(𝐿, 𝑡) = 0,

IC 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑓(𝑥),

It is easily observed that this equation is not the standard heat equation we discussed so far. Instead, It
includes the term −𝑐𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) due to the lateral heat loss.

We will focus our attention on converting Eq. (4) to a standard heat equation. Thereafter, we can implement
the separation of variables method in a straightforward way. The goal can be achieved by using the
transformation formula

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑐𝑡 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑡).

Accordingly, 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑡) will be governed by the IBVP

PDE 𝑤𝑡 = 𝑘̅ 𝑤𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿, 𝑡 > 0,

BC 𝑤(0, 𝑡) = 0, (6)

𝑤(𝐿, 𝑡) = 0,

IC 𝑤(𝑥, 0) = 𝑓(𝑥).

Where 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑡) can be easily obtained in a similar manner to the discussion started above. The following
example illustrates the use of the transformation formula (7)

Example 1. Solve the following initial boundary value problem

PDE 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢𝑥𝑥 − 𝑢, 0 < 𝑥 < 1, 𝑡 > 0,

BC 𝑢(0, 𝑡) = 0,

𝑢(1, 𝑡) = 0,

IC 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = sin(𝜋𝑥) + 2 sin(3𝜋𝑥).

42
Solution.

Using the transformation formula

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑡) (A)

Carries into

PDE 𝑤𝑡 = 𝑤𝑥𝑥 , 0 < 𝑥 < 1, 𝑡 > 0

BC 𝑤(0, 𝑡) = 0,

𝑤(1, 𝑡) = 0,

IC 𝑤(𝑥, 0) = sin(𝜋𝑥) + 2 sin(3𝜋𝑥),

Setting

𝑤(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑥)𝑇(𝑡),

And proceeding as before we obtain

2 𝜋2 𝑡
𝑤(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝐵𝑛 𝑒
−𝑛
sin(𝑛𝜋𝑥), (1)

Obtained upon using the boundary conditions. To determine the arbitrary constants 𝐵𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 1 we substitute
𝑡 = 0 in (3.229) and use the initial condition to find

𝐵1 sin(𝜋𝑥) + 𝐵2 sin(2𝜋𝑥) + 𝐵3 sin(3𝜋𝑥) + ⋯ = sin(𝜋𝑥) + 2 sin(3𝜋𝑥)

Which give

𝐵1 = 1, 𝐵2 = 2, 𝐵𝑘 = 0, 𝑘 ≠ 1,3 (2)

In view of (2). Equation (1) becomes

2 2
𝑤(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜋 𝑡 sin(𝜋𝑥) + 2𝑒 −9𝜋 𝑡 sin(3𝜋𝑥) (3)

Substituting (3) into (A), we get

2 2
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 (𝑒 −𝜋 𝑡 sin(𝜋𝑥) + 2𝑒 −9𝜋 𝑡 sin(3𝜋𝑥)

43
 CHAPTER-08

Nonlinear partial differential equations:

The nonlinear PDEs was well discussed by John(2003) and systems of PDEs linear or nonlinear
,have attracted much concern in studying evolution equations that describe wave propagation ,in
investigation shallow water waves and in examining that the chemical reaction diffusion model of
Brusselator. The general ideas and the essential features of these systems are of wide applicability.
The commonly used methods are the method of characteristics and the Riemann invariants among
other method. The existing techniques encountered some difficulties in terms of the size of
computational work needed especially when the system involves several partial equations. To
avoid the difficulties that usually arise from traditional strategies, the Adomian decomposition
method will form a reasonable basis for studying systems of partial differential equations. The
method, as we have seen later has a useful attraction in that it provides the solution in a rapidly
convergent power series with elegantly computable terms. These two methods transform the
systems of PDEs into a set of recursive relations that can be easily examined.

Nonlinear PDEs by Adomian Method:

We first consider the nonlinear partial differential equation given in an operator form

𝐿𝑥 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝐿𝑦 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑅(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)) + 𝐹(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)) = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦)……..(i)

Where Lx is the highest order differential in x, Ly is the highest order differential in y, R contains
the remaining linear terms of lower derivatives, F(u(x,y)) is an analytic non linear term, and
g(x,y) is an in homogeneous or forcing term. The decision as to which operator Lx or Ly should
be used to solve the problem depends mainly on two bases:
(i) The operator of lowest order should be selected to minimize the size of computational
work.
(ii) The selected operator of lowest order should be of best known conditions to accelerate
the evaluation of the components of the solution.
Assuming that the operator Lx meets the two bases of selection, therefore we set
We first consider the nonlinear partial differential equation given in an operator form

𝐿𝑥 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿𝑦 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑅(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)) − 𝐹(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦))……(ii)

44
ApplyingL−1 x to both sides of (ii)gives

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜙0 − 𝐿−1 −1 −1 −1
𝑋 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿𝑋 𝐿𝑦 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿𝑋 𝑅(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)) − 𝐿𝑋 𝐹(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦))….(iii)

Where,
𝜕
𝑢(0, 𝑦) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿 = 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2
𝑢(0, 𝑦) + 𝑥𝑢𝑥 (0, 𝑦) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿 = 𝜕𝑥 2
Φ0 = 1 𝜕3
𝑢(0, 𝑦) + 𝑥𝑢𝑥 (0, 𝑦) + 2! 𝑥 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥 (0, 𝑦) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿 = 𝜕𝑥 3 ……….(iv)
1 1 𝜕4
𝑢(0, 𝑦) + 𝑥𝑢𝑥 (0, 𝑦) + 2! 𝑥 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥 (0, 𝑦) + 3! 𝑥 3 𝑢𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿 = 𝜕𝑥 4
{ }

We proceed in exactly the same manner by calculating the solution u(x, y) in a series form
∞

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦) (𝑣)

𝑛=0

And the nonlinear term F(u(x, y)) by

∞

𝐹(𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)) = ∑ 𝐴𝑛
𝑛=0

Where 𝐴𝑛 are adomian polynomials that can be generated for all forms of nonlinearity ,
Equation (iii) becomes
∞ ∞ ∞
−1
∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦) = ∅° − 𝐿−1
𝑥 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 (∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦)) − 𝐿−1
𝑥 𝑅 (∑ 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦))
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞

− 𝐿−1
𝑥 (∑ 𝐴𝑛 )
𝑛=0

The components 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑛 ≥ 0 of the solution 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) can be recursively determined by using
the relation
𝑢° (𝑥, 𝑦) = ∅° − 𝐿−1
𝑥 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑢𝑘+1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝐿−1 −1 −1

𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝑈𝑘 − 𝐿𝑥 𝑅(𝑈𝑘 ) − 𝐿𝑥 (𝐴𝑘 ), 𝐾 ≥ 0

Using the algorithms described before for calculating 𝐴𝑛 for the nonlinear form F(u), the first few
components can be identified by
𝑈° (𝑥, 𝑦) = ∅° − 𝐿−1
𝑥 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦)

45
𝑈1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝐿−1 −1 −1
𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝑈° (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿𝑥 R(𝑈° (𝑥, 𝑦))-𝐿𝑥 𝐴°

𝑈2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝐿−1 −1 −1
𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝑈1 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿𝑥 𝑅(𝑈1 (𝑥, 𝑦)) − 𝐿𝑥 𝐴1

𝑈3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝐿−1 −1 −1
𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝑈2 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿𝑥 𝑅(𝑈2 (𝑥, 𝑦)) − 𝐿𝑥 𝐴2

𝑈4 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −𝐿−1 −1 −1
𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝑈3 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿𝑥 𝑅(𝑈3 (𝑥, 𝑦)) − 𝐿𝑥 𝐴3

Where each component can be determined by using the preceding component. Having calculated
the components 𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑛 ≥ 0, the solution in a series form is readily obtained.

Example-1: Solve the nonlinear partial differential equation

𝑼𝒕 + 𝑼𝑼𝒙 = 𝟎, U(x, 0) =x , t>0
Where U=U(x, t)
Solution: Given equation
𝑈𝑡 + 𝑈𝑈𝑥 = 0, 𝑈(𝑥, 0) = 𝑥, 𝑡 > 0 (i)
In an operator form , equations (i) becomes
𝐿𝑡 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = −𝑈𝑈𝑥 (ii)
Where 𝐿𝑡 is defined by
𝜕
𝐿𝑡 =
𝜕𝑡
The inverse operator 𝐿−1
𝑡 is defined by

t
Lt 1 *   *dt
0

Applying 𝐿−1
𝑡 to both sides of (ii) and using the initial condition are obtain

Lt 1 LtU x, t   Lt 1  UU x 

U x, t   x  Lt 1 UU x  (iii)

Substituting,

U x, t   U n x, t 
n 0

And the nonlinear term by

46
 
UU x   An
n 0

Into (iii) gives

1  
 

 U n  x, t   x  Lt   An 
n 0  n 0 
This gives the recursive relation

U 0 ( x, t )  x

U k 1 ( x, t )  Lt 1 ( Ak ), k  0

The first few components are given by

U 0 ( x, t )  x

U1 ( x, t )  Lt 1 A0  Lt 1 ( x)   xt

U 2 ( x, t )  Lt 1 A1  Lt 1 (2 xt)  xt 2

U 3 ( x, t )   Lt 1 A2   Lt 1 (3xt 2 )   xt 3

Where additional terms can be easily computed combining the results obtained above, the
solution in a series form is given by
U(x,t)=x(1-t+t2-t3+…..)
And in a closed form by

U  x, t  
x
, t 1
1 t
Example 2: Use the modified decompositions method to solve the nonlinear partial
differential equation U t  UU x  x  xt 2 ,U x,0  0, t  0

.where U=U(x,t)
Solution: Given solution,

Ut  UU x  x  xt 2 ,U x,0  0, t  0 (i)

The equation is an inhomogeneous equation

Equation (i) becomes

LtU x, t   x  xt 2  UU x (ii)

47
Applying Lt 1 to both sides of (ii) and using the initial condition we find

Lt 1 LtU ( x, t )  Lt 1 ( x  xt 2  UU x )

1 3
U ( x, t )  xt  xt  Lt 1UU x (iii)
3
Using the decomposition assumptions for the linear terms U(x,t) and for the nonlinear term UUx
defined by

U x, t   U n x, t 
n 0


UU x   An
n 0


  
U x, t   xt  3 xt
1
Form (iii) n
3
 Lt 1   An  (iv)
n 0  n 0 
The use of a modified recursive relation given by

U 0 ( x, t )  xt

1 3
U 1 ( x, t )  xt  Lt 1 ( A0 ) V
3

U k 2 ( x, t )  Lt 1 ( Ak 1 ), K  0

Consequently, we obtain,

U 0 ( x, t )  xt
1 1 1
U 1 ( x, t )  xt 3  Lt 1 ( xt 2 )  xt 3  xt 3  0
3 3 3 V
U k  2 ( x, t )  0, K  0 i

From (vi), the exact solution is given by

U(x,t)=xt

48
 Nonlinear PDEs by VIM

Consider the following general nonlinear partial differential equation,

𝐿𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑅𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑁𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑡) (1)

Where, L is a linear time derivative operator, R is a linear operator which has partial derivative

with respect to x, N is a nonlinear operator and g is an inhomogeneous term. According to VIM,

we can construct a correct fractional as follows:

𝑡
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) + ∫0 𝜆[𝐿𝑢𝑛 + 𝑅𝑢
̃𝑛 + 𝑁𝑢
̃𝑛 − 𝑔]𝑑𝜉 (2)

Where, 𝜆 is a Lagrange multiplier which can be identified optimally via variation iteration method.

The subscript n denote the nth approximation, 𝑢

̃𝑛 is considered as a restricted variation i.e. 𝛿𝑢
̃𝑛 =

0. The successive approximation 𝑢𝑛+1 , 𝑛 ≥ 0 of the solution, 𝑢 will be readily obtained upon

using the determined Lagrange multiplier and any selective function 𝑢0 , consequently, the solution

is given by:

𝑢 = lim 𝑢𝑛
𝑛→∞

Example 1: Solve the nonlinear partial differential equation by the VIM,

𝐮𝐭 + 𝒖𝒖𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝒖(𝒙, 𝟎) = 𝒙, 𝒕 > 𝟎,where, u=u(x,t)

Solution: Given equation,

ut + 𝑢𝑢𝑥 = 0, 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 𝑥, 𝑡 > 0 (1)

The correction functional for this equation reads,

𝑡 𝜕𝑢𝑛 (𝑥,𝜉) 𝜕𝑢̃𝑛 (𝑥,𝜉)

𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) + ∫0 𝜆(𝜉)[ +𝑢
̃(𝑥,
𝑛 𝜉) ]𝑑𝜉 (2)
𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑥

The stationary conditions,

49
 1 + 𝜆|𝜉=𝑡 = 0|

𝜆′ |𝜉=𝑡 = 0|

Gives, 𝜆 = −1

Substituting this value of the Lagrange multiplier 𝜆 = −1 into the functional equation (2) gives

the iteration formula:

𝑡
𝜕𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜉) 𝜕𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜉)
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) − ∫ ( + 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜉) ) 𝑑𝜉
0 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑥

Selecting 𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥 from the given initial condition yields the successive approximations,

𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥

𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑡

1
𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑡 + 𝑥𝑡 2 − 𝑥𝑡 3 + ⋯
3

2
𝑢3 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑡 + 𝑥𝑡 2 − 𝑥𝑡 3 + 𝑥𝑡 4 + ⋯
3

𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥(1 − 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 − 𝑡 3 + 𝑡 4 + ⋯ )

The solution in a closed form is given by,

𝑥
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 1+𝑡, 𝑡 < 1.

Example 2: Solve the nonlinear partial differential equation by the VIM,

𝐮𝐭 + 𝒖𝒖𝒙 = 𝒙 + 𝒙𝒕𝟐 , 𝒖(𝒙, 𝟎) = 𝟎, 𝒕 > 𝟎 ,where, u=u(x,t)

Solution: Given equation,

50
ut + 𝑢𝑢𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑡 2 , 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 0, 𝑡 > 0 (1)

The equation is inhomogeneous.

The correction functional for this equation reads,

𝑡 𝜕𝑢𝑛 (𝑥,𝜉) 𝜕𝑢̃𝑛 (𝑥,𝜉)

𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) + ∫0 𝜆(𝜉)[ +𝑢
̃(𝑥,
𝑛 𝜉) ]𝑑𝜉 (2)
𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑥

The stationary conditions,

1 + 𝜆|𝜉=𝑡 = 0

𝜆′ |𝜉=𝑡 = 0

Gives, 𝜆 = −1

Substituting this value of the Lagrange multiplier 𝜆 = −1 into the functional equation (2) gives

the iteration formula:

𝑡
𝜕𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜉) 𝜕𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜉)
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) − ∫ ( + 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜉) ) 𝑑𝜉
0 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑥

Selecting 𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 0 from the given initial condition yields the successive approximations,

𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 0

1
𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥𝑡 + 𝑥𝑡 3
3
1 1 2
𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥𝑡 + ( 𝑥𝑡 3 − 𝑥𝑡 3 ) − 𝑥𝑡 3 + ⋯
3 3 5
1 1 2 2
𝑢3 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥𝑡 + (3 𝑥𝑡 3 − 3 𝑥𝑡 3 ) − (5 𝑥𝑡 3 − 5 𝑥𝑡 3 ) + ⋯

𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥𝑡

Which is the exact solution obtained upon cancelling the noise terms.

51
Example 3: Solve the nonlinear partial differential equation by the VIM,
𝟏
𝐮𝐭 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 𝒖𝒙 , 𝒖(𝒙, 𝟎) = 𝟎 ,where, u= u (x, t)

Solution: Given equation,

1
ut = 𝑥 2 + 4 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢(𝑥, 0) = 0 (1)

The equation is inhomogeneous.

The correction functional for this equation reads,

𝑡 𝜕𝑢𝑛 (𝑥,𝜉) 𝜕𝑢̃𝑛 (𝑥,𝜉)

𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) + ∫0 𝜆(𝜉)[ +𝑢
̃(𝑥,
𝑛 𝜉) ]𝑑𝜉 (2)
𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑥

The stationary conditions,

1 + 𝜆|𝜉=𝑡 = 0

𝜆′ |𝜉=𝑡 = 0

Gives, 𝜆 = −1

Substituting this value of the Lagrange multiplier 𝜆 = −1 into the functional equation (2) gives

the iteration formula:

𝑡
𝜕𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜉) 𝜕𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜉)
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) − ∫ ( + 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜉) ) 𝑑𝜉
0 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝑥

Selecting 𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 0 from the given initial condition yields the successive approximations,

𝑢0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 0

𝑢1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥 2 𝑡

1
𝑢2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥 2 𝑡 + 𝑥 2 𝑡 3 + ⋯
3
1 2 1
𝑢3 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥 2 𝑡 + 3 𝑥 2 𝑡 3 + 15 𝑥 2 𝑡 5 + 63 𝑥 2 𝑡 7 …

52
 1 2 17 7
𝑢𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑡 3 + 𝑡 5 + 𝑡 …
3 15 315

So that the solution in a closed form is

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Nonlinear PDEs systems by Adomian Method :

Systems of nonlinear PDEs will be examined by using Adomian decomposition method.
Systems of nonlinear PDEs arise in many scientific models such as propagation of shallow water
waves and the Brusselator model of chemical reaction diffusion model.
We write a system in an operating form by
Lt U+ Lx V+N1 (u,v)=g1
LtV+LxU+N2(u,v)=g2 ....(I)
With initial data, U(x,0)= f1(x)
V(x,0)= f2(x) ...(II)
Where Lt and Lx are considered without loss of generality first order PDEs N1 and N2 are
nonlinear operators and g1,g2 are source terms. Operating with the integral operator Lt -1 to the
system (I) and using the initial data (II) yields,
U(x,t)= f1(x) + Lt -1 g1 - Lt -1 Lx V- Lt -1 N1(u,v)
V(x,t)= f2(x) + Lt -1 g2 - Lt -1 Lx U- Lt -1 N2(u,v)...(III)
U(x,t) and V(x,t) can be decomposed by infinite series of components,
U(x,t)= Un(x,t)
V(x,t)= Vn(x,t) ...(iv)
However, N1(u,v) and N2(u,v) should be represented by using infinite series of the so called
Adomian polynomials An and Bn as follows :
N1(u,v) = An
N2(u,v)= Bn .... (v)
Where Un(x,t) and Vn(x,t) , n>=0 are the components of U(x,t) and V(x,t) respectively will be
currently determined and An and Bn. n>=0 are Adomian polynomials can be generated for all
forms of nonlinearity .
Subtracting (iv) and (v) into (III) gives,

53
Un(x,t)= t1(x) + Lt -1 g1 - Lt -1 Lx Vn - Lt -1 An
Vn(x,t)= t2(x) + Lt -1 g2 - Lt -1 Lx Un - Lt -1 Bn .....(vi)
Two recursive relations can be constructed from (vi) given by,
U0(x,t)= f1(x)+Lt -1 g1
Uk+1 (x,t) =-Lt -1 (Lx Vt)- Lt -1 (Ak),k>=0 ...(vii)
and
V0(x,t)= f2(x)+Lt -1 g2
Vk+1 (x,t) =-Lt -1 (Lx Ux)- Lt -1 (Bk),k>=0 ...(viii)
It is an essential feature of the decomposition method that the zeroth components U0(x,t) and
V0(x,t) are defined always by all terms that arise from initial data and from integrating the
source terms. Having defined the zeroth pair (U0,V0) , the remaining pair (Uk,Vk), k>=1 can be
obtained in a recurrent manner by using (vii) and (viii) additional pairs for the decomposition
series. Solutions normally account for higher accuracy. Having determined the components of
U(x, t) and V(x, t) the solution (U,V) of the system follows immediately in the form of a power
series expansion upon using(iv).

Example-1: Consider the nonlinear system

Ut +VUx +U=1
Vt-UVx-V=1
With the conditions U(x,0)=𝒆𝒙 , V(x,0)=𝒆−𝒙
Solution: Given nonlinear system
Ut + VUx +U=1
Vt -UVx-V=1
i

With the conditions U(x,0)=𝑒 𝑥 ,

V(x,0)=𝑒 −𝑥
ii

operating with L-1t on (i) we obtain

U(x, t)=𝑒 𝑥 +t- L-1t(VUx +U)
V(x, t)=𝑒 −𝑥 + t+ L-1t (UVx +V)
iii

54
The linear terms U(x, t) and V(x, t) can be represented by the decomposition series
U(x, t)=∑∞
𝑛=0 Un(x, t)

V(x, t)=∑∞
𝑛=0 Vn(x, t) iv

Where An and Bn are the Adomian Polynomials that can be generated for any form of non-
linearity. Substituting (iv) and (v) into (iii) gives
∑∞ 𝑥 -1 ∞
𝑛=0 Un(x, t)=𝑒 +t- L t (∑𝑛=0 𝐴𝑛 + Un)

∑∞ −𝑥 -1 ∞
𝑛=0 Vn(x, t)=𝑒 +t- L t (∑𝑛=0 𝐵𝑛 + 𝑉 n) v

The modified decomposition method defines the recursive relation in the form
U0(x, t)=ex
U1(x, t)=t-L-1t(A0+U0)
vi
-1
Uk+1(x, t)= -L t(Ak +Uk), k≥ 1

And V0(x, t)=e-x

V1(x, t)=t+L-1t(B0+V0) vii
Vk+1(x, t)= -L-1t(Bk +Vk), k≥ 1
The Adomian polynomial for the nonlinear term VUx are given by
A0=V0U0x
A1=V1U0x+ V0U1x
A2=V2U0x+ V1U1x+ V0U2x
A3=V3U0x+ V2U1x+ V1U2x+V0U3x
And for the nonlinear term UVx by
B0= U0V0x
B1=U1V0x+ U0V1x

B2  U 2V0 x  U 1V1x  U 0V2 x

B3  U 3V0 x  U 2V1x  U 1V2 x  U 0V3 x

55
Using the derived adomian Polynomials into (vii) and (viii) we obtain the following pairs of
components

U 0 ,V0   e x , e  x 
U 1 ,V1    te x , te  x 
 2
t 2 x 
U 2 ,V2     t ex , e 
 2! 2! 

 3
t 3 x 
U 3 ,V3     t ex , e 
 3! 3! 
Accordingly, the solution of the system in a series form is given by

  2
t3   t2 t3 
U ,V    e x 1  t  t   ........ , e  x 1  t    ........  
  2! 3!   2! 3! 

And in a closed form by

U ,V   e xt , e  xt 

Example 2: Consider the following nonlinear system

U t  VxWy  1

Vt  WxU y  5

Wt  U xV y  5

With the initial conditions U(x,y,0)=x+2y, V(x,y,0)=x-2Y, W(x,y,0)=-x+2y

Solution: Given the nonlinear system

U t  VxWy  1

Vt  WxU y  5
i
Wt  U xV y  5

56
With initial conditions
U(x,y,0)=x+2y,
V(x,y,0)=x-2Y,
ii
W(x,y,0)=-x+2y
Following the analysis presented above we obtain

U x, y, t   x  2 y  t   Lt 1 VxW y 

V x, y, t   x  2 y  5t   Lt 1 WxU y  iii

W x, y, t    x  2 y  5t   Lt 1 U xV y 

Substituting the decomposition representations for linear and non linear terms into (iii) yields

1  
 

 U n  x, y , t    x  2 y  t   Lt   An 
n  0  n 0 

1  
 

 Vn  x, y , t    x  2 y  5t   Lt   Bn 
n  0  n 0 

1  
 

 Wn  x, y , t    x  2 y  5t   Lt   Cn 
n  0  n 0 
Where An,Bn, Cn are adomian Polynomials for the nonlinear terms VxWy , WxU y , U xV y
respectively the first three adomian polynomials for An,Bn, Cn As follows:
For VxWy we find

A0  V0 xW0 y

A1  V1xW0 y  V0 xW1 y

A2  V2 xW0 y  V1xW1 y  V0 xW2 y

And for WxUy we find

B0  W0 xU 0 y

B1  W1xU 0 y  W0 xU1 y

B2  W2 xU 0 y  W1xU1 y  W0 xU 2 y

57
And for UxVy We find

C0  U 0 xV0 y

C1  U1xV0 y  U 0 xV1 y

C2  U 2 xV0 y  U1xV1 y  U 0 xV2 y

Substituting this polynomials into the appropriate recursive relations we find

U 0 ,V0 ,W0   x  2 y  t , x  2 y  5t , x  2 y  5t 
U1 ,V1 ,W1   2t,2t,2t 
U k ,Vk ,Wk   0,0,0 , K>=2
Consequently, the exact solution of the system of nonlinear partial differential equations is given
by
(U,V,W)= (x+2y+3t, x-2y+3t, -x+2y+3t)

System of Nonlinear PDF by VIM

System of nonlinear PDE’s arise in many scientific models such as the propagation of shallow
water waves and the brusselator model of chemical reaction diffusion model. To use the VIM,
we write a system in an operator form by
LtU+R1(U,V,W)+N1(U,V,W)=g1
LtV+R2(U,V,W)+N2(U,V,W)=g2
(
LtW+R3(U,V,W)+N3(U,V,W)=g3

With Initial data

U(x,0)=f1x
V(x,0)=f2x
(ii
W(x,0)=f3x
Where Lt is considered as a first order partial differential operator, Rj , 1<=j<=3 and Nj ,
1<=j<=3 are linear and nonlinear operators respectively , and g1 , g2 , g3 are source terms. The
correction functional for equation of the system (i) can be written as

58
     
U n1 x, t   U n x, t    1 LU n x, t s   R1 U n ,Vn ,Wn  N1 U n ,Vn ,Wn  g1 t s  dts
t

0

    
Vn1  x, t   Vn  x, t    2 LVn  x, t s   R2 U n ,Vn ,Wn  N 2 U n ,Vn ,Wn  g 2 t s  dts
0
t
 (iii
)

    
Wn1 x, t   Wn x, t    3 LWn  x, t s   R3 U n ,Vn ,Wn  N 3 U n ,Vn ,Wn  g 3 t s  dts
t

0


where 𝛾𝑗, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 3 are generally lagrange’s multipliers ,which can be identified optimally via
variational theory and 𝑈̃𝑛 , 𝑉̃𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊
̃𝑛 asrestricted variations which means 𝑆𝑈
̃𝑛 = 0, 𝑆𝑉̃𝑛 =
0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑊 ̃𝑛 = 0.The successive approximations 𝑈𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡), 𝑉𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) , 𝑛 ≥ 0 of
the solutions 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡), 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊(𝑥, 𝑡) will follow immediately upon using the obtained
lagrange multipliers and by using selrctive functions 𝑈0, 𝑉0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊0 .
Consequently, the solutions are given by
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = lim 𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑛→∞

𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) = lim 𝑉𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)

𝑛→∞

𝑊(𝑥, 𝑡) = lim 𝑊𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡)

𝑛→∞

Example-1: Consider the in homogeneous system PDE

𝑈𝑡 + 𝑉𝑈𝑥 + 𝑈 = 1
𝑉𝑡 − 𝑈𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉 = 1
IC
𝑈(𝑥, 0) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑉(𝑥, 0) = 𝑒 −𝑥
Solution: Given nonlinear system
PDE
𝑈𝑡 + 𝑉𝑈𝑥 + 𝑈 = 1
......................................... (i)
𝑉𝑡 − 𝑈𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉 = 1
IC
𝑈(𝑥, 0) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑉(𝑥, 0) = 𝑒 −𝑥
The correction functional for (i)

59
 𝑡
𝜕𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏) 𝜕𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏)
𝑈𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) + ∫ 𝛾1 (𝜏) ( + 𝑉̃𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏) ̃𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏) − 1) 𝑑𝜏
+𝑈
𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥
0
𝑡 𝜕𝑉𝑛 (𝑥,𝜏) 𝜕𝑉𝑛 (𝑥,𝜏)
𝑉𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) + ∫0 𝛾2 (𝜏) ( ̃𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏)
−𝑈 − 𝑉̃𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏) −
𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥
1) 𝑑𝜏..................................................................................................................(ii)

The stationary conditions are given by

1 + 𝛾1 = 0 , 𝛾́ 1 (𝜏 = 𝑡) = 0
1 + 𝛾2 = 0 , 𝛾́ 2 (𝜏 = 𝑡) = 0
So that
𝛾1 = 𝛾2 = −1................................(iii)
Substituting these values of the lagrange multipliers into the function (ii) gives the iteration
formula
𝑡
𝜕𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏) 𝜕𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏)
𝑈𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) − ∫ ( + 𝑉̃𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏) ̃𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏) − 1) 𝑑𝜏
+𝑈
𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥
0

𝑉𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡)

𝑡
𝜕𝑉𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏) 𝜕𝑉 (𝑥, 𝜏)
− ∫ 𝛾2 () ( ̃𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏) 𝑛
−𝑈 − 𝑉̃𝑛 (𝑥, 𝜏)
𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥
0

− 1) 𝑑𝜏 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑣)

The zeroth approximation 𝑈0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥 are selected by using y the given
initial conditions. Therefore, we obtain the following successive approximations

𝑈0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑉0 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑈1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑉1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑡𝑒 −𝑥 ............(v)
𝑡2
𝑈2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
2!

𝑡2
𝑉2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑡𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
2!

By canceling the noise terms between 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , … … … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 … … … 𝑤𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑

60
 𝑡2 𝑡3
𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 𝑡 + 2! − 3! + ⋯ … . )

𝑡2 𝑡3
𝑉𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥 (1 + 𝑡 + 2! + 3! + ⋯ … . ) .............(vi)

𝐴𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦

𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥−𝑡

𝑉(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑥+𝑡

𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 𝑡

Example-2: Consider the following nonlinear system

𝑼𝒕 − 𝑽𝒙 𝑾𝒚 = 𝟏

𝑽 − 𝑾𝒙 𝑼𝒚 = 𝟓

𝑾𝒕 − 𝑼𝒙 𝑽𝒚 = 𝟓

with the initial conditions

𝑼(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝟎) = 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚, 𝑽(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝟎) = 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚, 𝑾(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝟎) = −𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚

Solution: Given nonlinear system

𝑈𝑡 − 𝑉𝑥 𝑊𝑦 = 1

𝑉 − 𝑊𝑥 𝑈𝑦 = 5

𝑊𝑡 − 𝑈𝑥 𝑉𝑦 = 5................................................................(i)

with the initial conditions

𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 0) = 𝑥 + 2𝑦, 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 0) = 𝑥 − 2𝑦, 𝑊(𝑥, 𝑦, 0) = −𝑥 + 2𝑦 … … (𝑖𝑖)

The correction functionals for (i) is
𝑡 𝜕𝑈𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑉𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑊𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏)
𝑈𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) + ∫0 𝛾1 (𝜏) ( − × − 1) 𝑑𝜏
𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑡 𝜕𝑉𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑊𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑈𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏)

𝑉𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑉𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) + ∫0 𝛾2 (𝜏) ( − × − 1) 𝑑𝜏
𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑡 𝜕𝑊𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑈𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑉𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏)

𝑊𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑊𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) + ∫0 𝛾3 (𝜏) ( − × − 1) 𝑑𝜏 … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

so that

𝛾1 = 𝛾2 = 𝛾3 = −1................................(iv)

61
 𝑡 𝜕𝑈𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑉𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑊𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏)
𝑈𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑈𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) − ∫0 ( − × − 1) 𝑑𝜏
𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑡 𝜕𝑉𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑊𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑈𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏)

𝑉𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑉𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) − ∫0 ( − × − 1) 𝑑𝜏
𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑡 𝜕𝑊𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑈𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏) 𝜕𝑉𝑛 (𝑥,𝑦,𝜏)

𝑊𝑛+1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑊𝑛 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) − ∫0 ( − × − 1) 𝑑𝜏 … … … … . . (𝑖𝑣)
𝜕𝜏 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

The zeroth approximations

u0 (x,y,t) = x+2y
v0 (x,y,t) = x-2y ....................................(vi)
w0(x,y,t) = - x+2y

are selected by using the given initial conditions consequently, the following successive
approximations.
u0 (x,y,t) = x+2y
v0 (x,y,t) = x-2y
w0(x,y,t ) = - x+2y

u1 (x,y,t) = x+2y+3t
v1 (x,y,t) = x-2y+3t
w1 (x,y,t) = -x+2y+3t
.
.
un (x,y,t) = x+2y+3t
vn (x,y,t) = x-2y+3t
wn (x,y,t) = -x+2y+3t
are readily obtained.
The exact solution are given by
u (x,y,t) = x+2y+3t
v (x,y,t) = x-2y+3t
w (x,y,t) = -x+2y+3t

62
 Chapter-13
The family of the kdv Equations

The History of the kdv equation:

There are many different phenomena in the real world who we describe as' waves' Because of the
microwave ovens, laser musical instruments acoustic considerations in auditoriums ship designs,
collapse of bridges due to vibration, solar energy etc. This is clearly as important subject to study
and understand, generally studying waves involves driving and solving from differential equation.
The differential equation involved are tough to work with that one needs advanced techniques to
even get approximate information about their solutions.
The history of the kdv equation started with the experiments by John Scott Russell in 1834
followed by theoretical investigations by Lord Rayleigh and Joseph Boussiness around 1870 and
finally and De varies in 1895 .
The kdv equation is now seen to be closely connected to Huygenes principle.
In mathematics the Kotteage De Vries equation is a mathematical model of waves on solar water
surface it is particularly in notable as the prototypical example of an exactly solvable model that
is a nonlinear partial differential equation.
Where solution can be exactly and precisely kdv. Equation is a non-linear equation that models a
diversity of important finite dispersive wave phenomena.

Introduction:
The Ubiquities kdv equation in dimentional variables and reals
Ut+aUUx+Uxxx=0-----------(1)

Where subscribes denoted partials derivatives the parameter can be scale to any real number when
the commonly used values are a=+-1 or a=+-6
The kdv equation models a variety of nonlinear phenomena including acoustic waves in plasmas
and shallow water waves the derivative UT characterized the time evolution of the wire
propagating in one direction the nonlinear terms UUx describes the steeping of the world and the
linear term you access account for the spreading or dispersion of the web.
The function you U(x,t ) represents the waters free surface in one dimension variables then only
in kdv equation gives large variety of solution, the solution propagate at speed see while rerating,
its identity we usually introduced the new waves variable S=x-ct so that
U(x,t)=U(ţ)………(ii)

The solution is spatially localized solution,hence U´,U´´,U´´´= 0 as ţ→x-ct .

To give a preliminary approach for solving the KdV equation ,we substitute (ii) into (i) to obtain

63
-cu´+6uu´+u´´´ = 0 …………(iii)
That gives

-cu´+3𝑢2 +u´´ = 0……………….. (iv)

and integrating the resulting equation we find
(u´)2 = cu2 -2u3
Or equivalently
𝑑𝑢 = ⃖𝑑𝑠 …………………….. (v)
√𝑐𝑢2 −2𝑢3

Using a change of variables give 𝑡ℎ𝑒 solution

𝑐 √𝑐
𝑈(ţ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 ţ
2 2

𝑐 √𝑐
u(x,t)= 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 ţ (x- ct)……………..(vi)
2 2

It is obvious that u(u,t) in (vi) along with its derivatives approaches zero as ţ → ∞ . The amsplitude
of the wave is directly proportional to its speed c , and this is turn mean that the taller the above
the faster it moves . It moves to the right for (-c) and to the left if we replace (-c) by (+c). It is also
clear that the wave has no dispersion because of the balance between the dispersion effect and the
nonlinear effect. Consequently, the wave retains its identity and shape. Based on (vi), the following
𝑐 √𝑐
U(x,t) = − 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 ( (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)) …………….. (vii)
2

Is also a travelling solution of the KdV equation.

# Types of KdV equation :

1. ut +auux+uxxx = 0

where , a = any real number

ut = time evolution of the wave propagating

uux = steepening of the wave
uxxx = spreading or dispersion of the wave

2. third order KdV equation

Ut + f(u)ux+ uxxx = 0

64
 Where u(x,t) is a function of space and time variable
αu
αu2
f(u) = αun
αux
2αu-3βu2
αun-βu2n

2. Modified KdV equation

Ut -6u2ux+uxxx = 0

A conservation law is given by the relation

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑋
+ =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
where T and X are the density and flux respectively. This in turn gives the first three conservation
laws

𝑇1 = 𝑈
1 2
𝑇2 = 𝑈
2
1 4 1 2
𝑇3 = 𝑈 − 𝑈𝑥
4 4
𝑋1 = 2𝑈 3 + 𝑈𝑥𝑥
3 4 1
𝑋2 = 𝑈 + 𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥 − 𝑈𝑥2
2 2
1 1 2
𝑋3 = 𝑈 6 + 𝑈 3 𝑈𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑈 2 𝑈𝑥2 − 𝑈𝑥 𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑈𝑥𝑥
2 4
4. Generalized KdV equation

𝑈𝑡 + 𝑎𝑈 𝑛 𝑈𝑥 + 𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑛 > 2

where 𝑡𝑆 = 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡 and integrating once

𝑎
− 𝐶𝑈 + 𝑈 𝑛+1 + 𝑈 ′′ = 0
𝑛+1

65
5. The potential KdV equation

𝑈𝑡 + 𝑎𝑈𝑥2 + 𝑈 ′′′ = 0
using the transformation 𝑈 = 𝑉𝑥 and integrating once

−𝐶𝑈 ′ + 𝑎(𝑈 ′ )2 + 𝑈′′′ = 0

6. The Gardner equation
The standard Gardner equation or the combined KdV – mKdV equation

𝑈𝑡 + 2𝑎𝑈𝑈𝑥 − 3𝑏𝑈 2 𝑈𝑥 + 𝑈𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0

7. The K(n,n) equation

𝑈𝑡 + 𝑎(𝑈 𝑛 )𝑥 + (𝑈 𝑛 )𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑛>1

8. The generalized KdV equation with two power nonlinearities is of the form

𝑈𝑡 + (𝑎𝑈 𝑛 − 𝑏𝑈 2𝑛 )𝑈𝑥 + 𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0

#The Modified KdV Equation

The modified KdV equation reads

𝑈𝑡 − 6𝑈 2 𝑈𝑥 + 𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0 … … …(i)

The mKdV equation is completely integrable and is known to exhibit N-soliton solutions and
infinite number of conserved densities. A conservation law is given by the relation
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑋
+ = 0 … … … (ii)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

where T and X are the density and flux respectively. This in turn gives the first three conservation
laws

𝑇1 = 𝑈
1 2
𝑇2 = 𝑈
2
1 4 1 2
𝑇3 = 𝑈 − 𝑈𝑥
4 4
𝑋1 = 2𝑈 3 + 𝑈𝑥𝑥
3 4 1
𝑋2 = 𝑈 + 𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥 − 𝑈𝑥2
2 2

66
 1 1 2
𝑋3 = 𝑈 6 + 𝑈 3 𝑈𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑈 2 𝑈𝑥2 − 𝑈𝑥 𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑈𝑥𝑥
2 4
The modified KdV equation differs from the original KdV equation in the nonlinear term only,
where it includes 𝑈 2 𝑈𝑥 in stead of 𝑈𝑈𝑥 but include the dispersion term 𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥 .

The kdv and the mkdv equations are linked at a depper level by the so called Miura transformation,
given by

𝑢 = 𝑣 2 + 𝑣𝑥 (3)
that gives

𝑢𝑡 = 2𝑣𝑣𝑡 + 𝑣𝑥𝑡

𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑣𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥𝑥

𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑥

𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (4)

Substituting the Miura transformation (3) & (4) into the kdv equation

𝑢𝑡 − 6𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0
leads to
𝜕
(2𝑣 + 𝜕𝑥)(𝑣𝑡 − 6𝑣 2 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0

This in turn gives the mkdv equation

𝑣 2 − 6𝑣𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0
Substituting the wave variable 𝑠 = 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡 into the mkdv equation

𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑢2 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑎
And integrating once we find −𝑐𝑢 + 3 𝑢3 + 𝑢𝑢 = 0

The Tan-coth Method

a wave vasriable 𝑠 = 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡converts any PDE

𝑝(𝑢, 𝑢𝑡 , 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑥𝑥 , 𝑢𝑥𝑥𝑥 , … . ) = 0 (1)

To an ODE

Q(u,𝑢′ , 𝑢′′ , 𝑢′′′ , … ) = 0 (2)

67
Equation (2) is then integral as long as all terms contain derivatives where integration constants
are considered zeros.

Since, all derivatives of a tanh are represented by tanh itself, If we set,𝑇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑠),then we have

T = tanh(s)

𝑇′ = 1 − 𝑇2

𝑇′′ = −2𝑇 + 2𝑇 3

𝑇 ′′′ = −2 + 8𝑇 2 − 6𝑇 4

𝑇 4 = 16𝑇 − 40𝑡 3 + 24𝑡 5 (3)

In other words, introducing a new independent variable

𝑌 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(µ𝑠), 𝑠 = −𝑐𝑡 (4)

Where µ is the wave number, leads to the change of derivatives

𝑑 𝑑
= µ(1 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2 2 2)
𝑑 2 2 2
𝑑 2
= −2µ 𝑦(1 − 𝑦 + µ (1 − 𝑦 )
𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2

𝑑3 3 (1 2 )(3𝑌 2
𝑑 3 2 )2
𝑑2 3 2 3
𝑑3
= 2𝜇 −𝑌 − 1) − 6𝜇 𝑌(1 − 𝑌 + 𝜇 (1 − 𝑌 )
𝑑𝜉 3 𝑑𝑌 𝑑𝑌 2 𝑑𝑌 3

𝑑4 4 2 )(3𝑌 2
𝑑 4 (1 2 )2 (9𝑌 2
𝑑2
= −8𝜇 𝑌(1 − 𝑌 − 2) + 4𝜇 − 𝑌 − 2)
𝑑𝜉 4 𝑑𝑌 𝑑𝑌 2

𝑑3 𝑑4
−12𝜇 4 𝑌(1 − 𝑌 2 )3 + 𝜇 4 (1
− 𝑌 2 )4
… … … … . … … … … … … (𝑣)
𝑑𝑌 3 𝑑𝑌 4
The tanh-coth method admits the use of the finite expansion
𝑀 𝑀

𝑢(𝜇𝜉) = 𝑠(𝑌) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑌 + ∑ 𝑏𝑘 𝑌 −𝑘 … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑣𝑖)

𝑘

𝑘=0 𝑘=1

Where M is a positive integer, in most cases, that will be determined. For non-integer M, a
transformation formula is used to overcome this difficulty. Expansion (vi) reduce to the standard
tanh method for 𝑏𝑘 = 0 , 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑀. Substituting (vi) into the reduced ODE results in an algebraic
equation in power of Y.

To carry out the balance method, we notice from (v) and (vi) that the highest exponents for the
function u and it’s derivatives are as follows

68
 𝑢 → 𝑀,

𝑢𝑛 → 𝑛𝑀, … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑣𝑖𝑖)

𝑢′ → 𝑀 + 1,

𝑢′′ → 𝑀 + 2,

𝑢𝑟 → 𝑀 + 𝑟, … … … … … … … … … (𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)
To determine the parameter M, we usually balance the linear terms of highest order in the resulting
equation with the highest order nonlinear terms by using the scheme given above. We then collect
all coefficients of powers of Y in the resulting equation where these coefficients have to vanish.
This will give a system of algebraic equations involving the parameters 𝑎𝑘 , 𝑏𝑘 , 𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐. Having
determined these parameters we obtain an analytic solution 𝑢(𝑥, t) in a closed form. The solutions
we obtain may be solitons in terms of 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 , or may be kinks in terms of tanh. However, this
method may give periodic solutions as well.

Example-1: Solve the kdv equation by using the tanh-coth method.

Solution: The kdv equation in dimensionless variables

𝑈𝑡 + 𝑎𝑈𝑈𝑥 + 𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0 … … … … . (𝑖)

Here, U(x,t)=U(Ӻ)=x-ct
𝜕𝑈 𝜕Ӻ
𝑈𝑡 = . 𝜕𝑡 = 𝑈‫(׳‬-c)= -c‫׳𝑈׳‬
𝜕Ӻ

𝜕𝑈 𝜕Ӻ
𝑈𝑥 = 𝜕Ӻ . 𝜕𝑥 = U‫׳‬

𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥 = U‫׳‬

Then,

-cU‫׳‬+aUU‫ ׳‬+U‫=׳׳׳‬0

Intregrating this
𝑎
-cu+2 𝑈 2 + 𝑈‫ = ׳׳‬0 … … . . (𝑖𝑖)

Using the balance process leads to

2M=M+2

 M=2
From tanh-coth method we get,
U=∑2𝑗=0 𝑎𝑗 𝑌𝑗 +∑2𝑖=1 𝑏𝑖 𝑌 −𝑖
=𝑎0 +𝑎1 Y+𝑎2 𝑌 2 +𝑏1 𝑌 −1 +𝑏2 𝑌 −2

69
 U=𝑎0 + 𝑎1 tanh(µӺ) + 𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (µӺ) + 𝑏1 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 (µӺ) + 𝑏2 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−2 (µӺ)

𝑢‫𝑎 = ׳‬1 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µӺ). µ+𝑎2 2 tanh(µӺ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µӺ). µ + 𝑏1 (−1)𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−2 (µӺ). 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µӺ)µ
+ 𝑏2 (−2)𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−3 (µӺ) sec ℎ2 (µӺ) µ

𝑎1 µ𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µӺ) + 2𝑎2 µ tanh(µӺ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µӺ) − 𝑏1 µ𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−2 (µӺ)(1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (µӺ))
− 2𝑏2 µ𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−3 (µӺ)(1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (µӺ))

𝑎1 µ(1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 µӺ) + 2𝑎2 µ(tanh(µӺ) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ3 (µӺ) − 𝑏1 µ(𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−2 (µӺ) − 1)

− 2𝑏2 µ(𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−3 (µӺ) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 (µӺ))

𝑢‫𝑎 = ׳׳‬1 µ(0 − 2 tanh(µӺ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µӺ)µ)2𝑎2 µ(𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µӺ)µ − 3𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (µӺ)𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µӺ)µ)
− 𝑏1 µ(−2𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−3 (µӺ)𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µӺ)µ − 0)
− 2𝑏2 µ(−3𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−4 (µӺ) sec ℎ2 (µӺ)µ + 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−2 (µӺ)𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µӺ)µ)

= −2𝑎1 µ tanh(µӺ) (1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (µӺ) + 2𝑎2 µ2 (1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (µӺ)

− 6𝑎2 µ2 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (µӺ)(1 − tanℎ2 (µӺ))
+ 6𝑏2 µ2 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−4 (µӺ)(1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (µӺ)) − 2𝑏2 µ2 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−2 (µӺ)(1
− 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (µӺ))

=−2𝑎1 µ2 (𝑦 − 𝑌 3 ) + 2𝑎2 µ2 (1 − 𝑦 2 ) − 6𝑎2 µ2 (𝑦 2 − 𝑦 4 ) + 2𝑏1 µ2 (𝑦 −3 − 𝑦 −1 ) =

6𝑏2 µ2 (𝑦 −4 − 𝑦 −2 ) − 2𝑏2 µ2 (𝑦 −2 − 1)
From (ii),

=−𝑐(𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑌 + 𝑎2 𝑌 2 + 𝑏1 𝑦 −1 +
𝑎
𝑏2 𝑌 −2 )+2(𝑎02 +𝑎12 𝑌 2 +𝑎22 𝑌 4 +2𝑎0 𝑎1Y+2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑌 3 +2𝑎0 𝑎2 𝑌 2 +2𝑎0 𝑏1 𝑌 −1 +2𝑎0 𝑏2 𝑌 −2 +
2𝑎1 𝑏1 +𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑌 −1 +𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑌+𝑎2 𝑏2 +𝑏12 𝑌 −2 +𝑏22 𝑌 −4+2𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑌 −3 )−2𝑎µ2 (𝑦 − 𝑦 3 ) + 2𝑎2 µ2 (1 − 𝑦 2 ) −
6𝑎2 µ2 (𝑦 2 − 𝑦 4 ) + 2𝑏1 µ2 (𝑦 −3 − 𝑦 −1 ) + 6𝑏2 µ2 (𝑦 −4 − 𝑦 −2 ) − 2𝑏2 µ2 (𝑦 −2 − 1)

=−2𝑐𝑎0 𝑦 4 − 2𝑐𝑎1 𝑦 5 − 2𝑐𝑎2 𝑦 6 − 2𝑐𝑏1 𝑦 3 − 2𝑐𝑏2 𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑎02 𝑦 4 + 𝑎𝑎12 𝑦 6 + 𝑎𝑎22 𝑦 8 +

2𝑎0 𝑎𝑎1 𝑦 5 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑦 7 + 2𝑎𝑎0 𝑎2 𝑦 6 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑦 4 + 2𝑎0 𝑎𝑏2 𝑦 2 + 2𝑎𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑦 4 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑦 3 +
𝑎𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑦 5 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑦 4 + 𝑎𝑏12 𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑏22 + 2𝑎𝑏1 𝑏2𝑦 − 4𝑎1 µ2 𝑦 5 + 4𝑎1 µ𝑦 7 + 4𝑎2 µ𝑦 4 − 4𝑎2 µ2 𝑦 6 −
12𝑎2 µ2 𝑦 6 + 12𝑎2 µ2 𝑦 8 + 4𝑏1 µ2 𝑦 − 4𝑏1 µ2 𝑦 3 − 12𝑎2 µ2 𝑦 6 + 12𝑎2 µ2 𝑦 8 + 4𝑏1 µ2 𝑦 −
𝑦 3 4𝑏1 µ2 + 12𝑏2 µ2 − 12𝑏2 µ2 𝑦 2 − 4𝑏2 µ2 𝑦 2 + 4𝑏2 µ2 𝑦 4 = 0

=𝑌 8 (𝑎𝑎22 + 12𝑎2 µ2 ) + 𝑌 7 (2𝑎𝑎1 𝑎2 + 4𝑎1 µ2 ) + 𝑦 6 (−2𝑐𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎12 + 2𝑎𝑎0 𝑎2 + 4𝑎2 µ2 −

12𝑎2 µ2 ) + 𝑦 5 (−2𝑐𝑎1 + 2𝑎0 𝑎1 𝑎+𝑎𝑎2 𝑏1 − 4𝑎1 µ2 ) + 𝑦 4 (−2𝑐𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑎02 + 2𝑎𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏2 +
4𝑎2 µ2 +4𝑏2 µ2 + 𝑌 3 (−2𝑐𝑏1 + 2𝑎𝑎0 𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏2 − 4𝑏1 µ2 )+𝑌 2 (−2𝑐𝑏2 + 2𝑎0 𝑏2 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏12 −
12𝑏2 µ2 − 4𝑏2 µ2 ) + 𝑌(2𝑎𝑏1 𝑏2 + 4𝑏1 µ2 ) + 𝑎𝑏22 + 12𝑏2 µ2 =0

Collecting the co-efficients of each occur of year. 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 8, setting each coefficient to zero.

𝑎𝑎22 + 12𝑎2 µ2 = 0

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 2𝑎𝑎1 𝑎2 + 4𝑎1 µ2 = 0

−2𝑐𝑎2+ 𝑎𝑎12 + 2𝑎𝑎0 𝑎2 + 4𝑎2 µ2 − 12𝑎2 µ2 = 0

−2𝑐𝑎1 + 2𝑎𝑎0 𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏1 − 4𝑎1 µ2 = 0

−2𝑐𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑎02 + 2𝑎𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏2 + 4𝑎2 µ2 + 4𝑏2 µ2 = 0

−2𝑐𝑏1 + 2𝑎𝑎0 𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏2 − 4𝑏1 µ2 = 0

−2𝑐𝑏2 + 2𝑎𝑎0 𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑏12 − 12𝑏2 µ2 − 4𝑏2 µ2 = 0

2𝑎𝑏1 𝑏2 + 4𝑏1 µ2 = 0

𝑎𝑏22 + 12𝑏2 µ2 = 0
Solving the above equation by any computational software we can find the values if the unknowns
𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎3 , 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 µ.Using this value of the unknowns in solution equation (3) we obtain the
solution of the given equation (2).

Example 2: Solve the modified 𝒌𝒅𝒗 (𝒎𝒌𝒅𝒗) equation by using the 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉 − 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉 method.

Solution:
The 𝑚𝑘𝑑𝑣 equation reads

𝑈𝑡 − 6𝑈 2 𝑈𝑥 + 𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0 … … … … (𝑖)
which is PDE. Convert it into ODE and then integrating we get,
𝑎
−𝐶𝑈 + 𝑈 3 + 𝑈 ′′ = 0 … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
3
Solving this by using 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ − 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ method.

Balancing the non-linear term 𝑈 3 , that has the exponent 3𝑀 with the highest order derivative 𝑈 ′′ ,
that has the exponent 𝑀 + 2.

∴ 3𝑀 = 𝑀 + 2

⇒𝑀=1

From 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ − 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ method we get,

𝑈 = ∑1𝑗=0 𝑎𝑗 𝑌𝑗 + ∑1𝑖=1 𝑏𝑖 𝑌 −𝑖 … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑌 + 𝑏1 𝑌 −1

= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(µξ) + 𝑏1 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 (µξ)

𝑈 ′ = 𝑎1 𝜇𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µξ) + 𝑏1 {−𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(µξ). 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (µξ). 𝜇}

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 = 𝑎1 𝜇(1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (µξ)) − 𝑏1 𝜇[𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(µξ) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ3 (µξ)]

𝑈 ′′ = −𝑎1 𝜇. 2𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(µξ)(1 − 𝑌 2 ) − 𝑏1 𝜇 2 [(1 − 𝑌 2 ) − 3𝑌 2 (1 − 𝑌 2 )]

= −2𝑎1 𝜇 2 𝑌(1 − 𝑌 2 ) − 𝑏1 𝜇 2 [1 − 𝑌 2 − 3𝑌 2 + 3𝑌 4 ]

= −2𝑎1 𝜇 2 𝑌(1 − 𝑌 2 ) − 𝑏1 𝜇 2 [1 − 4𝑌 2 + 3𝑌 4 ]
From (ii)
𝑎
−𝐶(𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑌 + 𝑏1 𝑌 −1 ) + (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑌 + 𝑏1 𝑌 −1 )3 − 2𝑎1 𝜇 2 𝑌(1 − 𝑌 2 ) − 𝑏2 𝜇 2 [1 − 4𝑌 2 + 3𝑌 4 ]
3
1
= −𝐶𝑎0 − 𝐶𝑎1 𝑌 − 𝑏1 𝐶𝑌 −1 + [𝑎𝑎03 + 3𝑎𝑎02 𝑎1 𝑌 + 3𝑎𝑎0 𝑎12 𝑌 2 + 𝑎𝑎13 𝑌 3 + 3𝑎𝑎02 𝑏1 𝑌 −1 +
3
6𝑎𝑎0 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 3𝑎𝑎12 𝑏1 𝑌 + 3𝑎𝑎0 𝑏12 𝑌 −2 + 3𝑎𝑎1 𝑏12 𝑌 −1 + 𝑎𝑏13 𝑌 −3 ] − 2𝑎1 𝜇 2 𝑌 + 2𝑎1 𝜇 2 𝑌 3 −
𝑏1 𝜇 2 + 4𝑏1 𝜇 2 𝑌 2 − 3𝑏1 𝜇 2 𝑌 4

= −3𝐶𝑎0 𝑌 3 − 3𝐶𝑎1 𝑌 4 − 3𝑏1 𝐶𝑌 2 + 𝑎𝑎03 𝑌 3 + 3𝑎𝑎02 𝑎1 𝑌 4 + 3𝑎𝑎0 𝑎12 𝑌 5 + 𝑎𝑎13 𝑌 6 +

3𝑎𝑎02 𝑏1 𝑌 2 + 6𝑎𝑎0 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑌 3 + 3𝑎𝑎12 𝑏1 𝑌 4 + 3𝑎𝑎0 𝑏12 𝑌 + 3𝑎𝑎1 𝑏12 𝑌 2 + 𝑎𝑏13 − 6𝑎1 𝜇 2 𝑌 4 +
6𝑎1 𝜇 2 𝑌 6 − 3𝑏1 𝜇 2 𝑌 3 + 12𝑏1 𝜇 2 𝑌 5 − 9𝑏1 𝜇 2 𝑌 7

= 𝑌 7 (−9𝑏1 𝜇 2 ) + 𝑌 6 (𝑎𝑎13 + 6𝑎1 𝜇 2 ) + 𝑌 5 (3𝑎0 𝑎𝑎12 + 12𝑏1 𝜇 2 ) + (−3𝐶𝑎1 + 3𝑎𝑎02 𝑎1 +

3𝑎𝑎12 𝑏1 − 6𝑎1 𝜇 2 ) + 𝑌 3 (−3𝐶𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑎03 + 6𝑎𝑎0 𝑎1 𝑏1 − 3𝑏1 𝜇 2 ) + 𝑌 2 (−3𝑏1 𝐶 + 3𝑎𝑎02 𝑏1 +
3𝑎𝑎1 𝑏12 ) + 𝑌(3𝑎𝑎0 𝑏12 ) + 𝑎𝑏13 = 0

Collecting the co-efficient of each power of 𝑌 𝑖 , 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 6, setting each co-efficient to zero

𝑎𝑎13 + 6𝑎1 𝜇 2 = 0

3𝑎𝑎0 𝑎12 + 12𝑏1 𝜇 2 = 0

−3𝐶𝑎1 + 3𝑎𝑎02 𝑎1 + 3𝑎𝑎12 𝑏1 − 6𝑎1 𝜇 2 = 0

−3𝐶𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑎03 + 6𝑎𝑎0 𝑎1 𝑏1 − 3𝑏1 𝜇 2

−3𝑏1 𝐶 + 3𝑎𝑎02 𝑏1 + 3𝑎𝑎1 𝑏12

3𝑎𝑎0 𝑏12 = 0

𝑎𝑏13
Solving the above equation by any computational software. We can find the values of the
unknowns in solution equation (iii) we obtain the solution of the given equation (ii).

Collecting the co-efficient of each power of 𝑌 𝑖 , 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 6, setting each co-efficient to zero

𝑎𝑎13 + 6𝑎1 𝜇 2 = 0

72
3𝑎𝑎0 𝑎12 + 12𝑏1 𝜇 2 = 0
−3𝐶𝑎1 + 3𝑎𝑎02 𝑎1 + 3𝑎𝑎12 𝑏1 − 6𝑎1 𝜇 2 = 0
−3𝐶𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑎03 + 6𝑎𝑎0 𝑎1 𝑏1 − 3𝑏1 𝜇 2
−3𝑏1 𝐶 + 3𝑎𝑎02 𝑏1 + 3𝑎𝑎1 𝑏12
3𝑎𝑎0 𝑏12 = 0
𝑎𝑏13
Solving the above equation by any computational software. We can find the values of the
unknowns in solution equation (iii) we obtain the solution of the given equation (ii).

(𝑮′ /𝑮) − Expansion Method

History:
The (𝐺 ′ /𝐺) − expansion method is firstly proposed, where 𝐺 = 𝐺(𝜉) satisfies a second order
linear ordinary differential equation (LODE for short) by which the travelling wave solutions
involving parameters are taken as special values the solitary waves are derived from the travelling
waves. The travelling wave solutions are expressed by the hyperbolic functions, the trigonometric
functions and the rational function.
Introduction:
A new method which is called the (𝐺 ′ /𝐺) expansion method to look for travelling wave solution
of non-linear evolution equations. The main ideas of the proposed method are that the travelling
wave solutions of a non-linear evolution equation can be expressed by a polynomial in
(𝐺 ′ /𝐺) where 𝐺 = 𝐺(𝜉) satisfies a second order LODE,
𝑑𝐺(𝜉)
𝐺′ = , 𝜉 = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡, the degree of the polynomial.
𝑑𝜉

The polynomial can be determined by considering the homogeneous balance between the highest
order derivatives and nonlinear terms appearing in a given nonlinear evolution equation ,and the
coefficients of the polynomial can be obtained by solving a set of algebraic equations resulted from
the process of the using proposed method. It will be seen that more travelling wave solutions of
many nonlinear evolution equation can be obtained by using the (Gʹ/G)-expansion method.

Description of the (Gʹ/G)-expansion method:

Suppose that a nonlinear equation, say in two independent variables x and t, is given by

φ(U, 𝑈𝑡 , 𝑈𝑥 , 𝑈𝑡𝑡 , 𝑈𝑥𝑡 , 𝑈𝑥𝑥 ,………..)=0 …………(i)

73
Where U=U(x,t) is an unknown function, p is a polynomial in U=U(x,t) and its various partial
derivatives, in which the highest order derivatives and nonlinear terms are involved.

Step-1: Combining the independent variables x and t into one variable ζ=x-vt
U(x,t)=U(ζ), ζ=x-vt ………….(ii)
From (i)
P(u,-vuʹ,uʹ,vuʹʹ,-vuʹʹ,uʹʹ,………)=0 …………...(iii)

Step-2: Suppose that the solution of ODE (iii) can be expressed by a polynomial in (Gʹ/G) as
follows:
𝐺ʹ
U(ζ)=𝛼𝑚 ( 𝐺 )𝑚 +……… …………(iv)

Where G=G(ζ) satisfies the second order LODE in the form

Gʹʹ+λGʹ+µG=0 ……..(v)

𝛼𝑚 ,……..λ and µ are constants to be determined later, 𝛼𝑚 ≠0 .

Step-3: By substituting (iv) into equation (iii) and using second order LODE (v), collecting all
terms with the same order of (Gʹ/G) together. Equation (iii) is converted into another polynomial
in (Gʹ/G). Equating each coefficient of this polynomial to zero.

Step-4: Assuming that the constants 𝛼𝑚 ,…….𝑉,λ and µ can be obtained by solving the algebric
equation. The general solution of 𝑒𝑞 𝑛 . (v) into 𝑒𝑞 𝑛 . (iv) we have more travelling wave solutions
of evolution equation(i).

Example-1: Solve the modified kdV equation by using the original the (Gʹ/G)-expansion
method.

Solution: The mkdV equation

𝑈𝑡 -6U2𝑈𝑥 +𝑈𝑥𝑥𝑥 =0 ……….(i)
Which is a PDE. Converting it into an ODE
-cUʹ-6U2Uʹ+Uʹʹʹ=0
⇒cU-2U3+Uʹʹ=0 [by integrating]
6
⇒-cU- 3U3+Uʹʹ=0
𝑎
⇒-cU+3 U3+Uʹʹ=0 [putting a=-6] …………….(ii)

74
Balancing the terms U3 and Uʹʹ
3M=M+2
⇒M=1
Using (Gʹ/G)-expansion method
𝐺ʹ
U(x,t)=a0+a1( 𝐺 ) ……………..(iii)

Now
𝐺𝐺ʹʹ−𝐺ʹ2
( 𝐺ʹ⁄𝐺 )ʹ = 𝐺2

𝐺(−𝜆𝐺ʹ−µ𝐺)−𝐺ʹ2
= [as Gʹʹ+λGʹ+µG=0]
𝐺2
2
𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′
∴ = −𝜆 ( ) − 𝜇 − (( )
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺

From (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2
𝐺′ 𝐺′
U′ = 𝑎1 {𝜆 ( 𝐺 ) − 𝜇 ( 𝐺 ) }

2 2
″
𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′
𝑈 = 𝑎1 [−𝜆 {−𝜆 ( ) − 𝜇 − ( ) } − 2 ( ) {−𝜆 ( ) − 𝜇 − ( ) }]
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺

2 2 3
𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′
= 𝑎1 [𝜆2 ( 𝐺 ) + 𝜆𝜇 + 𝜆 ( 𝐺 ) + 2𝜆 ( 𝐺 ) + 2𝜇 ( 𝐺 ) + 2 ( 𝐺 ) ]

2 3
𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′
= 𝑎1 [(𝜆2 + 2𝜇) ( 𝐺 ) + 3𝜆 ( 𝐺 ) + 2 ( 𝐺 ) + 𝜆𝜇]

From (𝑖𝑖)
3 2 3
𝐺′ 𝑎 𝐺′ 2 𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′
−𝑐 (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 ( )) + (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 ( )) + 𝑎1 [(𝜆 + 2𝜇) ( ) + 3𝜆 ( ) + 2 (𝐺 ) + 𝜆𝜇] = 0
𝐺 3 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺

2 3
𝐺′ 𝑎𝑎0 3 2
𝐺′ 2
𝐺′ 𝑎 3 𝐺′
=> −𝑐𝑎0 − 𝑐𝑎1 ( ) + + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎1 ( ) + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑎1 ( ) + 𝑎1 ( )
𝐺 3 𝐺 𝐺 3 𝐺
2 3
𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′
+𝑎1 (𝜆2 + 2𝜇) ( 𝐺 ) + 3𝜆𝑎1 ( 𝐺 ) + 2𝑎1 ( 𝐺 ) + 𝑎1 𝜆𝜇 = 0

2 3
𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′
 -3 𝑐𝑎0 − 3𝑐𝑎1 ( 𝐺 ) + 𝑎𝑎0 3 + 3𝑎𝑎0 2 𝑎1 ( 𝐺 ) + 3𝑎𝑎0 𝑎1 2 ( 𝐺 ) + 𝑎𝑎1 3 ( 𝐺 ) +

75
 2 3
2
𝐺′ 𝐺′ 𝐺′
3𝑎1 (𝜆 + 2𝜇) ( ) + 9𝜆𝑎1 ( ) + 6𝑎1 ( ) + 3𝑎1 𝜆𝜇 = 0
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺

𝐺′
Equating the coefficients of ( )
𝐺

0
𝐺′
( ) : − 3𝑐 𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑎0 3 + 3𝑎1 𝜆𝜇
𝐺
1
𝐺′
( ) : −3𝑐 𝑎1 + 3𝑎𝑎0 2 𝑎1 + 3𝑎1 (𝜆2 + 2𝜇)
𝐺

2
𝐺′
( ) : 3𝑎𝑎0 𝑎1 2 + 9𝜆𝑎1
𝐺
3
𝐺′
( ) : 𝑎1 3 + 6𝑎1
𝐺
By setting each coefficients equal to zero and applying any computational software to solve and getting
the unknowns we can have the solution of (𝑖).

Example 2: Solve the (2+1) Dimensional Cubic Nonlinear Klein – Gordon Equation by using
MSE method.
Solution: The (2+1) Dimensional Cubic Nonlinear Klein – Gordon Equation has the form
𝑈𝑥𝑥 + 𝑈𝑦𝑦 − 𝑈𝑡𝑡 + 𝛼𝑈 − 𝛽𝑈 3 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … (1)

Where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are nonzero constants.

We use the wave transformation
𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑈(𝜉), 𝜉 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑡 … … … … … … … … … … (2)
From (1) we get,
(2 − 𝑐 2 )𝑈 ′′ + 𝛼𝑈 − 𝛽𝑈 3 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … (3)
Balancing 𝑈 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈 ′′
3𝑀 = 𝑀 + 2
=≫ 𝑀 = 1
Using MSE method

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 𝜓′
𝑈(𝜉) = 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 ( )
𝜓
𝜓′
= 𝐴0 + 𝐴1 𝑀 [𝑀 = ]
𝜓

𝑈 ′ = 𝐴1 𝑀′
𝑈 ′′ = 𝐴1 𝑀′′
From (3)
(2 − 𝑐 2 )𝐴1 𝑀′′ + 𝛼(𝐴0 + 𝐴1 𝑀) − 𝛽(𝐴0 + 𝐴1 𝑀)3 = 0

=> 2𝐴1 𝑀′′ − 𝑐 2 𝐴1 𝑀′′ + 𝛼𝐴0 + 𝛼𝐴1 𝑀 − 𝛽𝐴0 3 − 3𝛽𝐴0 2 𝐴1 𝑀 − 3𝛽𝐴0 𝐴1 2 𝑀2 − 𝛽𝐴1 3 𝑀3 = 0
=> 𝑀(𝛼𝐴1 − 3𝛽𝐴0 2 𝐴1 ) + 𝑀2 (−3𝛽𝐴0 𝐴1 2 ) + 𝑀3 (−𝛽𝐴1 3 ) + 𝑀′′ (2𝐴1 − 𝑐 2 𝐴1 ) + 𝐴0 (𝛼 − 𝛽𝐴0 2 ) = 0
2 3 3
𝜓′ 𝜓′ 𝜓′ 𝜓′′′ 3𝜓′𝜓′′ 2𝜓′
=> (𝛼𝐴1 − 3𝛽𝐴0 2 𝐴1 ) + ( ) (−3𝛽𝐴0 𝐴1 2 ) + ( ) (−𝛽𝐴1 3 ) + ( − 2
+ 3
) (2𝐴1 − 𝑐 2 𝐴1 )
𝜓 𝜓 𝜓 𝜓 𝜓 𝜓
+ 𝐴0 (𝛼 − 𝛽𝐴0 2 ) = 0

−1 ′ −2 ′2 −3 ′3 −1 ′′′
=> 𝜓 (𝜓 (𝛼𝐴1 − 3𝛽𝐴0 2 𝐴1 )) + 𝜓 (𝜓 (−3𝛽𝐴0 𝐴1 2 )) + 𝜓 (𝜓 (−𝛽𝐴1 3 )) + 𝜓 (𝜓 (2𝐴1 − 𝑐 2 𝐴1 ))

−2 ′ ′′ −3 3
−𝜓 (3𝜓 𝜓 (2𝐴1 − 𝑐 2 𝐴1 )) + 𝜓 (2𝜓′ (2𝐴1 − 𝑐 2 𝐴1 )) + 𝐴0 (𝛼 − 𝛽𝐴0 2 ) = 0

−1 ′ ′′′ ′′′ −2 ′2 ′ ′′′ ′ ′′

=> 𝜓 (𝜓 𝛼𝐴1 − 3𝜓 ′ 𝛽𝐴0 2 𝐴1 + 2𝜓 𝐴1 − 𝜓 𝑐 2 𝐴1 ) + 𝜓 (−3𝜓 𝛽𝐴0 𝐴1 2 − 6𝜓 𝜓 𝐴1 + 3𝜓 𝜓 𝑐 2 𝐴1 )

−3 ′3 3 0
+𝜓 (−𝜓 𝛽𝐴1 3 + 2𝜓′ 𝐴1 (2 − 𝑐 2 )) + 𝜓 (𝐴0 (𝛼 − 𝛽𝐴0 2 )) = 0

Equating the coefficient term

𝜓 0 ∶ 𝐴0 (𝛼 − 𝛽𝐴0 2 )
𝜓 −1 ∶ 𝜓 ′ 𝐴1 (𝛼 − 3𝛽𝐴0 2 ) + 𝜓 ′′′ 𝐴1 (2 − 𝑐2 )
′
𝜓 −2 ∶ 3𝐴1 𝜓 ′ (−𝛽𝐴0 𝐴1 𝜓′ + 𝑐2 𝜓 ′ − 2𝜓 ′′ )
3
𝜓 −3 ∶ −𝜓 ′ 𝛽𝐴1 3 + 2𝜓′3 𝐴1 (2 − 𝑐2 )

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Thanks to All

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