Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HAT IS POLICY ?
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A policy is a set of decisions which
(a) sets out directives for immediate or
future action or conduct; or
(b) lays down guidelines for the implementation of action or conduct already approved.
* Public policy is a set of laws, regulations, directives, and budget allocations that governments
or their representatives put in place to achieve public good goals. This process is an iterative one,
with many players involved, leading to a policy determined by various interests and options. This
also means that government policies are continually changing. As governments assess who
benefits from or is affected by the policies they make, they often review and revise them to keep
up with the times. For instance, India recently released an updated version of its New Education
Policy (NEP) in 2020. This included new elements like guidance on using ed-tech in the
classroom, replacing the NEP that had been instituted in 1986. The policy-making process is an
ideal framework for developing, executing, and assessing the effectiveness of policies. It usually
consists of six steps: agenda setting, policy formulation, adoption, implementation, evaluation,
and policy maintenance.
homas Dye (2004) sets out the following stages in his analysis of the policy process:
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1) Problem Identification: The identification of policy problems through demands for
government action.
2) Agenda Setting: Focusing the attention of the mass media and public officials on specific
public problems as a prelude to decision making.
3) Policy Formulation: The development of policy proposals by interest groups, officers of the
chief executive’s office, committees of the legislature, think tanks, etc.
4) Policy Legitimation: The selection and enactment of policies through political actions by the
executive, the legislature, and the courts.
5) Policy Implementation: The implementation of policies through organized bureaucracies,
public expenditures, and the activities of executive agencies.
6) Policy Evaluation: The evaluation of policies by government agencies themselves, outside
consultants, the press, and the public.
genda Setting–In this stage, the need for government intervention is revealed to
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decision-makers, with particular matters being looked into and the most pressing being
prioritized. Examining these issues is crucial in deciding what the policy should look like.
or example – Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao campaign launched in 2015 was aimed at setting the
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agenda for improving the declining child sex ratio in India. The campaign aims to create
awareness and sensitize communities about the importance of educating and empowering girls.
The campaign is focused on creating a gender-favorable environment that promotes the
education and protection of girl children.
he interpretation of what constitutes a problem is often debatable and relies on the existing
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government’s ideologies, outlook towards benefits, and bias. The NITI Ayog plays an integral
role in this phase.
olicy Formulation–This is the stage that sets up the policy. Objectives are determined, costs
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are calculated, policy instruments are selected, potential impacts are analyzed, and stakeholders
are identified. Several solutions can be proposed while aiming to meet goals under existing
bounds.
or example –Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana –The Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
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is a crop insurance scheme launched by the Indian government in 2016. The scheme aims to
provide financial support to farmers in the event of crop failure due to natural calamities, pests,
or diseases. The policy was formulated to mitigate the risks faced by farmers and to encourage
them to adopt modern agricultural practices.
sually, public policies are created without consulting sources external to the government, or
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critically analyzing the issues involved. Before turning the proposals into official policies, more
comprehensive analyses should be conducted such as cost-benefit analysis, economic
forecasting, operations research and systems analysis, and budgeting analysis with current
information. It is also beneficial to gauge the opinion of those people who will be affected by the
policy because it can affect the success of the policy.
● T he Executive– The real executive which includesthe Council of Ministers and Prime
Minister’s Office considers the policy and then presents it before the Parliament.
● The Parliament– Parliament is the highest body whenit comes to making public
policies in India. It reigns supreme since the Council of Ministers headed by the PM is
held accountable to Parliament. Therefore, its role takes on more of a “constitutional
procedural device” for validating public policy by passing bills through a majority vote
from the members present.
I mplementation–Once the bill is signed into law by the President, the next step is to figure out
how to put it into action. This typically involves setting up a structure that connects those in the
field so that they can implement the policy at the ground zero level.
or Example –Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY)–PMJDY was launched in 2014
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to provide financial inclusion to every household in India. The policy was evaluated to assess its
effectiveness in achieving its objectives and making changes to improve its implementation.
or the government to keep tabs on all its programs and initiatives, NITIAayog is continually
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monitoring and evaluating their implementation.
I n the policy-making process in India, the role of the Judiciary cannot be ignored. The
Constitution of India issues the Judicial Review – the authority to check the constitutionality of
government policy actions. Hence, the Judiciary plays a constructive role in promising judicial
scrutiny in policy formulation in India.
he policy-making process in India consists of six steps: agenda setting, policy formulation,
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adoption, implementation, evaluation, and policy maintenance. The role of the Judiciary is also
crucial and cannot be ignored.
ublic policy is a deliberate and systematic attempt to address various social, economic, and
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political issues that affect society. It is a multifaceted field encompassing a wide range of policies
and decision-making processes to achieve specific goals and outcomes. Understanding the nature
and features of public policy is essential to appreciate its significance and impact on society.
olicy-making in India is shaped within the framework of the constitutional system, of which
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four features stand out most prominently: democratic and sovereign republic, parliamentary
system, the federal character of the Constitution and a broad socio-economic philosophy -
reflected especially in the preamble, the chapters on Fundamental Rights and the Directive
Principles of the state policy.
I n addition to these four constitutional factors there are other factors that govern policy-making
in India.
Legislature
arliament in India is the supreme public policy-making body. It reigns supreme because the
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council of ministers headed by the Prime Minister is dependent upon the support of a
parliamentary majority to remain in force. It enacts laws which will bring the policies into effect.
It also legitimises the policy decisions of the government. In reality, however, it does not reign
supreme. It does not determine policies except in a formal sense. It influences public policies
through general discussions and debates. Most of the legislation in India is prepared within the
executive and introduced in the legislature by the minister concerned. The executive is assured of
a legislative majority for the policy proposals it presents.
Executive
I t is the constitutional task of the executive to decide the policies which are to be submitted to
Parliament. The executive at the Union level in India consists of the President of India, the
Council of Ministers and the machinery of government. The main bodies engaged in policy
formulation in the executive are:
i) Cabinet:The real executive is the Council of Ministers consisting of the Prime Minister,
cabinet ministers, ministers of state and the deputy ministers. It is well-known that the Council
itself hardly meets, and all the policy functions are performed by the Cabinet.
ii) The Prime Minister:Within the Council of Ministers in general and the cabinet in particular,
the Prime Minister enjoys a special position in the realm of policy-making. The Prime Minister is
expected to exercise control over the cabinet decision-making process.
The judiciary
he Judiciary in India also plays a constructive role in shaping and influencing public policies in
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two ways:
he Constitution empowers the Supreme Court, and High Courts at the state levels to exercise a
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judicial review of legislation. Judicial review is the power of the courts to determine the
constitutionality of actions of the legislature and the executive. They are not only specifying the
government’s limits with regard to certain actions, but also stating what it must do to promote
public interest. Besides, the higher judiciary is also exercising its influence through its decisions
in Public Interest Litigation cases.
ORIGIN OF PUBLIC POLICY
he genesis of public policy dates back to ancient civilizations like Greece and Rome, where
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rulers made decrees and laws to regulate society. However, the contemporary study of public
policy began in the late 19th century when American scholars like Woodrow Wilson and John
Burgess explored the relationship between government and society. After World War II, public
policy became an established field of study, focusing on solving social, economic, and political
problems.
I ndia has a long history of public policy dating back to ancient times. The Arthashastra, written
by Chanakya in the 4th century BCE, is considered one of the earliest texts on public policy.
During British colonial rule, the Indian government was heavily influenced by Western ideas and
models of governance. The British introduced laws and regulations that were designed to
promote their own interests rather than those of the Indian people.
fter independence in 1947, India adopted a democratic system of government based on the
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principles of secularism, socialism, and federalism. In the early years of independent India,
public policy focused primarily on nation-building and promoting rapid industrialization.Over
time, public policy in India has evolved to address emerging challenges and opportunities. More
recently, initiatives like Digital India and Make in India reflect the country’s growing ambition to
become a digital and manufacturing powerhouse.
heevolution of public policy in Indiahas been influenced by various factors, such as the
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legacy of colonialism, the diversity and complexity of Indian society, the aspirations and
expectations of the people. Thepublic policy topics in Indiahave been varied and dynamic,
ranging from the core issues of nation-building, development, and security. Thepublic policy
making in Indiahas been characterized by a mix of continuity and change, consensus and
conflict, centralization and decentralization, and participation and exclusion.
Suffrage Movement
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● he Suffrage movement means the right to vote or franchise.
● It was the struggle for the privilege of women to vote and run for office and is part of the
overall women’s rights movement.
● British women organised the Suffrage Movement in the early 20th century to win
political rights and for participation in government.
● During World War-1, the struggle for the right to vote got strengthened.
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he suffrage movement accomplished its goal and included women in the mainstream of
voting and government.
The Chipko movement
he Chipko movement was a non-violent agitation in 1973 that was aimed at protection and
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conservation of trees, but, perhaps, it is best remembered for the collective mobilisation of
women for the cause of preserving forests, which also brought about a change in attitude
regarding their own status in society. The uprising against the felling of trees and maintaining the
ecological balance originated in Uttar Pradesh’s Chamoli district (now Uttarakhand) in 1973 and
in no time spilled onto other states in north India. The name of the movement ‘chipko’ comes
from the word ’embrace’, as the villagers hugged the trees and encirled them to prevent being
hacked.
Mgnrega
● F irst Phase:Post-independence India selected planned economic growth. It was believed
that economic progress would spur social, political, and human development.
○ The Planning Commission shaped the nation's policies and opinions.
○ The FYP formed the basis for all government policies.
● Second Phase:It was started after LPG reforms in India and marked with devolution of
power through the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments act.
● Present Phase:It is characterised by the creation of the NITI Aayog and the emergence
of cooperative and competitive federalism in India.
2 . Foundational Principles: General policies often articulate the core values, mission, vision, and
strategic priorities of an organization. They establish the fundamental principles that guide
decision-making and behavior at all levels.
3 . Flexibility: While general policies provide a framework for action, they are often flexible
enough to accommodate different situations and contexts. They allow for interpretation and
adaptation to specific circumstances while remaining aligned with overarching objectives.
4 . Long-Term Orientation: General policies are designed to provide enduring guidance over time,
reflecting the long-term goals and aspirations of the organization. They are less likely to change
frequently compared to specific policies, which may be updated in response to evolving needs or
external factors.
5 . High-Level Direction: General policies set high-level direction and priorities rather than
prescribing detailed procedures or tactics. They empower individuals and units within the
organization to exercise discretion and initiative within the bounds of established principles.
Eg: constitution
pecific Policy- A specific policy in the context of India refers to a detailed set of guidelines,
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rules, regulations, or initiatives that address a particular issue or aspect of governance,
administration, or socio-economic development within the country. Unlike general policies,
which provide overarching principles and direction, specific policies are more targeted and
focused on addressing specific challenges or objectives. Here are some examples of specific
policies in India:
1 . Goods and Services Tax (GST): The GST policy introduced in India is a specific taxation
policy aimed at reforming the country's indirect tax system by replacing multiple indirect taxes
with a single unified tax. It provides detailed rules and procedures for the levy, collection, and
administration of GST across various goods and services.
2 . Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY): PMJDY is a specific financial inclusion policy
launched by the Government of India to provide universal access to banking services, including
savings accounts, remittances, credit, insurance, and pension schemes, particularly targeting
low-income households and marginalized communities.
3 . Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission): Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is a specific
cleanliness and sanitation policy initiated by the government to achieve the goal of universal
sanitation coverage and eliminate open defecation by constructing toilets, promoting hygiene
practices, and ensuring proper waste management.
4 . National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA): NREGA is a specific social welfare
policy aimed at providing guaranteed employment opportunities to rural households by
guaranteeing 100 days of wage employment per year to every rural household willing to do
unskilled manual work.
5 .National Health Mission (NHM): NHM is a specific health policy launched by the Government
of India to address healthcare delivery challenges, improve access to quality healthcare services,
reduce maternal and child mortality rates, and combat communicable and non-communicable
diseases through various programs and interventions.
6 . Digital India: Digital India is a specific policy initiative aimed at transforming India into a
digitally empowered society and knowledge economy by promoting digital infrastructure
development, digital literacy, e-governance, and digital inclusion across various sectors such as
education, healthcare, and agriculture.
7 .National Education Policy (NEP): NEP is a specific policy framework introduced by the
government to reform and revitalize the education system in India by addressing issues such as
curriculum redesign, teacher training, skill development, use of technology in education, and
promoting holistic and multidisciplinary learning approaches.
8 . Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): PMAY is a specific housing policy launched by the
government to provide affordable housing to all urban and rural households by constructing
pucca houses with basic amenities and promoting slum rehabilitation and affordable housing
schemes.
mbiguous policy-Ambiguous policies refer to those that are unclear, vague, or subject to
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multiple interpretations, leading to confusion, inconsistency, or inefficiency in their
implementation. Ambiguity in policies can arise due to various factors, including unclear
language, lack of specificity, conflicting objectives, or inadequate coordination between
stakeholders. Here are some examples of ambiguous policies in India:
1 . Land Acquisition Policy: India's land acquisition policies have often been criticized for their
ambiguity regarding compensation, rehabilitation, and the process of acquiring land for
development projects. Ambiguities in these policies have led to disputes, protests, and delays in
infrastructure and industrial projects.
2 . Reservation Policy: India's reservation policies, particularly those related to caste-based
reservations in education and employment, have been a subject of debate and controversy due to
ambiguities regarding their implementation, effectiveness, and impact on social justice and
meritocracy.
4 . Taxation Policy: India's taxation policies, including income tax, corporate tax, and indirect
taxes such as GST, have been criticized for their complexity, ambiguity, and frequent changes,
leading to compliance challenges, tax evasion, and disputes between taxpayers and tax
authorities.
5 . Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Policy: India's FDI policies across various sectors have been
criticized for their ambiguity regarding sectoral caps, approval processes, and eligibility criteria
for foreign investors. Ambiguities in these policies have deterred foreign investment and
hindered ease of doing business in India.
6 .Data Protection and Privacy Policy: India's data protection and privacy policies, including the
proposed Personal Data Protection Bill, have been criticized for their ambiguity regarding data
protection standards, regulatory oversight, and enforcement mechanisms. Ambiguities in these
policies have raised concerns about data privacy and security in the digital age.
ositive policy -Positive policies refer to those that are aimed at promoting inclusive growth,
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social justice, sustainable development, and the overall well-being of the population. These
policies seek to address socio-economic challenges, reduce inequalities, and improve the quality
of life for all citizens.
Here are some examples of positive policies in India:
1 .Poverty Alleviation Programs: India has implemented various poverty alleviation programs
such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA),
National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM), and Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) to provide
employment opportunities, livelihood support, and food security to disadvantaged communities.
2 . Education Initiatives: The Government of India has launched several education initiatives such
as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), and
id-Day Meal Scheme to improve access to quality education, increase enrollment rates, and
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reduce dropout rates, particularly among marginalized groups.
3 . Healthcare Programs: India has implemented various healthcare programs such as the National
Health Mission (NHM), Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY), and
National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) to improve access to healthcare services, reduce
maternal and child mortality rates, and address public health challenges.
4 . Rural Development Schemes: The Government of India has launched rural development
schemes such as the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (NREGA), and Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) to improve rural
infrastructure, provide housing for the poor, and create employment opportunities in rural areas.
5 . Women Empowerment Policies: India has implemented policies such as the Beti Bachao Beti
Padhao (BBBP) initiative, National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW), and Mahila
Shakti Kendra (MSK) to promote gender equality, empower women, and address issues such as
gender-based violence, discrimination, and inequality.
● A formal policy may take the form of a draft policy document that has been discussed,
drafted, reviewed, approved, and published by the policy-making body. It could be a
national government program on HIV / AIDS, for example.
● An informal policy can be a practical, general, unwritten but widely known method or
understanding within an organization that must be followed by a specific action.
Although this policy can be clarified in writing it is still operational.
1 . Addressing Social Issues: Public policy provides a framework for addressing various social
issues such as poverty, inequality, education, healthcare, and social welfare. Through targeted
interventions and programs, public policy aims to improve the well-being and quality of life of
citizens.
2 . Promoting Economic Development: Public policy influences economic growth, stability, and
prosperity by fostering an enabling environment for business, innovation, investment, and trade.
olicies related to taxation, regulation, infrastructure development, and industrial promotion can
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have significant impacts on economic outcomes.
3 . Ensuring Social Justice and Equity: Public policy plays a key role in promoting social justice,
equity, and inclusiveness by addressing disparities and discrimination based on factors such as
income, gender, ethnicity, and disability. Policies such as affirmative action, anti-discrimination
laws, and social welfare programs aim to create a more just and equitable society.
4 . Managing Public Resources: Public policy governs the allocation and management of public
resources, including finances, infrastructure, natural resources, and public services. Effective
policies ensure the efficient and equitable use of resources to meet the needs of current and
future generations.
5 . Regulating Behavior and Protecting Rights: Public policy sets rules, standards, and regulations
to govern individual and collective behavior, protect rights, ensure public safety, and maintain
social order. Policies related to law enforcement, human rights, consumer protection, and
environmental conservation serve to safeguard the interests of citizens and society as a whole.
6 . Fostering Good Governance: Public policy contributes to the effectiveness, transparency, and
accountability of governance systems by establishing norms, procedures, and institutions for
decision-making, public administration, and service delivery. Policies related to governance
reform, anti-corruption measures, and institutional strengthening aim to enhance the quality of
governance and public administration.
I n the Indian Context- India is a diverse country socio-economic landscape characterized by vast
regional variations , cultural diversity and socio economic disparities , public policy plays a
crucial role in addressing these disparities and complexities, poverty allevation, inclusive growth,
development challenges ,democratic governance, global leadership , social cohesion,
environmental stability.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PUBLIC V. PRIVATE
PUBLIC PRIVATE
2. Strict laws and hierarchy General laws and flat hierarchy
3. M
ore burden of responsibility ess responsibility as it is mostly profit
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-environment motivated
-job security
-gender sensitivity
-maternity leave
-less discrimination
1 . Goal Orientation: Both public and private policies aim to achieve specific goals or outcomes.
Whether it's improving societal welfare, promoting economic growth, or enhancing
organizational performance, policies in both sectors are designed with clear objectives in mind.
3 . Resource Allocation: Both public and private policies involve the allocation of resources to
achieve desired outcomes. This includes financial resources, human capital, technology, and
other assets necessary for policy implementation.
4 . Stakeholder Involvement: Both sectors involve multiple stakeholders, including government
agencies, businesses, non-profit organizations, and individuals, whose interests must be
considered in policy development and implementation.
5 . Evaluation and Feedback: Effective policies, whether public or private, require ongoing
evaluation to assess their effectiveness and make necessary adjustments. Both sectors utilize
monitoring and feedback mechanisms to measure policy outcomes and identify areas for
improvement.
6 . Risk Management: Policies in both sectors address various risks and uncertainties. Whether
it's managing financial risks in the private sector or addressing public health risks in the public
sector, risk management is a crucial aspect of policy formulation and implementation.
7 . Legal and Regulatory Framework: Both public and private policies operate within a legal and
regulatory framework that governs their implementation. This includes compliance with laws,
regulations, and ethical standards relevant to their respective sectors.
8 . Impact on Society: While private policies primarily impact the organizations or individuals
directly involved, they can also have broader societal implications. Similarly, public policies
directly influence society as a whole but may also have specific impacts on private sector
entities.
9 . Adaptation to Changing Circumstances: Both public and private policies must adapt to
changing circumstances, such as shifts in economic conditions, technological advancements, or
social dynamics. Flexibility and responsiveness to change are essential for the success of policies
in both sectors.
TYPES OF POLICIES
a. Distributive
b. Redistributive
c. Regulatory
d. Constituent
e. Conflict
f. Bargaining policy
- TRAI is the regulatory body responsible for overseeing the telecommunications sector in
India.
- Its primary role is to ensure the orderly growth and development of the telecommunications
industry while protecting consumer interests and fostering competition.
- TRAI formulates policies, regulations, and guidelines related to tariffs, quality of service,
spectrum management, and licensing of telecom operators.
- It monitors the compliance of telecom service providers with regulatory requirements and
addresses consumer grievances.
- BIS is the national standards body of India responsible for the formulation and
implementation of standards across various sectors.
- Its primary role is to establish standards for goods, products, and services to ensure quality,
safety, and reliability.
- BIS develops Indian standards (IS) in consultation with stakeholders, including industry,
government, consumer organizations, and technical experts.
- It grants certification marks (ISI mark) to products that meet the prescribed standards,
indicating conformity to quality and safety requirements.
- BIS conducts testing and certification activities, promotes standardization, and facilitates
conformity assessment to ensure compliance with regulatory standards.
- FSSAI is the regulatory body responsible for ensuring food safety and regulating the food
industry in India.
- Its primary role is to protect public health by regulating and supervising the manufacturing,
storage, distribution, sale, and import of food products.
- FSSAI formulates regulations, standards, and guidelines related to food safety, hygiene,
labeling, and packaging.
- It grants licenses and registration to food businesses, conducts inspections, and enforces
compliance with food safety standards.
- FSSAI conducts surveillance, monitoring, and risk assessment of food products to identify and
address potential hazards and ensure consumer safety.
- It also promotes public awareness and education on food safety and hygiene practices.
SEBI, established in 1988, was given statutory status in 1992 to protect investors and develop
the domestic stock market. theInsurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA)
was constituted for the development of the insurance sector(IRDAI 2020). After 1991, RBI’s
focus also shifted back to some of its core functions like banking supervision, regulation, and
providing support in case of a crisis. This was recently demonstrated when theRBItook over the
board of Yes Bank.The National Financial Reporting Authoritywas established to oversee
and regulate the auditing profession independently. It has the power to recommend standards as
well as enforce them.
In other sectors, the phenomenon of privatisation, a retreat of the state, and the rise of IRAs are
evident. For most sectors, theBureau of Indian Standardshas set standards with the aim of
consumer protection. In other sectors, regulation is being preferred over the direct presence of
the state or its complete retreat. Another example is that of theFood Safety and Standards
Authority of India (FSSAI), established in 2006. It has been mandated to lay down scientific
standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacturing, storage, distribution, sale and
import to ensure the availability of safe and wholesome food for consumption.
ndian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe), which has been
envisaged both as a facilitator of increasing private participation in the space sector and as a
regulator(Sinha 2020).
1. Social Welfare Programs: India has implemented various social welfare programs aimed at
providing financial assistance, food security, and social protection to disadvantaged groups.
Examples include the National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP), which provides pensions
to elderly, widows, and disabled individuals, and the Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS), which offers nutrition and healthcare services to children and mothers.
2. Subsidy Schemes: The government of India provides subsidies on essential commodities such
as food, fuel, fertilizers, and cooking gas to make them affordable for low-income households.
Schemes like the Public Distribution System (PDS), Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), and Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) are
examples of distributive policies that provide subsidized goods or services to the poor.
3. Reservation Policies: India has implemented reservation policies in education, employment,
and political representation to promote social justice and uplift marginalized communities such
as Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
Reservation quotas ensure equitable access to opportunities and representation for historically
disadvantaged groups.
4. Land Reforms: Land redistribution and tenancy reforms aim to address land ownership
inequalities and promote agricultural productivity and rural development. Land redistribution
programs, such as ceiling on landholdings and distribution of surplus land to landless farmers,
are examples of distributive policies aimed at reducing land inequality.
5. Affordable Housing Schemes: The government of India has launched affordable housing
schemes such as the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) to provide housing for economically
weaker sections (EWS), low-income groups (LIG), and middle-income groups (MIG). These
schemes aim to address housing shortages and improve living conditions for the urban poor.
6. Healthcare Subsidies: India provides subsidies and financial assistance for healthcare services
through schemes such as the Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY) and Ayushman Bharat
Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY). These schemes aim to provide health insurance
coverage and access to affordable healthcare for vulnerable populations.
7. Education Scholarships and Grants: The government of India offers scholarships, grants, and
financial aid to students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds to facilitate access to
education. Schemes like the National Means cum Merit Scholarship (NMMSS) and Post-Matric
Scholarship for Scheduled Caste Students aim to promote education among marginalized
communities
1. Creamy Layer Criteria: In India, the concept of "creamy layer" is used in reservation policies
to exclude certain economically advantaged individuals from benefiting from reservation quotas.
For example, in the case of OBC (Other Backward Classes) reservations in education and
employment, individuals from the creamy layer (those who exceed a certain income or asset
threshold) are not eligible for reservation benefits. This policy aims to ensure that reservation
benefits reach those who are truly disadvantaged and in need of assistance.
2. Tax Slab Changes: Changes in tax slabs and rates are often used as redistributive measures to
ensure that the tax burden is distributed more equitably across different income groups. For
example, reducing tax rates for lower income brackets while increasing rates for higher income
brackets can help redistribute wealth and reduce income inequality. Similarly, introducing
progressive taxation policies that tax higher incomes at a higher rate can contribute to a more
equitable distribution of wealth.
3. Subsidies on Essential Goods: Subsidies on essential goods such as food grains, cooking gas,
and fertilizers are redistributive policies aimed at making these goods more affordable for
low-income households. For instance, the Public Distribution System (PDS) in India provides
subsidized food grains to below-poverty-line families, ensuring that they have access to basic
nutrition at affordable prices.
4. Universal Basic Income (UBI): While not yet implemented at a national level in India, the
concept of Universal Basic Income (UBI) has been proposed as a redistributive policy measure.
UBI would involve providing a fixed income to all citizens, regardless of their employment
status or income level. By guaranteeing a basic level of income for every individual, UBI aims to
reduce poverty, inequality, and social exclusion.
5. Land Reforms: Land redistribution policies, such as imposing limits on landholdings and
redistributing surplus land to landless farmers, are redistributive measures aimed at addressing
land ownership inequalities. By providing land to those who are landless or have small
landholdings, these policies aim to promote agricultural productivity, rural development, and
social equity.
Capitalization Policy-Policy that is made by the government for the government , made by and
for central government to state government , it is government to government policy making and
distribution
Examples:
1. Fiscal Imbalance and Resource Allocation:Southern states often argue that they contribute
significantly to the central government's tax revenue but receive proportionately less in return.
This fiscal imbalance can be addressed through capitalization policy by ensuring that the funds
allocated by the central government are distributed more equitably among states. Capitalization
policy can involve revising the criteria for devolution of funds, grants, and resource-sharing
mechanisms to better reflect the economic contributions and needs of different states.
2. Disparities in Development and Investment: Southern states highlight disparities in
development and investment, both within their own states and across the country. Capitalization
policy can address these disparities by prioritizing investments in infrastructure, education,
healthcare, and other development sectors in regions that have been historically neglected or
underfunded. By directing capital expenditure towards lagging regions, capitalization policy can
promote balanced regional growth and development.
3. Autonomy and Decentralization: Southern states advocate for greater autonomy and
decision-making powers at the state level. Capitalization policy can support decentralization by
providing states with greater fiscal autonomy and flexibility in managing their finances. This can
include measures such as increasing the share of untied funds in central transfers, empowering
states to raise their own revenue, and expanding the scope of state-level taxation.
4. Natural Resource Management: States like Kerala and Karnataka raise concerns about the
sustainable management of natural resources. Capitalization policy can address these concerns
by incentivizing states to invest in sustainable resource management practices through targeted
funding, grants, and capacity-building initiatives. This can include funding for watershed
management projects, afforestation programs, and conservation efforts to promote the
sustainable use of water, minerals, and forests.
- RAW was established in 1968 following the Sino-Indian War of 1962 and the Indo-Pakistani
War of 1965, highlighting the need for a specialized agency to handle external intelligence and
counter potential threats from neighboring countries.
- The role of the National Security Advisor was institutionalized in India in 1998, with the
appointment of Brajesh Mishra as the first NSA by then-Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
- The NSA serves as the principal advisor to the Prime Minister on matters related to national
security and coordinates the formulation and implementation of security policies across various
government departments and agencies.
- The NIA was established in 2008 following the 2008 Mumbai attacks to address the need for
a specialized agency to investigate and prosecute terrorism-related offenses across the country.
- The NIA Act empowers the agency to investigate and prosecute offenses under various laws,
including the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), to combat terrorism, insurgency,
and other threats to national security.
By establishing specialized agencies such as RAW, NSA, and NIA, the Indian government has
demonstrated its commitment to enhancing capabilities in intelligence, security, and law
enforcement to safeguard the country's interests and protect its citizens from internal and external
threats.
Conflict policy- A situation where one objective is achieved at the cost of another , Conflict
policy often arises when there is a clash between different objectives or priorities, and achieving
one objective comes at the expense of another. This conflict can occur at various levels,
including between different government policies, between different stakeholders, or even within
the same policy framework.
- One common conflict policy in India is the tension between economic development and
environmental conservation. For instance, the construction of infrastructure projects such as
dams, highways, and industrial zones may lead to environmental degradation, loss of
biodiversity, and displacement of indigenous communities. Balancing the need for economic
growth with environmental sustainability poses a significant policy challenge, as decisions made
in favor of development may come at the cost of ecological integrity and social well-being.
- India's reservation policies, which aim to promote social justice and uplift marginalized
communities, often conflict with the principle of meritocracy. While reservations in education
and employment provide opportunities for historically disadvantaged groups, they may also lead
to perceptions of unfairness or reverse discrimination among those who believe they are denied
opportunities based on merit. Striking a balance between affirmative action and merit-based
selection criteria is a complex policy issue that continues to generate debate and controversy.
- Another area of conflict policy in India revolves around the balance of power between the
central government and state governments. The tension between federalism and centralization
arises when states seek greater autonomy and decision-making authority, while the central
government aims to assert its control over certain policy domains.