INTRODUCTION

Public policy is a purposive course of action or goal- oriented action, consisting of courses or

patterns of action by government officials, to affect a particular problem; it involves a decision

by government officials to take or not to take action, to do something or nothing on some matter

on which governmental involvement is sought. It is also based on law and is authoritative. In

other words, public policy has an authoritative, potentially legally-coercive quality (Howlett,

2018; Ongaro, Gong & Jing, 2019). Public policy is thus an instrument of government and

governance designed to address specific issues of concern in any particular governmental sphere

of operations. For Edward Page,(Page,2012) policies by their nature have origins.

Policies first come into being through being put on an

agenda - a notional list of topics that people involved in
policy making are interested in, and which they seek to
address through developing, or exploring the possibility of
developing, policies.
The term “ecology” means the sum total of the environment under which a public policy is

taken. It encompasses environmental factors influencing public policy formulation and

implementation. It could be physical (geographical), historical, legal or political. Policy ecology

has been defined as a broad range of factors that exert either direct or indirect effect on policy

decisions. For Kakaki (2016), ecological factors influence policy makers when putting up or

prescribing policy option to solving identified problems. This means that when a policy is

thought of and formulated, there are certain factors that determine the process of policy

formulation. A good example is the national gender policy in Nigeria.

The National Gender Policy is a policy dealing with cultural, social and economic factors that

fosters gender inequality. This policy is expected to be implemented by a number of stakeholders

especially the ministry if women affairs at both the national and state levels. The Ministry of
Women Affairs is a vital implementation agency for the National Gender Policy in Nigeria. At

the level of the states, this ministry has specific roles. In response to the agitation by the

women’s movement in Nigeria for a gender policy and correcting the historical gender

imbalance, the Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development produced a National

Gender Policy within a record period of six months. Since its inception the national machinery

for women’s empowerment in Nigeria has metamorphosed severally, as a result of different

regimes that have ruled the country since independence. In 2000, in response to the call to

integrate women into development, the Ministry of Women Affairs developed a National Policy

on Women (NPW) that claimed its legitimacy from the Beijing Platform for Action and the

Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination against Women (FMWAYD,

2000).

It is thus evident that policies are a reflection of specific ecological factors that brings such a

policy into existence. This paper will examine public policy as a product of its ecological

imperatives with specific reference to the national gender policy in Nigeria

Statement of the Problem

Policy making and implementation in developing countries presents an epistemological problem

to scholars of administration. These are, countries that have not achieved a significant degree of

industrialization relative to their populations, and have, in most cases, a medium to low standard

of living. There is an association between low income and high population growth (Henry,

Yongsheng & Jun, 2006). In order to understand policy making in these countries it is important

to inquire about the ecological roots of policy making in order to have an understanding about

how certain issues become the agenda of governments. This is referred to in public policy

analysis as the formative scenario; which is a technique that provides hypothetical future states
of a system or case, called scenarios, in order to gain insight about the overall system and its

dynamics. The purpose of focusing on the environment is to identify elements within which

policy is made, determine how to promote change in each element, and focus on strategies for

better or sustainable utilization of the factors (Okonjo, 2017). There are gaps in the

understanding of policy making in Nigeria which an ecological approach can reveal. As a result

of this quandary, this paper queries public policy as a product of its ecological imperative. To

illuminate the ecological roots, a public policy will be examined in great detail which in the case

of this paper is the national gender policy.

Research Question

1. What are the ecological imperatives that produced the national gender policy in Nigeria?

Objectives

The specific objectives are as follows;

1. To examine the cultural roots of Gender inequality that led to the creation of the national

gender policy in Nigeria

2. To examine the religious perspectives that shape gender relations in Nigeria

3. To examine the social factors that led to the adoption of a national gender policy in

Nigeria

4. To examine the policy formulation agents in the making of the national gender policy in

Nigeria
METHODOLOGY

The study adopts the systematic review of literature on the subject matter. Key words for

literature search are; Gender inequality, National Gender policy and policy implementation in

Nigeria. The online data base of journals of public policy and administration will be utilized for

the search of literature.

REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE

Policy-Making Overview:

Policies can be considered as intentions or actions, it may be a mixture of both. Intentions and

actions can each be divided into two categories that can be described as ‘‘policy.’’ Policy

intentions might take the form of principles; these are general views about how public affairs

should be arranged or conducted. They are just a set of ideas that are capable of application in

some form or another to diverse policy topics. As actions, policies can be conceptualised as the

legal requirements to be met for a policy to come into effect and practices. Practices are the

behaviours of government officials normally expected to carry out policy measures. Practices are

considered in the realm of implementation. Herbert Kaufman (2010) in his classic study of the

“forest ranger” noted that it was the set of norms and practices of the employees of the forestry

service that shaped the character of the service, and these norms were not ‘‘implementing’’ any

particular piece of legislation. Policy when considered as intentions and actions reveals the

elements that go onto the making of policy. These intentions and actions are selective they are

shaped by a political culture and ways of acting that shapes outcomes. The policy making

involves the following elements

Agenda setting: We mean by agenda setting the list of problems or issues that government

officials or organization are paying serious attention and giving time and considering as a public
agenda at the at the public meeting or legislature, in other word it is the set of issues that

government decide to take action against.

Policy formulation: The passage of legislation designed to remedy past problem or prevent

future potential problem, it can be inducements, rules, facts, rights or powers, and typically it is

the legislature task

Policy implementation: It might consider as the most important part of policy cycle, it means

what happen after a bill become a law ( Bardach, 1977) or the actions that will be taken to put

the law into impact or the problem will be solved by following a set of process to translate the

law into actions that ensure the achievement of the legislation.

Policy evaluation: Considering the results of policy that have been implemented or measuring

the actual effects of legislation on the particular problem or to what extent policies achieve its

intended results, and that's will be possible by looking for the consequences of the

implementation of this policies and learn from it.

Policy change or termination: By redesign some policy to become a new policy after evaluates

it (Sabatier & Mazmanian, 1980), or ending outdated policies or programs are

THE NATIONAL GENDER POLICY

The Nigerian National Gender Policy is an adaptation of policy instruments developed by the

United Nations and other sister agencies. The policy has 16 key thematic areas which is the focus

of implementation agencies. The Strategic Results Framework (Implementation Plan) of the

National Gender Policy of the Federal Republic of Nigeria has been developed from priorities

within the National Gender Policy. It has further been prioritized based on the challenges that
could be addressed within the immediate 5 years, with lead provided by the Federal Ministry of

Women Affairs & Social Development. The key policy areas are focused around 5 critical areas

i. Culture re-orientation and sensitization to change gender perceptions and stereotypes,

ii. Promotion of women’s human rights and in particular focusing on sexual and gender

based violence (SGBV) and in supporting new legislations and legal rights of women;.

iii. Promoting the empowerment of women and integrating gender within key sectors as

highlighted within the NGP – (Agriculture/Rural Development; Environment/Natural Resource;

Gender and HIV/AIDS; Health and Reproductive Health/ Rights; Education/Training;

Labor/Employment).

iv. Women’s political participation and engendered governance including gender and

conflict management and

v. Supporting institutional development including the use of ICT and building strategic

partnerships, including identifying new partnerships with men’s organisations, faith based

organizations and traditional institutions. It is in the light of these thematic framework areas that

the Ministry of Women Affairs derives her mandate for the administrative structure of the

ministry and her activities.

THE MINISTRY OF WOMEN AFFAIRS AND THE IMPLEMENTATION

FRAMEWORK OF THE NATIONAL GENDER POLICY

The state ministries of women affairs are state level agencies for the implementation of the

National Gender Policy. The vision of the Edo State ministry is to help build a Edo Society that

guarantees equal access to social, economic and wealth creation opportunities to all, irrespective

of gender, places premium on protection of the child, the aged and persons with disabilities;

focuses attention of key operators in both private and public sectors on mainstreaming the

concerns of these groups of people in national development process. The broad mandate of the
Ministry is to advise government on gender and Children issues. Issues affecting Persons with

Disabilities and the Aged; initiate policy guidelines and lead the process of gender equality and

mainstreaming at both the national and international levels. The basic functions of the Ministry

of Women Affairs are as follows:

1. Promoting the general welfare of Women and enhancing their ability to realize their full

potentials in various fields of human endeavors.

2. Providing an enabling environment that will ensure the maximum and holistic

development of the potentials of the Nigerian child towards national development and

nation building.

3. Promoting a multi-sectoral programme synergy for the realization and enhancement of

the survival, development, protection and participation rights of children in Nigeria with

particular reference to the achievement of set targets enumerated in the Child’s Right Act

2003 (CRA), the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy. NEEDS

(2004) and Millennium Development Goals MDGs.

4. Embarking on awareness creation and formulation of policies and legislation on survival,

development, protection and participatory rights of Women and Children in Edo.

5. Promoting responsible motherhood and maternal health as well as protecting the rights of

Women.

6. Taking steps that support the elimination of all social culture practices that discriminates

against or are detrimental to the overall development of Women and girls.

7. Ensuring the integration of Women in national processes and promoting the

mainstreaming of gender on all issues of national importance.

8. Supporting the work of relevant non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and civil

society organizations (CSOs) working for the realization of Women and Children’s right.

9. Advocating for the passage and enforcement of laws that protect and project the interest

of the Ministry’s target groups particularly the Child’s Rights Act 2003.

10. Central planning of activities of the Ministry such as production of Annual Reports,

Ministerial Press Briefings, National Council on Women Affairs Meeting, Tenders

Secretariat and HIV/AIDS programmes.

11. Co-ordinating and preparation of the Ministry’s National Plan Medium Term plan and

Perspective plan in collaboration with other Department in the Ministry.

12. Collection, collation, analysis, storage and dissemination of data research.

13. Formulates and updates various policies and implementation of strategies for the

development of various categories of Person with Disabilities (PWDs).

14. Subvention to recognized Rehabilitation Centre and Non-Government Organization

(NGOs).

15. Coordination of Inter-Governmental and Inter-State social welfare activities

16. Rehabilitation of alcoholics, drug addicts, cult members and school drop outs etc.

17. Training of professional social workers and the organization and coordination of training

facilities for government and non-governmental social welfare agencies.

Form the above; the ministry has broad aims for the vulnerable in society and specifically for

women. The aims of the ministry are in line with the implementation indices of the National

Gender Policy.

From the foregoing the immediate roots of the Gender policy can be traced to the United Nations

which is an organization that has been promoting human rights since its inception. Its adoption in

Nigeria can be traced to a clamour by influential social change actors for a change in the way

women are treated in Nigeria. The roots of Gender inequality gave rise to the concern with the

plight of women and the formulation of a policy to address the problem. A brief overview of the

roots of gender inequality is examined subsequently.

Discriminatory Culture and Norms

Agbalajobi (2010) postulated that the cultures of many societies are based by subjugating women

to men, and undermining their self-esteem. Women are typically associated with domesticity.

Gender inequality remains pervasive in many dimensions of life, the nature and extent of the

discrimination very considerably across countries and regions. Consistently, men were trained

not to partake in most domestic chores such as cooking, sweeping, fetching water and firewood,

which are exclusively left for women. Family responsibilities and child bearing to women makes

women not to feature in public matters as they are likely to be away on maternity leave and other

house hold matters and that are likely to take them away from the scene of politics

(Anyalebechi,2016) . Anya (2003) believes that the basis of societal norms regulate women to

the background when he explains that the greatest dangers to the practice is the

internationalization of these belief system which make women see politics as something out of

their spheres.
Educational Factors

Another constraint that hampers women from equal access to politics or encounter restricting

their quest to participate in active politics. Afolabi (2003) specifiable sates that most women in

Nigeria are illiterate despite the facts that they constitute half of the country’s population.

Regardless, of the vital key roles they perform in the society; mother, producer, home manager,

community organizer, social-cultural and political activities.

Economic Factors

Lack of economic incentives is one of the factors preventing women from participating to active

politics in Nigeria. Historically, women experiences discrimination that put them at a

disadvantage economically. Agbalajobi (2009) emphasis that lack of finance brings hindrance to

effective female participation in Nigerian Politics. Similarly, large portion of the Nigerian female

population is not as financially strong as their male counterparts.

Political factors and rule of Law

According to Anifowose (2004), the perception that democracy would automatically boast

gender equality in political participation has not been vindicated after years of return to civilian

rule in Nigeria. Specifically Kira (2003) infers that women are unjustifiably discriminated

against irrespective of the fact that world over today; democracy has become a vital tool for

attaining sustainable development. The impact of democracy remains elusive for women.

Political participation, which is a sine-quanon of democracy allows for diversity of opinion and

participation of both men and women into political gathering.

Colonization and gender inequality

Afolabi (2003) states that as colonial economic development set in men now started to capitalize

on the traditional obligation of women providing labour in their husband’s firms.

THE FORMULATION OF THE NATIONAL GENDER POLICY

Earlier in 1948, when declaration of human rights was being worked out, an earlier draft which

stated “All men are equal” was changed to “All human beings are equal” female members of the

drafting committee insisted on the change of the language. The United Nations chapter also

pledges equal opportunity for men and women. The 1995 Beijing declaration demanded for 30

percent women representation in government. Thus, in 2000, the United Nations also proclaimed

eight points Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), one of the objectives targeted for the year

2015 is the goal of women empowerment and gender equality. Similarly, some African countries

have made progress in giving better access to women in political representation. Uganda,

Cameroon and Mozambique have achieved measurable result. The plight of women gained

visibility in a supranational organisation the United Nations organisation and through that

visibility, member states who hitherto, did not consider gender a problem began to take actions

to formulate and implement a gender policy.

In a study by Dialoke, finan and Maduagwuna (2017) on policy formulation and implementation

in Nigeria, they observed that Over the years in Nigeria, excellent policies have been

formulated, but the problem is that only an insignificant part of these numerous policies are

implemented. Their findings revealed that among other reasons, corruption, poor funding of

policies, lack of continuity in government policies, lack of political will, inadequate human and

material resources, and clarity of purpose are responsible for policy failures in Nigeria. The

consequences of public policy failures to the citizens in particular and the country in general
were stated, some of which are less patriotism, underdevelopment and non human capital

development.

In a study by Omenka (2010) on an Nigeria’s implementation of the national policy on 35%

affirmative action the author examined the extent to which the 35% Affirmative Action for

Women has been realized in Nigeria taking due cognizance of how poverty and literacy rates

affect women political participation in the country. In the light of the feminist theory and with

the aid of content analysis techniques, it is observed that the 35% Affirmative Action for women

has not be realized in Nigeria because of high poverty rate and low literacy rate among women

as well as non-application of compulsory party-based implementation strategies. It is argued that

even poverty reduction and improvement of literacy rate among women may not always

guarantee the realization of the 35% affirmative action without compulsory part-based

enforcement strategies. It is therefore recommended that realizing the 35% Affirmative Action

for Women in Nigeria requires not just poverty reduction and enhancing literacy rate among

women but also effective application of compulsory party-based implementation strategies.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Two theories are adopted to provide the anchor for this paper, the agenda setting theory and the

ecological system’s theory. The agenda setting theory is a theory that identifies the issue of

power in setting the agenda. It identifies the most powerful social actor behind the promotion of

an issue as important. The ecological system theory identifies that any phenomena is rooted in

multi level systems of influence.

The agenda setting theory

Agenda-setting is the creation of public awareness and concern of salient issues. It identifies as

its core assumption the power of some groups to have a greater ease of access than others and are
thus more likely to get their demands placed on agenda than others. Cobb and Elder ascribed

even more importance to decision makers, claiming that in order for an issue to attain agenda

status, it must be supported by at least some of key decision makers as they act as guardians of

the formal agenda. They also asserted that certain personages can act as opinion leaders and

bring media coverage to a particular issue. Very powerful resources of information can even

influence whether an issue receives media attention at all.

Ecological Systems Theory

American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner is credited with the origin of the ecological system's

theory in the year 1979 (Hauser & Gill, 2017).using the theory, it can be understood that policy

making is enmeshed in differing ecosystems. These ecosystems explain the influences in the

policy making and implementation. The ecosystems are the Chronosystems, Macrosystems,

exosystem, mesosystem, microsystem which form concentric levels around policy making. The

Microsystem is at the level of small institutions that shapes and enacts norms of behaviour for

people. The meso-system consist of interconnections which exist between the microsystems, this

can be seen in the connection between the family and the religious institutions or between the

school teacher in the educational institutions and members of the family. The exosystem involves

the connection between social settings which is far removed from individuals. The Macrosystem

is a bigger overarching culture which is influential in the development of a policy. The

overarching context is thus contextual as it is region specific. The chronosystem is made up of a

pattern of events over the course of a life time. The chronosystem is thus bound to time. Patterns

can stabilize or disrupted in the course of chronological time (Kail& Cavanaugh, 2010).
When adapting the ecological system’s thory to the present paper, it is evident that policy

making is a product enmeshed in cultural attitudes, social forces, economic and political factors

that are ever changing in the course of time. The adoption of the gender policy reflects changes

in societal attitudes towards women. In the Agenda setting approach, it is evident that that the

united nations as a supranational agent can influence policy by highlighting women’s issues as

salient. It is this salience that influenced the shift by governments to embrace a gender policy in

nations that may not necessarily consider the plight of women to be important.

DISCUSSION ON THE BASIS OF THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

What are the ecological imperatives that produced the national gender policy in Nigeria?

From the foregoing, shifts in cultural, social and political systems were influential in the

realisation of the national gender policy in Nigeria. The key areas in the policy identify the

systems that have to be addressed in order to achieve gender equality. These are; Culture re-

orientation and sensitization to change gender perceptions and stereotypes which is rooted in the

way people are socialised. Hence, a shift in cultural attitudes needed to be achieved for the

gender inequality policy to even come to light. What the policy seeks to achieve is to have

greater shifts in cultural attitudes to accommodate women’s rights. In the promotion of women’s

human rights and in particular focusing on sexual and gender based violence (SGBV) and in

supporting new legislations and legal rights of women, the policy seeks to protect women from

domestic violence. There is an educational component which seeks to empower women. The

policy promotes affirmative action for women to bridge gaps in political participation. It is

however the case that policy formulation is not a problem in Nigeria. The big problem is in
implementation. Hence, a lot of policies that seek to improve the welfare of citizens are not being

implemented and as a result the outcomes are invisible or not felt at all.

CONCLUSION

A policy instrument on Gender inequality is a good step in the right direction. However it has

suffered at the stage of implementation. The problems women confront are social and requires

that the thrust of those who implement the national gender policy should be on the structural

factors that perpetuate male privilege and subjugate women. The observation of the difference in

approaches to the implementation of the strategies in the national gender policy indicates that

there is a selective approach to the multifaceted problems confronting women in society. Lastly,

economic constraints make it difficult for the ministry of women affairs to effectively implement

the gender policy as well as ingrained social beliefs and collaboration with other agencies.

RECOMMENDATION

There is the need for significant stakeholders in the communities across Nigeria to begin to

interrogate the religious and cultural roots of gender inequality through productive re-orientation

campaigns for the policy instruments on Gender to be effective. Creating the policy instrument

needs to be in tandem with appropriate cultural attitudes for the lot of women to improve.
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