Journal of Manufacturing Processes 65 (2021) 373–381

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

An effective defect detection method based on improved Generative

Adversarial Networks (iGAN) for machined surfaces
Qingxia Wang a, Ronghui Yang a, Chongjun Wu a, b, *, Yao Liu b
a
College of Mechanical Engineering, Donghua University, 201620, Shanghai, China
b
Shanxi Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, North University of China, 030051, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In actual industrial applications, the predictive performance of the deep learning model mainly depends on the
Defect detection size and quality of the training samples, while the collection period of defective samples is long or even difficult
Improved Generative Adversarial Networks to obtain. In this article, an effective method based on improved Generative Adversarial Networks (iGAN) is
(iGAN)
proposed to detect defects of machined surfaces on the basis of positive sample training and image restoration.
Image restoration
This model could help to detect surface defects through positive sample learning without the training for defect
samples and traditional artificial labels. In this method, an improved reconstructed image network model is
constructed based on the Generative Adversarial Networks. Through this method, a defective image could be
repaired by determining the threshold of the residual image through the Otsu algorithm, and the difference
between the input image and the repaired image will be compared to obtain the defect area. Finally, the
experiment for the model validation is conducted on the complex surface image of the engine cylinder head. The
result shows that the improved Generative Adversarial Networks is effective in both the image restoration and
defect identification process.

1. Introduction
Cylinder head is an important component being used in automobile
engines, which will inevitably produce machining defects [1–3], such as
holes, bumps, scratches, etc. Machined defects will always affect the
product service life and durability [4,5]. Moreover, the machined de­
fects are generally composed by different sizes and irregular shapes.
Hole defects are mainly caused by the formation of shrinkage cavities
and porosity on the metal surface due to excessively high temperature
during the casting and pouring process, turbulent flow of molten metal,
insufficient runner area, etc., which are exposed after rough machining
[6,7]. Bumps and scratches are generally caused by scratches and
bruises resulting from human causes during the handling of the work­
station [8,9]. These defects not only affect the beauty of the product, but
may also reduce the performance and life of the car engine [10]. Due to
factors such as strong subjectivity, labor intensity, high cost and un­
controllable detection results of manual visual detection, the study of
automatic detection technology for cylinder head surface defects is of
great significance for improving product quality [11–13].
In recent years, machine vision technology has been widely used in
industrial production quality detection in silicon wafers, steel plates,
PCBs and other fields [14–18]. Traditional machine vision detection
methods are generally based on feature operators to describe defects
through geometric shape features and texture features. At the same time,
support vector machines, neural networks and other classifiers are used
to classify features to achieve surface defect detection and recognition
[19–22]. However, this type of feature operator is only effective for
specific defects, and changes in the size and shape of the defect will
affect the detection effect of the feature operator. In fact, the surface
geometry of mechanical parts is complex, the target defect and the
background area tend to have low contrast, high similarity between
noise, subtle defects and defect morphology. Traditional image pro­
cessing techniques often have the problem of low recognition accuracy.
Deep learning uses multilayer neural networks to automatically learn
high-level features from a large amount of training data, which provides
a direction for improving the accuracy and speed of defect recognition.
Jing et al. [23] proposed a scheme for fabric defect detection using deep
convolutional neural networks by decomposing fabric images into local
patches as input. Ding et al. [24] uses the inherent multi-scale and
pyramid hierarchical structure of deep convolutional networks to
construct feature pyramids, and designs reasonable anchors through
k-means clustering, so that the network adapts to the detection of tiny

* Corresponding author at: College of Mechanical Engineering, Donghua University, 201620, Shanghai, China.
E-mail address: wcjunm@dhu.edu.cn (C. Wu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.03.053
Received 8 September 2020; Received in revised form 27 March 2021; Accepted 27 March 2021
Available online 7 April 2021
1526-6125/© 2021 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Q. Wang et al.
defects and improves the performance of PCB defect detection. Ren et al.
[25] used deep separable convolution to replace the convolutional layer
in the convolutional network, and added the central loss to the loss
function, which improved the recognition ability of different types of
defects on the strip surface. He et al. [26] proposed a multi-level feature
fusion network that combines multiple hierarchical features into one
feature, and improved the accuracy of steel plate defect detection and
recognition. Chen et al. [27] used a deep convolutional neural network
and used feature maps of different layers to detect the fastener defects of
the catenary support device, which improved the defect detection rate.
Existing research work has shown that the performance of deep learning
models mainly depends on the size and quality of training samples.
However, in actual industrial scenarios, it is impossible to obtain enough
samples due to the complex conditions, and the types of samples are
difficult to balance. For the problem of small samples, the research can
improve the recognition effect by generating new samples to expand the
data set. Gang et al. [28] used convolutional neural networks to mine
deep features of data to identify targets, but CNN has many parameters
and requires a large number of samples to prevent overfitting. Ding et al.
[29] proposed three data enhancement methods to expand the data set
based on the characteristics of the composite image, which improved the
effectiveness of CNN in identifying targets. Sun et al. [30] used synthetic
minority oversampling technology to expand the data set to improve the
recognition rate, but the SMOTE algorithm may blur the boundary be­
tween the majority class and the minority class and use noise to syn­
thesize new samples, the quality of the generated samples is poor, and
the data set expansion effect not ideal.
Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN), as a generative model, can
generate data that conforms to the distribution of real samples through
continuous confrontation between the generator and the discriminator
[31]. At present, GAN has been widely used in image generation,
completion, style conversion and other fields [32]. Qi et al. [33] pro­
posed a loss-sensitive generative confrontation network, which realized
mutual cooperation between samples by pairing real samples and
generated samples to improve the optimization and use efficiency of the
model. Dou et al. [34] used a three-dimensional convolution based on
the super-resolution generation of the confrontation network structure.
By modifying the loss function to a content-based loss function and a loss
function based on confrontation learning, the high-frequency details of
the reconstructed image were enriched. The spectral characteristics of
hyperspectral remote sensing images are retained. Radford et al. [35]
proposed a deep convolutional generation adversarial network, which
eliminates the fully connected layer on top of the convolutional features,
and normalizes the input in batches. By training a dataset containing
bedroom images, it generates Realistic renderings. Based on the gener­
ative confrontation network, Liu et al. [36] proposed a new simulation
network with an encoder architecture, through wavelet fusion to
improve the characteristics of the generated image, and generate a
high-quality button image set. Cao et al. [37] proposed a 3D-assisted
dual generation confrontation network. The normalizer and the editor
are used to complete the positive of the image, and the positive image is
rotated to the desired pose guided by the remote code. The two-part task
is adjusted by conditional self-period loss and perceptual loss to accu­
rately rotate the face image to any specified angle. Huang et al. [38]
used the architecture of Generative Adversarial Networks to solve the
problem of small data sets with surface defects, and then used con­
volutional neural networks combined with Chunk-Max Pooling method
training program, experimental results show that as the amount of
sample data based on GAN increases, the recognition accuracy is
significantly improved. Singh et al. [39] adopted conditional generation
confrontation network CGAN to expand the data set. The recognition
rate of the above methods is improved to a certain extent compared with
CNN.
Based on the idea of generating adversarial networks, this paper
proposes a defect detection method based on positive sample training.
The training process could realize defect identification through residual
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 65 (2021) 373–381
image comparison only on the basis of enough positive sample images
without collecting defect samples and manual annotations. This paper
will introduce the network structure of GAN and the improved GAN
(iGAN) for image restoration in detail, accompanying with the training
method for the collected images. Experimental results will be given to
illustrate the effectiveness of the iGAN in the effects of image restoration
and defect identification.
2. Generative adversarial networks for image restoration
2.1. Generative Adversarial Networks
The basic network structure of GAN is shown in Fig. 1. In the training
process, the generator G receives the random noise vector z to generate a
new image G(z) which is compared with the input real image, and they
are input to the discriminator D for discrimination, then the loss value LD
LD is output, and the network parameters of generator G are optimized
according to the loss value LD LD LD. Through the game of G and D, the
authenticity of the image G(z) generated by the generator G is gradually
increased until the discriminator D cannot discriminate where the input
data come from, that is, the probability that the input data given by the
classifier come from the real sample and the generated sample is
approximately 0.5, reaching a state of Nash equilibrium.
The objective function of GAN can be expressed as:
minmaxV(D, G) = IE [logD(x) ] + IE [log(1 − D(G(z) ) ) ] (1)
G D x∼Px (x) Z∼Pz (z)
Where E IE represents the expected distribution; Px represents the dis­
tribution of training samples of normal product image; Pz is the random
prior distribution used for generator G input; D(x) denotes the proba­
bility of x x from the real data distribution Px (x).
According to formula (1), the training goal of the GAN model is to
maximize the output of discriminator D and minimize the output of the
generator G. Then the loss functions of discriminator D and generator G
can be given as:
L(D) = − IE [logD(x) ] − IE [log(1 − D(G(z) ) ) ] (2)
x∼Px (x) z∼Pz (z)
L(G) = − IE [logD(G(z) ) ] (3)
z∼Pz (z)
Finally, the image generated by the generator G can reflect the law of
mapping between the real data samples and the noise vector z in an
unsupervised manner, and more images can be generated to meet the
distribution law of normal product through the mapping law.
2.2. Improved Generative Adversarial Networks (iGAN) for image
restoration
Encoder-decoder network is always adopted in GAN. When this
network is used for defect image restoration, the input defect image is
first subjected to a series of down-sampling until it encounters an in­
termediate hidden layer, and then a new image is generated through a
series of up-sampling. Therefore, the input image will pass through all
layers including the intermediate layer, and the information cannot be
directly transferred from the encoding layer to the decoding layer.
Hence, key features such as the geometric information of the non-defect
area in the input image may be compressed or even lost, which may
significantly affect the authenticity of the generated image. In order to
have these key features bypass the intermediate layer, the U-Net
network form is adopted in this paper, that is, a jump connection is
added between layer‘i’and the layer‘n-i’, so that all channels of the
layer‘i’and the channel information of the layer‘n-i’can be shared.
Under normal circumstances, the discriminator network of the or­
dinary GAN model is a two-class discriminator. The discriminator makes
a distinction on the input data and judges whether it is real data or
generated data. The output results of PatchGAN [40] and traditional
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Fig. 1. GAN network structure.

discriminators are different. PatchGAN finally outputs an N×N matrix,

Table 1
and then calculates the mean value of the matrix as the output for
Network structure of the generator.
judging true or false. This is the same as the original two-class
discriminator outputting a true or false Vector is fundamentally Network Name Parameter Value
layer
different. Among them, each output of the output matrix is a receptive
field in the original image corresponding to the model, which corre­ 1 Full-connection
Number of neurons 128 × 6
sponds to a part of the original image. In order to improve the ability of Activation function ReLU
Two-dimensional under-
generator to capture the details of the input image, the discriminator 2
sampling
Under-sampling factor 2×2
should be able to obtain high-frequency information, so the PatchGAN Size of convolution
7×7
discriminator structure is used in this study to discriminate the image on Two-dimensional kernel
3
the patch scale. This discriminator can make a true or false judgment on convolution Step size 2
Activation function ReLU
each N × N area in the image, and the feature information of the image
Dynamic mean
block judged to be true will be retained, so that the authenticity of the 4 Batch normalization
momentum
0.8
detail area of the input image can be distinguished. The new network is Two-dimensional under-
5 Under-sampling factor 2×2
defined as an improved Generative Adversarial Networks (iGAN). Fig. 2 sampling
shows the overall framework of the image restoration network model Size of convolution
5×5
Two-dimensional kernel
iGAN proposed in this paper. 6
convolution Step size 2
The specific network parameters of generator G are shown in Table 1. Activation function tanh
The dimension of the random noise signal z is set to 256 dimensions, and

Fig. 2. Framework of image restoration network model iGAN.

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the two-dimensional convolutional layers are used to reduce the data brightness conditions to further test the robustness of the method.
dimension. A batch normalization layer is added after each two-
dimensional convolutional layer. At the same time, ReLU is adopted as
the activation function of the network to improve the training speed of 3.1. Image restoration effects
the network.
The network parameters of discriminator D are displayed in Table 2. The input images are shown in Fig. 3, there are hole defects in the
The activation function of the two-dimensional convolutional networks rectangular boxes. The pixel size of the input image is 500 × 500. GAN
adopts LeakyReLU that can improve the recognition performance. The and iGAN methods were used to restore the images, and the restored
output of the discriminator is the probability of the input image images are shown in the second column of Fig. 3. In this paper, the image
belonging to the real sample image. difference method was employed to analyze the effect of image resto­
ration. The principle is to subtract the gray value of the coordinates
corresponding to the restored image and the input original image to
2.3. Model training setup obtain the residual image. The third column in the figure is the three-
dimensional grayscale distribution map of the residual image, in
The image acquisition equipment used in this study is Mercury MER- which the red mark reflects the grayscale peak. Under ideal conditions,
500− 14GM/C area-array camera, with Kowa LM8JCM lens, and the the gray value of non-defect areas in the residual image is close to the
field of view of 50 mm × 50 mm. During the test, a total of 1300 images value zero. Therefore, it can be seen from the figure that the interference
of the cylinder head surface of a certain model of an auto parts manu­ of false defects in the residual map obtained by the improved generative
facturer in Shanghai were collected, of which 1000 are normal and non- confrontation network is greatly reduced, and the effect of image
defect images and 300 are images containing defects. Three typical restoration is better, which is helpful for accurate detection of defects.
surface defects, holes, bumps and scratches are collected. The image In order to better illustrate the restoration effect, a 14 × 14 pixel area
pixel size is 500 × 500.The computer hardware is CPU Intel(R) Core was extracted near the defect area in the original image shown in Fig. 3
(TM) i7− 7700 @2.80 GHz × 8 and NVIDIA GTX1060 GPU (6 G). for local enlargement, as shown in Fig. 4, where the red box is the
CUDA9.0 and cuDNN7.3 are used for acceleration. approximate area where the defect is located. It can be seen from the
In the study, TensorFlow and Keras frameworks in Google’s neural comparison between Fig. 4(b) and (c) and the original image (a) that the
network algorithm library were used to construct iGAN Generative gray value of pixels of the non-defect area in the image obtained by
Adversarial Network, and uniform random sampling was adopted to iGAN method is more approximate to the gray value of the corre­
extract 80 % and 20 % of the established data set as the training set and sponding location in the original image. Therefore, the difference be­
validation set respectively. During the network training, the generator G tween the two can highlight the defect area, that is:
and the discriminator D were alternately trained, that is, real data
samples were obtained from the normal product images. The noise ΔP(x, y) = |Pt (x, y) − PG (x, y) | (4)
vector z was input to the generator G to generate the restored images,
Where ΔP(x, y) ΔP(x, y) is the residual image; Pt (x, y) Pt (x, y) and PG (x,
and then the results of discriminator D were calculated according to the
y) PG (x, y) are the original image and restored image respectively.
formula (3). Adam optimizer was used to continuously update the
According to formula (4), the residual images ΔPGAN (x, y) ΔPGAN (x,
network parameters. In the training process, the initial learning rate is
y) and ΔPiGAN (x, y) ΔPiGAN (x, y) were obtained, as shown in Fig. 4(b) and
set to 0.0002, and the batch size of 64.
(c) respectively, and the non-defect area was set as the background area.
Fig. 5 shows the three-dimensional gray distribution of the two residual
3. Performance evaluation of the iGAN model
images. The overall grayscale range of the image is [0100] in the re­
sidual image ΔPiGAN (x, y). It can be found that the gray value of the
In order to verify the accuracy and reliability of the improved
background area in ΔPiGAN (x, y) ΔPiGAN (x, y) varies within [0,[15]], the
Generative Adversarial Network method based on positive samples and
maximum gray value of the defect area is 100, and the minimum gray
image restoration for the detection of machined surface defects,three
value is 50. The overall grayscale range of the image is [0150] in the
typical defect sample data sets are established, such as holes, scratches
residual image ΔPGAN (x, y).The gray value of the background area in
and bumps. The detection test of the surface defects of the engine cyl­
ΔPGAN (x, y) ΔPGAN (x, y) changes within [0, 100], the maximum gray
inder head was carried out. By comparing the repair effects of the two
value of the defect area is 150, and the minimum value is 60.
ways, GAN and iGAN, on the input image, the advancement of the
To further explain the restoration effect of the iGAN method, by
method proposed in this paper is verified, because the effect of image
observing the gray distribution of the residual image in Fig. 3, it is found
repair plays a very important role in the accuracy of defect detection. At
that discrete pulse-shaped gray distribution appears in the non-defect
the same time, it is tested by image samples taken under different
area of the residual image ΔPGAN (x, y) ΔPGAN (x, y), and is mainly
concentrated on the edge of geometric features such as holes and
Table 2 grooves, indicating that in the image generation, the GAN method has a
Network parameters of the discriminator.
weak ability to maintain the information unchanged on the edges of
Network Name Parameter Value high-frequency geometric structures with large curvature changes,
layer
while iGAN method has a better ability to restore these areas, which is
Size of convolution
5×5
also confirmed by the gray average and mean square error of the re­
Two-dimensional kernel sidual image in Fig.6.
1
convolution Step size 2
Activation function LeakyReLU
In order to quantitatively evaluate the restoration effect, this paper
Dynamic mean used the gray average and mean square error to evaluate the residual
2 Batch normalization 0.8
momentum images. Fig. 6 shows the statistics of the residual images shown in Figs. 4
Size of convolution
5×5 and 3. It can be seen that in terms of the background area, the gray mean
Two-dimensional kernel
3 and mean square error of the residual image ΔPiGAN (x, y) ΔPiGAN (x, y) are
convolution Step size 2
Activation function LeakyReLU 25.9 and 13.1 lower than those of ΔPGAN (x, y) ΔPGAN (x, y), respectively.
Dynamic mean In addition, the mean and mean square error values of the local residual
4 Batch normalization 0.8
momentum images are also reduced by 35.3 and 26.9 respectively. For the defect
Number of neurons 1 area, the gray mean and mean square error of the residual image
5 Full-connection
Activation function sigmoid
ΔPiGAN (x, y) ΔPiGAN (x, y) are 9.1 and 2.9 lower than those of ΔPGAN (x, y)

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Fig. 3. Comparison of the image restoration effects by two methods.

Fig. 4. Comparison of gray values in local areas: a) Gray scale of the original image; b) Gray scale of the image restored by GAN; c) Gray scale of the image restored
by iGAN.

Fig. 5. Three-dimensional gray distribution in residual image.

ΔPGAN (x, y), respectively. In addition, the mean and mean square error
values of the local residual images are also reduced by 23.0 and 3.8
respectively. These all indicate that the generated image PiGAN (x, y)
PiGAN (x, y) is closer to the input image Pt (x, y) Pt (x, y).
The iGAN method was used to restore the collected defect images,
and the gray average and mean square error of the background area
(non-defect area) in the residual image were calculated. Fig. 7 shows the
statistical results of 20 randomly selected residual images. It can be
found that the gray average and mean square error of the background
area in the residual image PiGAN (x, y) ΔPiGAN (x, y) vary within [4,8] and
[6,10] respectively. The gray average and mean square error of the
background area in ΔPGAN (x, y) ΔPGAN (x, y) change within [24,38] and
[18,24] respectively, suggesting that the generated image PiGAN (x, y)
PiGAN (x, y) is closer to the input image Pt (x, y) Pt (x, y).
It can be concluded that: 1) Compared with the GAN method, the
iGAN method has a better restoration effect for the input image; 2) In
terms of the defect area, the gray average of the residual image PiGAN (x,
y) ΔPiGAN (x, y) and ΔPGAN (x, y) ΔPGAN (x, y) is basically the same, but is

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Q. Wang et al.
Fig. 6. Statistics of residual image : a) Grayscale mean and mean square error of the residual image; b) Grayscale mean and mean square error of the residual
image(local).
Fig. 7. Gray statistics of residual images (background areas).
greater than the gray average of the input image Pt (x, y) Pt (x, y).
Therefore, the residual images obtained by this method can be used to
locate the defects in the image.
3.2. Defect identification effects
Otsu algorithm was used to determine the threshold, the inter-class
variance can be expressed as:
g = w0 *w1 *(u0 − u1 )*(u0 − u1 ) (5)
Where w0 w0 is the proportion of the number of pixels of the defect areas
in the total pixels of the residual image, w1 is the ratio of the number of
pixels of background areas to the total number of pixels of the residual
image, uo is the average pixel value of all defect areas, u1 is the average
pixel value of all background areas. When the variance g reaches the
maximum, it can be considered that the threshold for defect segmenta­
tion is the optimal threshold.
In the residual image, if ΔP(x, y) > th ΔP(x, y) > th, the pixel (x, y) is
a defect point, which is marked as 1; otherwise, it is a non-defect point,
which is marked as 0. Therefore, the residual image after binarization
can be expressed as:
{
B(x, y) =
1, ΔP(x, y) > th
(6)
0, ΔP(x, y) ≤ th
Fig. 8 shows the recognition results of three kinds of defects: holes,
scratches and bumps. It can be seen from the binarized images that the
method proposed in this paper can locate defects, and shows the best
performance in separating hole defects, then the bump defects, but has
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 65 (2021) 373–381
relatively weak ability to recognize scratch defects. This is mainly due to
the depth of scratch defects and the brightness of the illumination
system.
In order to further test the robustness of the proposed iGAN algo­
rithm, images of the 300 defective products used in the previous test
were obtained by sequentially changing light source brightness. Here,
1500 defective samples were collected, with 1250 holes, 100 bumps and
150 scratches samples respectively. Fig. 9 describes the recognition of
scratch defects at different brightness. It can be seen that when the
relative brightness is 20, the test scene is dark, and the processed texture
on the surface of the product is prominent, so the light scratches will mix
with it. When the relative brightness is 40, the test scene is bright, and
scratches and surface texture are ignored and cannot be recognized.
Fig. 10 shows the recognition accuracy rate of three types of defects
under different brightness conditions. It can be seen that when the
relative brightness is between 25–35, the recognition accuracy rate of
holes and bumps reaches more than 95 %, and the recognition accuracy
rate of scratches is about 80 %. The results show that the proposed iGAN
method could be better used in hole and bump detection than scratch
detection.
4. Conclusion
In order to solve the problems of deep learning-based defect detec­
tion methods such as large sample size and long period of obtaining a
large number of defect samples in practice, an improved Generative
Adversarial Networks (iGAN) was proposed, which can detect surfaces
through active sample learning Defects without training defect samples
and traditional manual labels. This article adopted the U-Net network
Q. Wang et al.
Fig. 8. Recognition effects of different types of defects.
form and adds jump connections, so that the key features such as geo­
metric information could bypass the middle layer to achieve channel
information sharing. In addition, in order to improve the ability of the
generator to capture the details of the input image, this paper proposed a
discriminator structure that discriminates the image on the patch scale,
so that it could distinguish the authenticity of the detail area of the input
image. From the performance evaluation of the iGAN model, the results
could be concluded:
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 65 (2021) 373–381
(1) In the effect of image restoration, both the gray mean and mean
square error of the residual image ΔPiGAN (x, y) is much lower than
those of ΔPGAN (x, y), which indicate that the generated image
PiGAN (x, y) PiGAN (x, y) is closer to the input image Pt (x, y) Pt (x, y)
Pt (x, y). Moreover, the iGAN method has a better ability to restore
the edge of geometric features such as holes and grooves.
(2) In terms of the defect area, the gray average of the residual image
ΔPiGAN (x, y) is basically the same with ΔPGAN (x, y) ΔPGAN (x, y),
but it is greater than the gray average of the input image Pt (x, y)
Q. Wang et al.
Fig. 9. Images of scratch defects under different brightness.
Fig. 10. Comparison of defect identification effects under different brightness.
Pt (x, y), which means that the residual images obtained by this
method can be used to locate the image defects.
(3) In the defect identification, experimental results show that the
machined surface defect detection iGAN method has a good
recognition accuracy in the detection of engine cylinder head
defects, with 95 % above of the recognition rate of holes and
bumps and 80 % above of scratches.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported in by the National Natural Science
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 65 (2021) 373–381
Foundation of China (52005098), Shanghai Sailing Program
(19YF1401400) and the Opening Foundation of Shanxi Key Laboratory
of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (No. XJZZ202003). The authors
wish to record their gratitude for their generous supports.
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