HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT •Operations according to morality principle
(HBSE) • The representation of society in personality that incorporates the
SOCIAL WORK AND FILIPINO PERSONALITY
(From SW Review Center )
Introduction
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
-Defined as the range of actions and behaviors exhibited by
humans at certain stages of development.
-Consequential manipulation of at least one "interaction"
PERSONALITY
-Comes from the latin word "persona" which means "mask"
-A pattern of permanent traits, or characteristics that give some
measure of consistency to a person's behavior.
THEORY
-Describe and explain phenomena and a set of abstract concepts
developed about a group of facts or events in order to explain
them.
THEORY OF PERSONALITY
-An organized system of beliefs that helps us to understand human
nature.
MODELS OF PERSONALITY THEORIES
1. Conflict Model- assumes that each person is in constant
struggle to settle conflicts between two forces that leads to
opposing behavior
•Psychosocial version- opposing forces from within and
external
•Intrapsychic version-opposing tendencies both from within.
2. Fulfillment Model- assumes that there is only one great force
that finds expression in daily behaviour.
•Actualization version-becoming what one was meant to be.
•Perfection version-becoming what you should be
I. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES (5 THEORISTS)
Psycho (of the mind)
Dynamic (movement)
1. SIGMUND FREUD
- Father of Psychoanalysis (Psychoanalysis-method for treating
mental illness and explains human behavior)
-Freud believed that personality was typified by a delicate balance
of power among three personality structures.
•Levels of mental life
1.) Unconscious
2.) Preconscious
3.) Conscious
•Personality Structures
1.) ID
•Origin of personality, the most basic of the three systems
• Has no objective knowledge of reality
•Reservoir of instincts
•Pleasure seeking/ operates according to the pleasure principle
•Powered by Libido (Libido- is an energy described as 'physical
desire' 'erotic tendencies'.
2 Categories of Instincts
1. Eros- Life instincts (serve for survival of the species)
2. Thanatos- Death instincts (wish to commit aggressive acts)
2.) EGO
•Weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act
upon or abandon impulses.
• It serve as a bridge to reality and vulnerable to the stresses of
dangers both internal and external.
a.) External dangers - insufficient food, water, and physical
comfort to sustain life
b.) Internal dangers- uncontrollable increases of instinctual
energies, particularly sex and aggression.
3.) SUPEREGO
• Our sense of right and wrong
norms and standards of the surrounding culture.
SUBSYSTEM OF SUPEREGO
a. Conscience- acts as the internal agent that punishes people
when they do wrong
b. Ego Ideal- experience with reward for proper behavior
NOTE:
ID- tells you what you want (Beneath the Iceberg theory)
EGO- Inner vision of your best self (balancer)/Make the final call
(Above the water in Iceberg theory)
SUPEREGO- tells you what you should do/ as angel on your
shoulder (Middle in the Iceberg theory)
INSTINCTS AND DEFENSE MECHANISM
1. DENIAL OF REALITY
• those who seem 'unable to face reality' or admit and obvious
truth.
• Refuse to acknowledge that an event has occured to protect
oneself from an unpleasant reality
Ex. Alcoholics often deny that they have a problem while victims
of traumatic events may deny that the event ever occured.
2. REPRESSION
• It is the most basic defense mechanism and is preventing painful
memories and thoughts from entering consciousness
Ex. A person who has repressed memories of abuse suffered as a
child may later have difficulty forming relationship.
3. DISPLACEMENT
• Involves taking out our frustrations, feelings, and impulses on
people or objects that are less threatening. We instead express our
anger towards a person or object that poses no threat such as pets
or children.
•It is discharging pent-up feelings, often of hostility, on objects
less dangerous than those arousing the feelings.
4. SUBLIMATION
• Allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these
behaviors into a more acceptable form
• Sexual impulses are displaced into socially productive activities
as painting or writing.
Ex. A person experiencing extreme anger might take up kick
boxing as a means of venting frustration.
5. PROJECTION
• Attribution of one's own undesirable thoughts or characteristics to
other people
• It protects the individual from threats by allowing him/her to
project his/her own unacceptable traits unto other people.
Ex. Someone who steals and incorrectly assumes other people
cannot be trusted.
6. INTELLECTUALIZATION
• Allows us to avoid thinking about stressful situation and focus
only on the intellectual component.
7. RATIONALIZATION
• Explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or
logical manner, avoiding the true explanation for the behavior.
Ex. A person who is turned down for a date night rationalize the
situation by saying they weren't attracted to other person anyway.
8. REGRESSION- When confronted by stressful events, people
sometimes abandon coping strategies.
• It is retreating to an earlier developmental level involving less
mature behavior and responsibility.
• May start to act in a childish way, may pout or frown or gave
temper tantrums when he does not get what he wants.
9. REACTION FORMATION
• Objectionable thoughts are repressed and their opposites are
expressed.
Ex. Treating someone you strongly dislike in a friendly manner in
order to hide your true feelings.
REVEALING THE UNCONCIOUS
1. FREUDIAN SLIPS- According to Freud, slips of tongue reveal
unconscious motives.
2. TRANSFERENCE- patients respond to the therapist as if he
were an important person in the patient's mother or father.
3. COUNTERTRANSFERENCE- Therapist becomes
emotionally involved with a patient.
4. INSIGHT- The realization of the relation between one's current
problems or behaviors and their unconscious origins.
5. RESISTANCE- Unconscious setting up of obstacles to the
psychoanalytic process progress by the patient himself as a result
of his defenses being threatened.
OTHER DEFENSE MECHANISM;
6. FANTASY- Temporary escaped from frustrations of realities.
7. SUBSTITUTION- Often involves socially unacceptable
activities and guilt feelings.
Ex. Frustrated sexual impulses maybe substituted by
masturbation or singing dirty songs.
8. COMPENSATION- Attempt to disguise the presence of weak
or undesirable traits by emphasizing a desirable one.
Ex. A person who is physically unattractive may attempt to gain
popularity by developing charming manner.
9. OVERCOMPENSATION- Extreme unacceptable attempt to
counterbalance actual or imagined inferiority.
Ex. An unattractive person may try desperately to gain
recognition by asserting himself in ways that imitate people.
10. UNDOING- attempt to take back an unconcious behavior that
hurtful
Ex. If you hurt someone's feelings, you might offer to do
something nice.
11. ACTING OUT- not coping/giving in to the pressure to
misbehave.
12. IDENTIFICATION- copying others to take on their
characteristics
Ex. Two people in a party finds the other very attractive. Both
adjust their postures to be more similar to one another.
13. DISASSOCIATION- separating oneself from parts of your
life
14. SOMATIZATION- psychological problems turned into
physical symptoms
Ex. A policeman, who has to be very restricted in his professional
behavior, develops hypertension.
FREUD'S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
• Sexual and aggressive energy during the course of maturation.
1. ORAL STAGE (0-2 years old) or (Birth to 1 year)
• Also known as Narcissistic (Self-centered) Stage
• During this stage, the infant's primary source of interaction
occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is
especially important.
•Fixation can results in 2 personality types:
a.) Oral-receptive personality type- derived from childhood
pleasures of receiving food in the mouth and digesting it, person
with this trait characterized by dependency on others.
b.) Oral-aggressive type- derived from childhood pleasures
associated with the mouth, food, and eating, but with greater
chewing, biting, and use of teeth.
2. ANAL STAGE (2-3 years old)
•The primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and
bowel movements.
• The major conflict at this stage is toilet training- the child has to
learn to control his or her bodily needs.
•Fixation of this stage;
a.) Anal-retentive adult personality type- characterized by the
delay of satisfactions to the last possible moment
b.) Anal-expulsive type- disregard widely accepted rules of
cleanliness, orderliness, and appropriate behavior.
3. PHALLIC STAGE ( 4-5 years of age)
•Children derive pleasure from activities associated with stroking
and manipulating their sex organs.
•Satisfaction is gained by stimulation of the penis or clitoris
through masturbation.
•OEDIPUS COMPLEX- Young boys at this stage experience
feelings of possessive love for their mother and see their fathers as
rivals.
•ELECTRA COMPLEX- Dynamics for young girls involves love
of father and hatred of mother and girls also display penis envy.
4. LATENCY STAGE (6-12 years old- a quiet period)
• This stage is important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence.
• There is absence of a dominant erogenous zone; a child lays aside
his attraction to parents and is sexually disinterested.
5. GENITAL STAGE ( The phase of mature sexual love)
• Starts with the onset of puberty, includes directing both feelings
of lust and of affection toward another person.
2. ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY (CARL JUNG)
• Yearning for rebirth/ constant search for wholeness and
completion
•Personality consists of completing forces in the individual that
must be balanced.
•Jung offers the notion of wholeness as opposed to pathology.
•MBTI- 'the most widely used personality inventory in the world'
Jung diverged from Freud by arguing that the unconscious
consists of;
a.) Personal Unconscious- included the instincts, as well as
personal aspects such as memories, knowledge, and experience.
b.) Collective Unconscious- collective memories of human history
and give us ancient images called archetypes.
Archetypes- Universal concepts/images
PERSONA- allows people to adapt to the world around them and
fit in with the society.
Jung's shadow archetype- the destructive and aggressive
tendencies that we don't want to acknowledge
SHADOW- darker side of the psyche, representing wildness,
chaos, unknown
Animus/Anima- archetypes that refer to the masculine/feminine
parts of our personality.
2 MAJOR ATTITUDES/PERSONALITY TYPES
1. Introvert/Introversion- focus on inner experience/ internal
world of one's thoughts, feelings, and experience
2. Extravert/Extraversion- turn attention outward/ external world
of people and things
3. SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY (KAREN HORNEY)
•According to Horney, what a person experiences socially
determines whether or not s/he will have psychological problems
• Believed that the child starts life with a feeling of helplessness
relative to the powerful parents.
• A pervasive feeling of loneliness and helplessness- the
foundation of neurosis.
•Basic Hostility- results from childhood feelings of rejection or
neglect by parents or from a defense against basic anxiety
•Basic Anxiety- Results from parents threats or from a defense
against Hostility
NEUROTIC NEEDS- An excessive drive or demand that may
arise out to defend themselves against basic anxiety.
2 BASIC CHILDHOOD NEEDS
1. Satisfaction- children needs for food, water, sleep
2. Security- need for safety and freedom from fear; more
important for personality development.
In childhood, we protect ourselves against basic anxiety in 4 quite •Goal is not behavior modification but motivation modification
different ways Four (4) PHASES:
1. Securing affection and love 1. Establishment of the relationship
2. Being submissive 2. Investigation of the life style
3. Attaining power 3. Interpretation of the life style
4. Withdrawing 4. Re-orientation

THREE (3) PERSONALITY GROUPS/ BASIC ATTITUDES
OF NEUROTIC TRENDS (CAD)
1. COMPLIANT INDIVIDUALS- who move towards others/
desire to be loved and wanted
2. AGGRESSIVE INDIVIDUALS- who move against
others/desire to excel and with admiration
3. DETACHED INDIVIDUALS- who move away from
others/desire independence and freedom from obligations.
REAL AND IDEALIZED SELF
1. REAL SELF- a central inner force common to all human beings
and yet unique in each
2. IDEALIZED SELF IMAGE- the distorted view of one's self as
unworthy; an extravagantly positive view of themselves that exists
only in their personal belief system.
• they see themselves as "a hero, a genius, a saint, a God"
AUXILIARY APPROACHES TO ARTIFICIAL HARMONY
1. BLIND SPOTS- denying or ignoring certain aspects of
experience with one's idealized self
a.) Compartmentalization- dividing one's life into various
components with different rules applying to each.
b.) Rationalization- inaccurate excuses to justify one's perceived
weaknesses, failures, or inconsistencies.
2. EXCESSIVE SELF CONTROL- guarding against anxiety by
controlling any expression of emotion
3. ARBITRARY RIGHTNESS- a protective device used in
ambiguous situations
4. ELUSIVENESS- opposite of arbitrary tightness
5. CYNICISM- persons that do not believe in anything, nothing is
worth believing.
SOCIAL INTEREST- Exemplified by Individuals helping society
to attain the goal of perfect society.
Origin of Social Interest
•MOTHER- makes the largest contribution to developing social
interest in the child by providing the deepest and most genuine
love and fellowship the child will ever experience.
• FATHER- allows freedom to speak and ask questions,
encourage the pursuit of personal interest, do not ridicule or
belittle, and make the meal times pleasant and be supportive.
5. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY/ EGO PSYCHOLOGY (ERIK
H. ERIKSON)
•According to Erikson, children are active, adaptive explorers.
•Assumes that human beings are basically rational creatures whose
thoughts, feelings, and actions are largely controlled by the ego.
• Assumed that all people follow a sequence of stages of
development from birth through death.
• Emphasized the ego over the id as the key to personality
development.
EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE- the biological blueprint that dictates
how organism grows and reaches maturity. Development proceeds
by stages. Age is not passed through and then left behind.
THREE (3) INTERRELATED ASPECTS OF EGO:
1. THE BODY EGO- refers to experiences with one's body
2. EGO IDEAL- represents the image we have of ourselves in
comparison with an established ideal.
3. EGO IDENTITY- the image we have of ourselves in a variety
of social roles.

4. INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY (ALFRED ADLER)

•Alfred Adler- proponent of the order of birth
•He assumes that man is motivated primarily by social motives. He
believed that humans are social creatures by nature not by habits.
• He is the first to focus attention on the importance of birth order PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
as factor governing personality. STAGES CRISI FAVO UNFAVO VIRTUE
• Adler believed that people are motivated to improve themselves. S RABL RABLE DEVELOP
•The one dynamic force behind people's behavior is the striving for E OUTCO ED/EGO
success or superiority.(SUPERIORITY- the foremost source of OUTC ME QUALITY
human motivation in his thinking). OME
• Humans are motivated more by their expectations of the future INFANCY Trust Faith in Suspicion, HOPE
than by experience of the past; concerned with the future. (Birth-1 vs. the fear of
year) Mistr environ future
3 STAGES IN ADLER'S THINKING REGARDING THE ust ment events
FINAL GOAL OF HUMANS; and
1. To be aggressive future
2. To be powerful events
3. To be superior TODDLER Auton A sense Feelings WILL
HOOD omy of self- of shame Ex. A pre
CHILDHOOD CONDITIONS LEADING TO FAULTY (2-3 years) vs. control and self- schooler
LIFESTYLE Sham and doubt insisting in
1. Organ/Physical inferiority e and adequac picking out
2. Spoiling or pampering Doubt y her own
3. Neglecting clothes, no
matter how
THREE (3) MAJOR LIFE TASKS mis-
1. Love matched
2. Marriage they are.
3. Occupational and Societal PRE- Initiat Ability A sense of PURPOSE
SCHOOL ive vs. to be a guilt and Ex. Sammy
The HELPING PROCESS Early Guilt self- inadequac wants to
School Age starter, y to be pour milk fulfillm over
(3-5 years) to one one's all by ent; prospect
initiate own himself willing of death
one's "No, me do ness to
own it!" face
activitie Ex. Child death
s ask
themselves
"why" and II. HUMANISTIC THEORIES (2 THEORISTS)
they 1. PERSON-CENTERED THEORY (CARL ROGERS)
develop •Father of Psychological Humanism
conscience. •Ideas developed from clinical experiences
SCHOOL Indust Ability COMPETE HUMANISTIC APPROACH- It is also called the 'third force' in
AGE ry vs. to learn NCY psychology. This kind of approach is optimistic and focuses on
Middle Inferi how noble human capacity to overcome hardships, pain, and despair.
childhood ority things PERSON-CENTERED APPROACH- originally called client-
(6-12 years) work, centered therapy, is perhaps the best-known form of humanistic
to therapy.
underst PERSON CENTERED THERAPY- emphasizes understanding
and and and caring rather than diagnosis, advice, and persuasion. Deals
organiz with the ways in which Individuals perceive themselves
e consciously, it sees human beings as having tendency to develop
EARLY Identit •Seeing Confusion FIDELITY towards their full potential.
ADOLESC y vs. oneself over who TO SELF-ACTUALIZATION-a person's lifelong process of
ENCE Role as a and what OTHERS realizing his or her potential to become a fully functioning person--
(12-18 or Confu unique one really its goal is to be that self which one is truly is.
so) sion and is. CONCEPT OF FULLY FUNCTIONING INDIVIDUAL-one
integrat major assumption of Carl Roger's Theory.
ed
person SEVEN (7) COMPONENTS OF SELF-CONCEPT
• 1. SELF ESTEEM- comprises what we think about ourselves
Ability 2. SELF- IMAGE- affects how a person thinks
to 3. IDEAL SELF-refers to self- concept the individual would most
freely like to posses.
pledge 4. SELF-WORTH- how I see myself
and 5. POSITIVE REGARD- acceptance, love, and approval from
sustain others.
loyalty 6. UNCONDITONAL POSITIVE REGARD- is where parents,
to other accepts and loves the person for what he or she is.
others 7. CONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD- is where positive
LATER Ability FIDELITY regard, praise, and approval, depend upon the child.
ADOLESC to TO
ENCE freely VALUES
pledge 5 CHARACTERISTICS OF A FULLY FUNCTIONING
and PERSON
sustain 1. OPEN TO EXPERIENCE- Both positive and negative
loyalty emotions accepted.
to 2. EXISTENTIAL LIVING- Rogers identified this characteristics
values of fully functioning person as in touch with different experiences,
and avoiding prejudging.
ideolog 3. TRUST FEELINGS- Feeling instincts and gut reactions are
y paid attention to and trusted.
EARLY Intima Ability Inability LOVE 4. CREATIVITY-Creative thinking and risk-taking are features of
ADULTHO cy vs. to make to form a person's life.
OD Isolati commit affectiona 5. FULFILLED LIFE- A person is happy and satisfied with lifez
(Early to on ments te and always looking for new challenges and experiences.
late 20s) to relationshi
others, p BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
to love •The natural development of human beings is toward the
MIDDLE Gener Concer Concern CARE constructive fulfillment of their human potentials.
ADULTHO ativity n for only for • It focuses on the Individual's self-perception and personal view of
OD vs. family self-one's the world.
Late 20s to Stagn and own well- •We develop a self-concept through our experience with the world,
50) ation society being and our interactions with other people and what other people tell us.
in prosperity
general STRUCTURES OF PERSONALITY
MATURIT Integr A sense Dissatisfa WISDOM 1. ORGANISM- locus of all experience
Y/AGING ity vs. of ction with 2. SELF OR SELF-CONCEPT- subjective nature z collection of
YEARS Despa integrit life; self-perception, the I and ME ideal self of what the person wanted
(after 50) ir y and despair to be.
3. PHENOMENOLOGICAL FIELD- subjective reality, an
individual behave according to his/her reality and not on
stimulating conditions.
KEY CONCEPTS:
1. ORGANISMIC VALUING PROCESS- Organisms know
what is good for them. The governing process throughout lifespan;
we assign the a positive value.
2. POSITIVE REGARD- We instinctively value. It is a term used
by Rogers for things like love, affection, attention, nurturance, and
so on.
3. POSITIVE SELF-REGARD- It is self-esteem, self-worth, a
positive self-image. We achieve this positive self-regard by
experiencing the positive regard from others show us over our
years of growing up.
4. CONDITION OF WORTH- As we grow up, our parents,
teachers, peers, and others, only give us what we need when we
show we are "worthy", rather that just because we need it.
5. CONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD- Getting positive
regard on "on condition". Because we do indeed need positive
regard, these conditions are very powerful, and we bend ourselves
into a shape determined, not by our organismic valuing but by a
society. Valuing a person only when they behave, think of feel.
•Conditions of Worth associated with CONDITIONAL
POSITIVE REGARD
6. CONDITIONAL POSITIVE SELF-REGARD- We begin to
like ourselves only if we meet up with the standards others have
applied to us, rather than if we are truly actualizing our potentials.
7. UNCONDITONAL POSITIVE REGARD- "active
ingredient" in Rogerian therapy.
CONGRUENT-A person's ideal self and actual experience are
consistent or very similar.
INCONGRUENT- Suggest that unpleasant feelings can result
from a discrepancy between our perceived and ideal self.
"A condition of worth arises when the positive regard of a
significant other is conditional, when the individual feels that in
some respects he or she is prized and in others not"
2. HIERARCHY OF NEEDS/MOTIVATION THEORY
(ABRAHAM MASLOW)
•Motivation-refers to the process by which organisms are propelled
toward goals; driven by end goals such as security and self-esteem
which motivate people.
•Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is
a process of growing and developing as a person to achieve
Individual potential.
FIVE (5) DIFFERENT LEVELS IN MASLOW'S
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
1. PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS
• These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival,
including the need for water, oxygen, sleep, sex, etc., They are
needs rather than drives because their satisfactions are the ultimate
goals.
2. SAFETY NEEDS
• Include needs for safety and security. Securing needs are
important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the
physiological needs.
3. SOCIAL NEEDS/BELONGINGNESS AND LOVE NEEDS
• Orient the person toward affectionate relations with people, and a
sense of pace in family and groups./ Needs for belonging, love,
and affection.
4. ESTEEM NEEDS
•These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem,
personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment.
5. SELF-ACTUALIZING NEEDS
•It is the highest level of Maslow's Hierarchy of needs.
•Comcerned with personal growth, less concerned with the
opinions of others and interested in fulfilling their potential.
• The tendency for one to become more of what one is presently is,
to become everything that one is capable of being.
TYPES OF NEEDS
1. DEFICIENCY NEEDS (D-Needs)
•Maslow characterized the first four (4) basic needs as deficiency
needs or D-needs, which are the Physiological, Safety, Social
needs/belongingness and love needs, and esteem needs.
2. GROWTH NEED (B-Needs)
• Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather
from a desire to grow as a person.
GEMEINSCHAFTSGEFÜHL
•Self-actualizing people possess Gemeinschaftsgefühl, Adler's
term for social interest, community feeling, or a sense of oneness
with all humanity.
•Self-actualizing people are "often saddened, exasperated, and
even enraged by the shortcomings of the average person"
•Maslow found that self-actualizers had a kind of caring attitude
toward other people.
Other needs as preconditions or satisfying the basic needs
1. AESTHETIC NEED- People are motivated by the need for
beauty and aesthetically pleasing experiences.
2. COGNITIVE NEEDS- A desire to know, solve mysteries, to
understand and to be curious.
3. NEUROTIC NEEDS- Results only in stagnation and pathology
whether or not they are satisfied.
III. BEHAVIORISM AND SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
(2 THEORISTS)
1. OPERANT CONDITIONING (BURRUS FREDERICK
SKINNER)
•Skinner uses the term operant behavior to refer to his idea that an
organism has to do something in order to get a reward, that is, it
must operate on its environment.
•REINFORCEMENT- is defined as any behavioral consequence
that strengthens behavior. It is also defined as any event that
increases the probability that a particular response will increase in
frequency. Reinforcement may be positive or negative.
Skinner recognized two (2) kinds of conditioning
a.) RESPONDENT CONDITIONING- also called classical or
Pavlovian: is when a response is drawn out of the organism by a
specific identifiable stimulus.
Example: reflexive behaviors such as sneezing when snipping
pepper or salivating when one sees food; responses are unlearned,
involuntary, and common across the species.
b.) OPERANT CONDITIONING- key to this is the immediate
reinforcement of a response. The organism first does something
and then is reinforced by the environment. The reinforcement then
increases the probability that the same behavior will occur.
• The behavior that constitutes the operation on the environment is
called "operant."
THREE (3) KINDS OF CONSEQUENCES IN OPERANT
CONDITIONING
1. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
• Occurs when some event is contingent or the prior performance
of some response and the response changes in likelihood of
occurrence on future occasion.
• A process whereby some event, usually a stimulus increases the
likelihood of a response on which its presentation is contingent.
2. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
• Is a process whereby the likelihood of a response increases when
it is followed by the termination, reduction, or absence of a
stimulus.
Example:
•Reducing loud noise during study hours would be negatively
reinforcing because it strengthens the behavior immediately
preceding it.
•If leaving your apartment removes you from unpleasant
environment, then the time you spend away from your apartment
will increase.
3. PUNISHMENT
• Responses that are followed by the presentation of averse stimuli
decrease in likelihood of being performed in the future.
•The presentation of an aversive stimulus such as the removal of a
positive one.
Example: Disconnecting adolescent's telephone
• POSITIVE PUNISHMENT- Refers to presenting an aversive
stimulus (such as spanking) after a response. The aversive stimulus
decreases the chances that the response will recur.
•NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT- Refers to removing a reinforcing
stimulus (a child's allowance) after a response. This removal
decreases the chances that the response will recur.
2 TYPES OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
a.) PRIMARY REINFORCERS
•are automatically or naturally reinforcing
•powerful in increasing the chance that a particular behavior will
occur.
Example: Food, water, sex
b.) SECONDARY REINFORCERS OR CONDITIONED
REINFORCERS
• influence behavior through training
• done specifically by developing associations with a primary
reinforcer
•their power to reinforce behavior is acquired (example: money,
grades, tokens)
Example: Giving a boy a candy bar for having cleaned.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
a.) CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT
• Means that every occurrence of the operant response results in
delivery of the reinforcer.
b.) PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES
• Means that only some occurrence of the operant response results
in delivery of the reinforcer.
1. FIXED-RATIO SCHEDULE- means that a reinforcer occurs
only after a fixed number of responses are made by the subject.
• A fixed ratio-schedule is often used to pay assembly line
workers because it results in fast rates of work.
2. FIXED-INTERVAL SCHEDULE- Means that a reinforcer
occurs following the first response that occurs after a fixed interval
of time. A fixed interval schedule has slow responding at first, but
as the time for the reinforcer nears, responses increase.
3. VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULE- Means that a reinforcer
is delivered after an average number of correct responses has
occured. Thai schedule produces a high rate of responding because
the person (gambler) doesn't know which response will finally
produce the pay-off.
4. VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULE- Means that a
reinforcer occurs following the first correct response after an
average amount of time has passed. A variable-interval schedule
results in a more regular rate of responding than does a fixed-
interval schedule.
OTHER CONCEPTS
SHAPING- Technique of reinforcement used to teach new
behaviors. At the beginning, people/animals are reinforcement for
easy tasks, and then increasingly need to preform more difficult
tasks in order to receive reinforcement.
EXTINCTION- The elimination of the behavior by stopping
reinforcement of the behavior.
GENERALIZATION- A behavior may be performed in more
than one situation.
CLASSICAL/PAVLOVIAN RESPONDENT
CONDITIONING (PAVLOV)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING- a learning process that occurs
through associations between environmental stimulus and naturally
occurring stimulus
Ex. Dog
REMEMBER:
• In Operant Conditioning, reinforcer occurs after the response.
• In Classical Conditioning, it occurs before the response.
2. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (ALBERT BANDURA)
• The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance
of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional
reactions of others.
•Views people as driven neither exclusively by the forces of
cognition nor automatically by events within the environment.
• Views people as symbolizing animals: ability to use symbols; e.g.
language enables them to transform transient experiences into
internal models that serve as guides for future action.
•Bandura states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to
mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of
their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most
human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from
observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as
a guide for action.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
•Learning by observing models as they perform useful behavior---
people who observe a model, learn the value of behavioral
performance in terms of what it will achieve.
•Learning occurs because people are aware of the consequences of
their responses, they can and do think about what these
consequences will be.
VICARIOUS LEARNING
• Learning through observing behaviors of others.
•Observation allows us to learn without performing any behavior.
Two (2) concepts associated with the observational learning:
a.) MODEL: is a person who performs some behavior for an
audience, showing how it is done and what benefits accrue from it.
b.) MODELING: refers to the act of performing a behavior before
one or more observers.
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT
•In a famous and influential experiment known as the BOBO
DOLL EXPERIMENT, Albert Bandura and his colleagues were
able to demonstrate one of the ways in which children learn
aggression.
• The experiment involved exposing children to two different adult
models:
-a non-aggressive model
-an agressive one
•After witnessing the adult's behavior, the children would then be
placed in a room without the model and were observed to see if
they would imitate the behavior they had witnessed. Bandura
found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more
likely to act in physically aggressive ways than those who were not
exposed to the aggressive model.
FOUR (4) TYPES OF LEARNING EFFECTS
1. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING EFFECTS
•Attempts to explain how Individuals acquire the ability to perform
novel physical and cognitive behaviors including standards of
judgment, thinking skills, and rules for generating behavior that
have no reinforcement history.
Example:
•When a child utters a novel sentence, it contains Individual,
previously learned words organized into a new, original sequence.
•When a young couple moves into a new house, they reorganize
previously acquired furniture, appliances and decorations in a
unique distinctive manner.
2. INHIBITORY AND DISINHIBITORY EFFECTS
• Behavior that have already been acquired may also be
strengthened or weakened under certain circumstances, or they
may not occur at all.
Example:
• Most people decelerate when driving past a police or highway
patrol car.
• Parents dining together at an expensive restaurant tend to eat
more slowly than when dining with their children at fast food
restaurants.
• Yet other situations may inhibit behavior altogether. Example:
People are more likely to obey "no smoking" signs in the hospital
and churches than in bus stations or at outdoor concerts.
3. RESPONSE FACILITATION EFFECTS
•Refers tons function of the behavior of others which may instigate
one's behavior when other cues are absent.
• Occurs when models function to activate, direct, or support
specific behavior of other Individuals in a particular situation.
•No new behavior involved, rather, it is a matter of initiating a
previously acquired behavior in the presence of others who are
exhibiting that behavior.
Example:
• A father is more likely to spend Saturday raking leaves than
watching TV if he sees his neighbors outside engaging in this
activity.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL ENHANCEMENT EFFECTS
• Accordingly, some of our behaviors direct our attention to
environmental prompts or settings rather than cue behavior.
Example:
• Children will typically eat more when fed in pairs than when fed
alone.
• Even those who are full may ask for more when they see their
parents having snacks.
• In these cases, their attention is directed at the food rather than at
others eating behavior.
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
• Bandura's goal in developing his social-cognitive theory was to
modify or change those learned behaviors that society considers
undesirable or abnormal.
• Like Skinner's approach to therapy, Bandura focused on external
aspects, those inappropriate or destructive behaviors, in the belief
that they are learned, just as all behaviors are learned.
•Bandura did not attempt to deal with any supposed underlying
unconscious conflicts. It is the behavior or symptoms, rather than
any presumed internal neurosis that is the target of the social-
learning approach.
BANDURA DEVELOPED THREE (3) FORMS OF
BEHAVIOR THERAPY:
1. MODELING- to eliminate fears and other intense emotional
reactions. In one early study, children who were afraid of dogs
observed a child of the same age playing with a dog.
2. GUIDED PARTICIPATION- involves watching a live model
and then participating with the model.
3. COVERT MODELING- subjects are instructed to imagine a
model coping with a feared or threatening situation; they do not
actually see a model. Covert modeling has been used to
successfully treat snake phobias and social inhibitions.
SELF-EFFICACY OR "BELIEVING YOU CAN"
• refers to feelings of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in
coping with life.
•Self-efficacy quite simply and effectively as the "power of
believing you can", "believing that you can accomplish what you
want to accomplish is one of the most important ingredients in the
recipe for success."
COLLECTIVE EFFICACY
• refers to the confidence that groups of people have that their
combined efforts will produce social change.
3. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (JEAN
PIAGET)
• Jean Piaget referred to as child psychologist
• He was interested in the thinking processes that led children to
produce the answers they gave.
•Cognitive Development involves changes in cognitive process and
abilities
• In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes
based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental
operations.
Piaget's Conception of Knowledge
• Common sense holds that knowledge is a body of information or
beliefs s person has acquired either through instructions or through
direct experience with the world.
• Common sense tells us that whenever we need to recall an item
of knowledge from the storehouse of memory, the item can be
recovered in essentially the same condition as it was when first
acquired.
KEY CONCEPTS:
1. SCHEME OR SCHEMA
• It is an organized pattern of thought or action that is used to cope
with or explain some aspect of experience.
• The purpose of all behavior is to enable the organism- the child-
to adapt to the environment in ever more satisfactory ways.
• A scheme is the structure of organization of actions as they are
transferred or generalized by repetition in similar or analogous
circumstances e.g. a child is sucking a thumb; an adolescent
starting a car.
• Example: a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such
as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a
child might believe that all dogs are small, furry and have four
legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog. The
child will take in this new information, modifying the previously
existing schema to include this new information.
2. ASSIMILATION
• The process of matching environmental stimuli to existing mental
patterns is not simply a matter of ingesting objective reality from
the world. Rather, the child reshapes the events of the world
somewhat to fit the pattern of his or her existing schemes.
• To assimilate an object to a schema means conferring to that
object one or several meanings.
• Example: Seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is an example of
assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.
3. ACCOMODATION
• Assimilation reshapes the environmental input to fit existing
schemes, whereas accommodation revises or adds to the schemes
to readjust for environmental features that cannot conveniently be
ignored or distorted.
4. EQUILIBRATION
• Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between
assimilation and accomodation, which is achieved through a
mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress
through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to
maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge
(assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new
knowledge (accomodation).
• Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from
one stage of thought into the next.
What causes a child to acquire his/her particular schemes and at
what times in his/her growing up? There are four (4) causal
factors:
1. Heredity (internal-maturation)
2. Physical experience
3. Social Transmission (education)
4. Equilibrium (maintains a balance among the other three)
LEVELS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 1: SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD (from birth to age 2)
• 1st stage (birth to one month)- unlearned reflexes i.e., baby sucks,
cries, breathes, coughs, urinates, defecates.
• 2nd stage (1-4 mos)- child sucks his thumb because of
coordination between hand and mouth (acquired accomodation);
repetitive activities (primary circular reaction)
•3rd stage (4-8 mos)- beginning to distinguish self and outside
objects; intentional acts; attaining a goal; self-centered acts
(secondary circular reactions)
• 4th stage (8-12 mos)- infants anticipate people and objects;
search for objects that are out of sight
• 5th stage (12-18 mos) - tertiary circular reactions- reproducing
the original event in modified form e.g., baby will not only submit
to but even provoke new results instead of being satisfied merely
to reproduce them once they have been revealed fortuitously.
Object relations
• the way children conceive themselves in relation to the objects of
the world as well as the way they see the objects' relationships to
one another.
• Infants begin to coordinate their sensory input and motor
responses in order to "act on" and get to "know" the environment.
• Learning takes place through touch and feel.
LEVEL 2: THE PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT PERIOD
(2-7 years)
• Characterized by:
1. Egocentric speech(monologues)
2. Centration (visual stimulus)- a child centers on one aspect and
believes that this aspect completely characterizes stimulus e.g.,
would decide that taller glass contains more water.
• Child fails to comprehend Compensation- that the dimensions of
an object can operate in coordination so that one dimension
compensates for another.
• Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period
• Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand
concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are
unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed
egocentrism.
LEVEL 3: THE CONCRETE -OPERATIONS PERIOD
(about age 7 to 11)
• This stage is considered a transition between prelogical thought
and completely logical thought.
• During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental
operations.
• Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have
difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
• Ability to think abstractly and make rational judgments/abstract
thinking develops
Example: She has never been a great student but realize that if she
spends more time practicing her spelling, she will do better.
Two major cognitive events or operations occur during this
stage:
1. Conservation
• refers to retention of the same properties (volume, mass, number
or other aspects of physical environment) even if they are
rearranged differently or reshaped.
•objects do not change when they're moved.
Example: The child is able to recognize that the volume of water
remains the same, no matter what size or shape the container it is
poured into.
2.Reversibility
• refers to the completion of certain operations in the reverse order
and ending up the same.
• reversible- A<B and B>A
Example: The child will be able to understand that water can exist
in several states.
LEVEL 4: FORMAL OPERATIONS PERIOD (about age 11-
15)
• Development of logical and systematic thinking
• adolescents can now imagine the conditions of a problem-past,
present, future and develop hypotheses about what might logically
occur under different combinations of factors
• They learn transitivity - if A=B, B=C, then A=C
• A<B and B<C, then A<C
Example: Karen was given a bag of soft plastic lizards in red, blue,
and green colors. When asked to classify the lizards into colors,
she was able to do so.
4. Moral Development Theory (Lawrence Kohlberg)
• Inspired by Jean Piaget (Piaget is 25 years his senior)
• A professor of Psychology at the University of Chicago and
Graduate School of Education in Harvard.
• Moral reasoning of children ages 10-16 with a focus on boys
• Children not only learn these standards or not only conform but
they begin to internalize.
THE HEINZ DILEMMA
Mrs. Heinz was near death from a special type of cancer. Doctors
thought one kind of drug might save her. The druggist/specialist
who made the medicine she needed was selling it for ten times the
amount that cost him to make it. The sick woman's husband,
Heinz, did not have enough money for the medicine so he went to
borrow the money from everyone he knew, but he could only
collect about half of what the druggist was charging. Heinz told the
druggist his wife was dying and asked him to sell him the medicine
cheaper or to let him pay later, but the druggist refused. The
druggist said he discovered the drug and he was going to make
money from it. Heinz got desperate and later broke into the
drugstore to steal the drug for his wife.
Should the husband have tried to steal the drug? Why or why not?
THREE MAIN LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 1: PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL (PREMORAL
LEVEL)
• Children's judgments are based on external criteria. Standards of
right and wrong are absolute and laid down by authority.
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation
• the goodness or badness of an act depends on its consequences.
The child will obey authorities to avoid punishment but may not
consider an act wrong if it will not be detected and punished.
•Stage one (obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine,
because he will consequently be put in prison.
Stage 2: Naive instrumental orientation/Naive Hedonism
• conforms to rules in order to gain rewards or satisfy personal
objectives.
• Proper action instrumentally satisfies the Individual's needs and
occasionally the needs of others. "You scratch my back and I'll
scratch yours".
•Stage 2 (Self-interest): Heinz should steal the medicine, because
he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to
serve a prison sentence.
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
• Children's judgments are based on the norms and expectations of
the group.
• A person conforms to the expectations of her family, group, or
nation. She actively supports and justifies the existing social order.
Stage 3: "Good boy" or "good girl" orientation
• Moral behavior is that which pleases, helps or is approved of by
the others. Approval is earned by being "nice".
•Stage 3(conformity): Heinz should steal the medicine, because his
wife expects it; he wants to be a good husband.
• Example: Teenager begins using alcohol because all of his
friends are doing it.
Stage 4: Social- order-maintaining morality/authority
•what is right is what conforms to the rules of legitimate authority.
• Stage 4 (law-and -order): Heinz should not steal the medicine,
because the law prohibits stealing making it illegal.
LEVEL 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL (OR PRINCIPLED)
MORALITY
• Rules and standards of society internalized and held as one's own.
•The Individual defines right and wrong in terms of broad
principles of justice that could conflict with written laws or with
the dictates of authority figures.
• Morally right and legally proper are not always one and the same.
Stage 5: Morality of contract, Individual rights, and
democratically accepted laws/social contract orientation
•the Individual is aware that the purpose of just laws is to express
the will of the majority and further human values.
Stage 5 ( human rights): Heinz should steal the medicine, because
everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law. Or:
Heinz should not steal the medicine, because the scientist has a
right to fair compensation.
Stage 6: Morality of Individual principles of conscience/
Universal ethical principle orientation (highest moral stage)
• The Individual defines right and wrong on the basis of self-
chosen ethical principles of his/her own conscience.
• Stage 6 ( universal human ethics): Heinz should steal the
medicine, because saving a human life is a more fundamental
value than the property rights of another person. Or: Heinz should
not steal the medicine, because others may need the medicine just
as badly, and their lives are equally significant.

Another case
*A doctor had to decide whether to "mercy kill" a woman
requesting death because she was suffering intense pain.
• 13-year-old boy: Maybe it would be good to put her out of her
pain. But the husband wouldn't want it, it's not like an animal
(Scored as Stage 2).
• 16-year-old boy: No, he shouldn't. The husband loves her and
wants to see her. He couldn't want her to die sooner, he loves her
too much (Scored as Stage 3)
• 16-year-old boy: The doctor wouldn't have the right to take a life,
no human has the right. He can't create life; he shouldn't destroy it.
(Scored as Stage 4)

REMEMBER:
I.(5) PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES
Psychoanalytic theory (Sigmund Freud)
Analytical Psychology (Carl Jung)
Socio-cultural Theory (Karen Horney)
Individual Psychology (Alfred Adler)
Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson)

II. (2)HUMANISTIC THEORIES

Person-Centered Theory (Carl Rogers)
Hierarchy of needs/Motivation Theory (Abraham Maslow)

III. (4) BEHAVIORISM AND SOCIAL LEARNING

THEORIES
OPERANT Conditioning (Burrus Frederick Skinner)
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (Albert Bandura)
Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget)
Moral Development Theory (Lawrence Kohlberg)