ETHICS

I. UTILITARIANISM

It is a variety of Consequentialism; the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its

results or consequences.

According to the utilitarian theory of morality, an action's moral worth is determined by its
consequences. Utilitarianism holds that an action is ethically justified if it results in the greatest
amount of happiness or pleasure for the largest number of people. It is centered on optimizing
general well-being or utility. Moral value cannot be discernible in the intention or motivation of the
person doing the act; it is based solely and exclusively on the difference it makes on the world’s total
amount of pleasure and pain.

Imagine you have a piece of chocolate cake, and there are three friends who also want a slice.
Utilitarianism would argue that the right thing to do is to share the cake equally among all four of
you, ensuring everyone gets a taste and maximizing overall enjoyment.

II. JUSTICE AND MORAL RIGHTS

Fairness, equality, and the acknowledgment and protection of individual rights are all aspects of
justice and moral rights. Justice is treating everyone equally and impartially, whereas moral rights
are people's claims or entitlements to certain freedoms, privileges, or protections.

Legal rights are neither inviolable nor natural, but rights are subject to some exceptions. When
legal rights are not morally justified in accordance to the greatest happiness principle, then these
rights need neither be observed, nor be respected. Moral rights take precedence over legal rights.
Moral rights are only justifiable by considerations of greater overall happiness. Rights are socially
protected interests that are justified by their contribution to the greatest happiness principle.
However, in extreme circumstances, respect for individual rights can be overridden to promote the
better welfare es[equally in cases of conflict valuation.

For example, everyone has the moral right to education, healthcare, and freedom of speech,
regardless of their background or status.

III. NATURAL LAW

According to the moral theory known as natural law, there are universal moral principles that are
part of the natural order of the world and of human nature. It is thought that these concepts are
universal and discoverable by reason, independent of social or cultural traditions.

The theory of natural law is based on the idea that God wants us to want things-specifically,
good things. God created the world according to the natural laws- predictable, goal-driven systems
whereby life is sustained and everything functions smoothly. Right acts are simply those that are in
accordance with the natural law. According to Aquinas, sometimes we seek what we think is good,
but we’re wrong, because we are just ignorant. (Example. Doctors promoting cigar on the past). No
matter how awesome God made you, or your desires, you have to have some understanding of how
to be good or awesome. We are rational and emotional creatures and sometimes we see what we
should do, but emotion overpowers our reason, and we fail to do the things we know we should.
Morality is grounded in God, that he created the moral order.

For instance, the belief that it's inherently wrong to harm others for personal gain is a reflection
of natural law principles, as it aligns with our innate sense of empathy and fairness.
IV. ESSENCE AND VARIETIES OF LAW

The essence of law lies in its role as a system of rules and principles that govern society,
ensuring order, justice, and stability. Varieties of law refer to the different branches or types of law,
like criminal law, which deals with offenses against the state, or contract law, which governs
agreements between parties.

As rational beings, we have free will, through the capacity of reason, human beings are able to
judge between possibilities and to choose to direct our actions in one way or the other. Acts are
rightly directed toward their ends by reason. We have to consider what is good for the community as
well as our own good.

A law is concerned with the common good. Making of law belongs to a public person or group
of people who care for the common good or the concern for the good of the community or the whole
people. It is necessary for rules or laws to be communicated to the people involved in order to
enforce them and to better ensure compliance.

a. Eternal law (divine wisdom that directs our acts)

b. Natural law (human individuals shares eternal reason as they participate in eternal law)
c. Human law (Humans constructed the law; to check its validity it must follow the natural law)
d. Divine law (instructions that come from revelation; ex. 10 commandments or gospels)

Humans have inclination to good according to the nature of our reason. This natural inclination is
to know the truth about God and to live in society. Reason is the defining part of human nature.
Being a human means that we exercise our reason.

V. DEONTOLOGY

It is the combination of pure logic and reason.

Deontology is an ethical theory that employs rules to distinguish what is right and what is wrong.
Deontology is a moral theory that emphasizes the importance of duty or moral obligation in guiding
actions. According to deontology, certain actions are inherently right or wrong regardless of their
consequences. It focuses on the moral principles or rules that should govern behavior, such as
honesty, fairness, and respect for autonomy.

Deontological ethics say that doing the right thing is more about following rules and duties,
regardless of what happens as a result. The responsibility for what’s right or wrong is placed on
following these rules, so if you stick to the rules, you’re considered morally okay, even if things
don’t turn out well.

At the heart of deontology lies the concept of moral rules or duties, which are considered binding
and absolute. These rules typically derive from principles such as honesty, fairness, and respect for
autonomy. For example, telling the truth is seen as a moral duty, regardless of whether lying might
lead to better outcomes in a particular situation.

One of the key figures associated with deontology is the philosopher Immanuel Kant. Kant
argued that moral principles are derived from reason and are universally applicable to all rational
beings. He proposed the idea of the categorical imperative, which is a principle that commands
certain actions without regard to their consequences. According to Kant, an action is morally right if
it can be willed as a universal law – in other words, if everyone followed the same rule in similar
situations without exception.
 To illustrate deontological reasoning, consider the example of promising to meet a friend at a
specific time. According to deontology, you have a moral duty to keep your promise, even if
something unexpected comes up that might make breaking the promise seem more favorable in
terms of consequences. Deontologists would argue that keeping your promise is inherently right
because it upholds the principle of honesty and respect for commitments, regardless of the outcomes.

VI. AUTONOMY AND UNIVERSALIZABILITY

Autonomy refers to the capacity for individuals to make their own rational choices and decisions
free from external coercion. Universalizability is the principle that moral principles or rules should
apply consistently to all individuals in similar situations. Together, these principles emphasize the
importance of respecting individual autonomy while ensuring that moral rules are universally
applicable.

According to Kant, if the maxim or rule governing our action is not capable of being
universalized. Then it is unacceptable. He points out that we would all agree on some rule if it is
moral. And, if you cannot will that everyone follows the same rule, your rule is not moral one.

Autonomy refers to the capacity of individuals to make their own rational choices and decisions
free from external coercion or undue influence. It emphasizes self-governance and the ability to act
in accordance with one's own values, beliefs, and preferences. Autonomy recognizes individuals as
moral agents with the inherent right to determine their own course of action.

Universalizability is the principle that moral principles or rules should apply consistently to all
individuals in similar situations. It suggests that if a moral rule or principle is valid in one situation,
it should be valid in all similar situations without exception. In other words, moral rules should be
capable of being applied universally, without bias or special treatment.

VII. VIRTUE ETHICS

At the core of virtue ethics is the notion of virtue, which refers to desirable character traits or
dispositions that enable individuals to act in morally admirable ways. These virtues may include
qualities such as honesty, compassion, courage, wisdom, and integrity. Virtue ethicists argue that
ethical decisions and actions arise from the virtuous character of the moral agent rather than from
following rules or calculating consequences.

Focus on becoming good people then good actions will follow effortlessly. Virtue theory reflects
the ancient assumption that humans have a fixed nature and that the way we flourish is by adhering
to that nature. Aristotle argued that nature has built into us the drive to be virtuous.

Virtue ethics emphasizes the importance of cultivating virtuous character traits as the foundation
of ethical behavior. Rather than focusing on rules or consequences, it prioritizes the development of
qualities like honesty, compassion, and courage. The ultimate goal is human flourishing, achieved
through the pursuit of excellence in character and the exercise of practical wisdom in ethical
decision-making.

VIII. ETHICS OF CARE

The ethics of care is a moral theory that places a central focus on interpersonal relationships,
empathy, compassion, and the moral significance of caring for others. Unlike some traditional
ethical theories that prioritize abstract principles or universal rules, the ethics of care highlights the
importance of context, particularity, and the unique needs and vulnerabilities of individuals.

The ethics of care emphasizes the significance of relationships and the moral obligations that
arise within them. It recognizes the importance of caring connections between individuals, such as
those between family members, friends, healthcare providers, and patients. Care ethicists argue that
ethical decision-making should be guided by sensitivity to the needs, feelings, and experiences of
those involved, with a focus on alleviating suffering and promoting well-being.

Ethics of care theory believes that context can sometimes overrule justice and our universal code
of conduct. Focuses on the interconnectedness of humanity. It places a moral significance on our
relationships as care givers and care receivers.,