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06 Nutrition in Humans
Processes comprising nutrition
 Ingestion/Feeding: The intake of food

 Digestion:

 Physical digestion:
o Mechanical breakdown of larger pieces of food to smaller pieces of food
o To increase surface area to volume ratio of food so as to increase the rate of
chemical digestion of nutrients by enzymes
o For example, chewing/mastication, churning of boli of food into chyme
through peristaltic contractions, emulsification of large fat globules into
minute fat globules

 Chemical digestion:
o Breaking down of large, complex, insoluble molecules in food into smaller,
simpler, soluble (diffusible) molecules that can be absorbed into the
blood/cells.
o Often involves digestive enzymes.

 Absorption: Process in which digested food materials are taken into the blood stream
and body cells

 Assimilation: Process in which some of the absorbed food substances are converted
into new protoplasm or used to provide energy

Other processes
• Egestion/Defecation: Process in which undigested and unabsorbed matter is
removed from the body

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Main regions of alimentary canal and associated organs

Digestion:
Mouth
• Teeth:
 Chew food into smaller pieces to increase surface area for enzymes to act on more
efficiently

• Tongue:
 Mixes food with saliva to increase the chances of food particles coming into contact
with the enzyme for chemical digestion to occur
 Rolls food into balls called boli for easier swallowing

• Salivary glands:
 Secrete saliva which contains the enzyme, salivary amylase

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Salivary amylase (enzyme) chemically digests starch (substrate) into maltose

(product).
 Mucus in saliva softens food
 Carbohydrate digestion takes place
 Ph~7

Oesophagus
• Food moves down the oesophagus by gravity and by peristalsis.
• Starch digestion continues.
• Occurs throughout the alimentary canal

• Peristalsis
Rhythmic, wave-like muscular contractions in the wall of the alimentary canal to mix and
propel the contents

• Outer layer Longitudinal muscle

• Inner layer Circular muscle
• Circular and longitudinal muscles of the alimentary canal are antagonistic muscles.
• Carbohydrate digestion
• Ph~7

Stomach
• Food is stored temporarily in the stomach for 3-4h.
• Peristalsis churns and breaks up food into chyme
• increases surface area to volume ratio of food
• increasing rate of chemical digestion of proteins by pepsin to polypeptides
• Peristalsis mixes food with gastric juice.
• Gastric glands secrete gastric juice which contains hydrochloric acid and inactive
pepsinogen
 (Pepsin is secreted in inactive form called pepsinogen so that the Pepsin will
not break down the stomach cells which also contain protein. To prevent the
chances of Pepsin digesting the stomach cells directly)

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• Dilute hydrochloric acid

• denatures salivary amylase,
• activates inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin
• provides the optimum pH for pepsin
• kills potentially harmful microorganisms in food

hydrochloric acid
• Inactive pepsinogen active pepsin
pepsin
• Proteins polypeptides
• The stomach has a layer of mucus which serves as a layer of protection such that the
active enzymes cannot come into contact with the cells directly and digest it.
• Chyme Thick acidic semi-liquid of partially digested food

Small Intestine - Duodenum

• Bile (alkaline) from the gall bladder is released into the duodenum.
• Pancreatic juice (alkaline) from pancreas is released into the duodenum.
• Intestinal juice (alkaline) is also secreted by the epithelial cells lining the duodenum.
• Presence of intestinal pits and glands which secrete intestinal juice
• Three alkaline solutions are used to neutralise acidic chime and provide optimum Ph
for enzymes

Small Intestine – Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum

Bile
• Synthesized in the liver. Gall bladder temporarily stores it.
• Does not contain enzymes
• Contain bile salts and bile pigments
• Bile provide an alkaline medium for enzymes in the small intestine to work.
• Bile salts also emulsify large fat droplets into tiny fat droplets
- to increase surface area to volume ratio of fats to speed up chemical digestion by
enzyme lipase
• Bile pigments are waste products and they are passed out of the alimentary system
with the faeces; colour the faeces yellowish brown.

Pancreatic juice
• Contains three enzymes, pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, trypsin
trypsin
• proteins polypeptides

pancreatic amylase
• starch maltose

pancreatic lipase
• fats fatty acids and glycerol

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Intestinal juice
Carbohydrate digestion
maltase
• maltose glucose

lactase
• lactose glucose + galactose

sucrase
• sucrose glucose + fructose

Protein digestion
peptidase
• polypeptides amino acids

Fat digestion
intestinal lipase
• fats fatty acids + glycerol
*Pepsin and trypsin have different Ph (2 and 9) respectively
Pepsin is found in stomach
Trypsin is found in Pancreatic juice
Digestion is completed in the small intestine

In summary
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Alimentary pH Physical digestion Chemical digestion

canal
Chewing/ salivary amylase
Mouth Neutral mastication by starch maltose
teeth
salivary amylase
Oesophagus Neutral Peristalsis starch maltose

pepsin
Stomach pH2 Peristalsis proteins polypeptides

Carbohydrate digestion
Small Duodenum Peristalsis
Intestine - pH fluctuates pancreatic amylase
Bile salts also starch maltose
Jejunum, emulsify large fat maltase
Ileum droplets into tiny maltose glucose
- pH 8 fat droplets
lactase
lactose glucose + galactose

sucrase
sucrose glucose + fructose

Protein digestion
trypsin
proteins polypeptides

peptidase
polypeptides amino acids

Fat digestion

pancreatic/ intestinal lipase

fats fatty acids and glycerol

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Absorption:
Ileum
• Mouth & Stomach
• Small intestine
- Absorbs water, monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol
- Ileum is the main site of absorption of water!
• Large intestine
- Absorb water and mineral salts

Absorption involves the movement of substances by diffusion, osmosis or active transport

Factors that affect absorption:
 Amount of time spent
 Surface area
 Distance travelled by substance
 Concentration gradient

Structure Function
Small intestine is long Provides sufficient time for absorption

Inner surface of small intestine Increases surface area to volume ratio for absorption
is folded

Folds bear villi Increases surface area to volume ratio for absorption

Epithelium of villi is only one Shortens the distance for dissolved food substances to
cell thick move from lumen of small intestine into blood
capillaries for faster rate of absorption

Epithelium of villi have Increases surface area to volume ratio for faster rate of
microvilli absorption

Villi is richly supplied with Ensures continual transport of digested food

capillaries substances away from small intestine
For example, Therefore, maintaining the concentration gradient for
lymphatic capillary (lacteal) the absorption of digested food substances
and blood capillary

Lymphatic capillary/ lacteal Transports fats

Blood capillary Transports sugars and amino acids

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• Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by active transport or diffusion.

• Glycerol and fatty acids diffuse into the epithelium
• Glycerol and fatty acid will combine to form minute fat globules in the epithelium
which will then diffuse into the lacteals.
• Water is absorbed by osmosis.
• The lacteals/ lymphatic capillaries join up to form larger lymphatic vessel which
eventually empty its contents into the circulatory system.
• The blood capillaries join up to form the hepatic portal vein which carries the
digested food to the liver.

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Blood vessels of the liver

• Hepatic portal vein: Transports blood rich in absorbed nutrients from the small
intestine to the liver
• Hepatic vein: Transports deoxygenated blood from the liver to the heart
• Hepatic artery: Transports oxygenated blood from the heart to the liver

Small Intestine

Lymph is carried and emptied in the veins near the atrium of heart

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Large intestine
• Main function of colon is to absorb water and mineral salts from the undigested
food material.
• Rectum stores faeces temporarily.

Assimilation:
- The process in which some of the absorbed food substances are converted into
new protoplasm or used to provide energy
- Excretion  Body takes it in, digest, absorb nutrients but does not want it
(Metabolic waste product)
- Egestion  Take into the body, does not get digested and is passed out
(Undigested waste material)

Metabolism of glucose
• Glucose is transported to the liver cells through the hepatic portal vein.
• In the liver, some glucose is broken down by the liver cells to release energy for
cellular processes through respiration.
• In the liver, excess glucose are converted into glycogen and stored.
• Some glucose is transported out of the liver by the hepatic vein and is distributed
round the body.
• Excess glucose is returned to liver. Insulin from pancreas stimulates the liver cells to
convert the excess glucose into glycogen.
(R: Insulin does NOT converts excess glucose into glycogen.)
• Glycogen is stored in the liver.
• When blood glucose level decreases below norm, glucagon from pancreas stimulates
liver cells to convert stored glycogen back into glucose which is released into
bloodstream.
• Glucose is transported by the blood to the cells.

Metabolism of amino acids

• Amino acid is transported to the liver cells through the hepatic portal vein.
• In the liver, amino acids are used by the cells to make new protoplasm, replace worn
out tissues, synthesise enzymes, hormones and antibodies.
• Some amino acid is transported out of the liver by the hepatic vein and is distributed
round the body.
• Excess amino acid is returned to liver to be deaminated.

What is deamination?
• Deamination happens in the liver.
• The amino group is removed from the excess amino acid and converted to urea.
• Urea will be excreted in urine
• The remaining molecule is converted to glucose in the liver.
• If there is excess glucose, the excess will be converted to glycogen for storage in liver
and muscles.

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Metabolism of fats
• Fats are transported by the lymphatic vessels which discharge them into the
bloodstream.
• Blood carries the fats to all parts of the body, especially the liver.
• In the liver, fats are used by the cells to make cell surface membranes.
• When glucose is in short supply, fats are broken down to release the energy required
for cellular processes by tissue cells.
• Excess is stored under the skin as adipose tissues and around internal organs.

Functions of the liver

1. Carbohydrate metabolism - Regulation of blood glucose concentration
• When blood glucose concentration rises above the norm, insulin is secreted by
pancreas to stimulate the liver cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen,
which is then stored.
• When blood glucose concentration drops below the norm, glucagon(Hormone) is
secreted by pancreas to stimulate the liver cells to convert glycogen into glucose
which is then released into bloodstream, thus increasing blood glucose level.

2. Fat digestion - Production of bile

• Bile is synthesized in the liver and stored temporarily in the gall bladder.
• Bile emulsifies large fat droplets into smaller fat droplets to increase surface area
to volume ratio of fat droplets, thus increasing rate of chemical digestion by
lipase into fatty acids and glycerol.

3. Iron storage
• Red blood cells are destroyed in the spleen, which is a gland near the liver.
• Liver will then break down the haemoglobin in RBC and stores the iron that is
released

4. Metabolism of amino acids and the formation of urea through deamination of excess
amino acids

5. Protein synthesis
• Plasma proteins such as prothrombin and fibrinogen are synthesized in the liver. -
 Involved in blood clotting

6. Detoxification
• The process of converting harmful substances into harmless ones.
• Acetaldehyde can be further broken down into compounds which can be used in
respiration to release energy for cellular processes

Alcohol Alcohol dehydrogenase Acetaldehyde

(Harmful) (Harmless)

7. Heat production

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Effects of excessive consumption of alcohol

• Nervous system:
- Drepressant - slowing down of brain functions/ reaction times
- Reduced self-control
- Slurred speech
- Blurred visions
- Poor muscular coordination

• Digestive system:
- Excessive acid secretion in the stomach which may lead to gastric ulcers
- Cirrhosis of the liver  Destruction of liver cells
- Haemorrhage of the liver  Bleeding of the liver
- Liver failure
- Death
• Social effects:
- Addiction Alcoholics
- Neglect work and family
- Exhibit violent behaviour
- Commit crimes

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Nutrition in Humans