In R, data structures are used to organize and store data efficiently.

R provides several built-in data

structures, each with its own characteristics and uses. Here are some of the key data structures in R:

1. **Vectors:**

- A vector is the most basic data structure in R, consisting of a one-dimensional array of elements.

- Elements in a vector must be of the same data type (numeric, character, logical, etc.).

- You can create a vector using the `c()` function.

```R

# Numeric vector

numeric_vector <- c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

# Character vector

character_vector <- c("apple", "banana", "orange")

# Logical vector

logical_vector <- c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE)

```

2. **Matrices:**

- A matrix is a two-dimensional data structure with rows and columns.

- All elements in a matrix must be of the same data type.

- You can create a matrix using the `matrix()` function.

```R

# Create a matrix with 3 rows and 2 columns

my_matrix <- matrix(c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6), nrow = 3, ncol = 2)

```

3. **Arrays:**

- Arrays are similar to matrices but can have more than two dimensions.
 - You can create an array using the `array()` function.

```R

# Create a 3D array with dimensions 2x2x2

my_array <- array(c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8), dim = c(2, 2, 2))

```

4. **Lists:**

- A list is a versatile data structure that can contain elements of different data types.

- Lists can include vectors, matrices, other lists, or even functions.

- You can create a list using the `list()` function.

```R

# Create a list with different types of elements

my_list <- list(1, "apple", c(2, 3, 4), TRUE)

```

5. **Data Frames:**

- A data frame is a two-dimensional table-like structure similar to a matrix but more flexible.

- Columns in a data frame can have different data types.

- Data frames are often used to store and manipulate datasets.

- You can create a data frame using the `data.frame()` function.

```R

# Create a data frame

my_data_frame <- data.frame(

Name = c("Alice", "Bob", "Charlie"),

Age = c(25, 30, 22),

Score = c(95, 88, 75)

```
6. **Factors:**

- Factors are used to represent categorical data.

- They are particularly useful for statistical modeling and analysis.

- You can create a factor using the `factor()` function.

```R

# Create a factor with three levels

my_factor <- factor(c("low", "medium", "high"))

```

These data structures are fundamental in R and are extensively used in data manipulation, statistical
analysis, and visualization. Understanding when to use each data structure is crucial for effective
programming and analysis in R.

Decision-making statements in programming are used to control the flow of a program based on
certain conditions. They allow you to execute different blocks of code depending on whether a given
condition is true or false. In R, some common decision-making statements include `if`, `else if`, and
`else`. Here's an explanation along with an example:

### 1. `if` Statement:

The `if` statement is used to execute a block of code only if a specified condition is true. The basic
syntax is as follows:

```R

if (condition) {

# code to be executed if the condition is true

```

**Example:**
```R

# Check if a number is positive

x <- 10

if (x > 0) {

print("The number is positive.")

```

In this example, the message "The number is positive." will be printed only if the value of `x` is
greater than 0.

### 2. `else if` Statement:

The `else if` statement is used to test multiple conditions. If the initial `if` condition is false, it checks
the next condition, and so on. The basic syntax is:

```R

if (condition1) {

# code to be executed if condition1 is true

} else if (condition2) {

# code to be executed if condition2 is true

} else {

# code to be executed if none of the conditions is true

```

**Example:**

```R

# Classify a number as positive, negative, or zero

y <- -5
if (y > 0) {

print("The number is positive.")

} else if (y < 0) {

print("The number is negative.")

} else {

print("The number is zero.")

```

In this example, one of the three messages will be printed based on the value of `y`.

### 3. `else` Statement:

The `else` statement is used to execute a block of code when the `if` condition is false. It doesn't have
its own condition; it simply executes when none of the preceding conditions is true. The basic syntax
is:

```R

if (condition) {

# code to be executed if the condition is true

} else {

# code to be executed if the condition is false

```

**Example:**

```R

# Check if a number is even or odd

z <- 7

if (z %% 2 == 0) {

print("The number is even.")

} else {

print("The number is odd.")

```

In this example, the message "The number is even." will be printed if `z` is even; otherwise, "The
number is odd." will be printed.

These decision-making statements allow you to create flexible and dynamic programs that respond
to different conditions during execution.

In R, set operations are performed on vectors and are useful for comparing, combining, and
manipulating sets of data. Here are some common set operations in R:

### 1. **Union (`union`):**

- The union of two sets includes all unique elements from both sets.

- In R, you can use the `union()` function.

```R

set1 <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)

set2 <- c(3, 4, 5, 6)

union_set <- union(set1, set2)

# Result: c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)

```

### 2. **Intersection (`intersect`):**

- The intersection of two sets includes only the elements that are common to both sets.

- In R, you can use the `intersect()` function.

```R

set1 <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)

 set2 <- c(3, 4, 5, 6)

intersect_set <- intersect(set1, set2)

# Result: c(3, 4)

```

### 3. **Set Difference (`setdiff`):**

- The set difference of set A and set B includes elements that are in A but not in B.

- In R, you can use the `setdiff()` function.

```R

set1 <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)

set2 <- c(3, 4, 5, 6)

setdiff_set <- setdiff(set1, set2)

# Result: c(1, 2)

```

### 4. **Set Equality (`setequal`):**

- Checks if two sets are equal, meaning they contain the same elements (order-independent).

- In R, you can use the `setequal()` function.

```R

set1 <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)

set2 <- c(4, 3, 2, 1)

are_sets_equal <- setequal(set1, set2)

# Result: TRUE

```

### 5. **Subset (`is.element` or `%in%`):**

 - Checks if one set is a subset of another.

- In R, you can use the `is.element()` function or the `%in%` operator.

```R

set1 <- c(1, 2, 3, 4)

set2 <- c(2, 4)

is_subset <- all(set2 %in% set1)

# Result: TRUE

```

### 6. **Set Operations on Factors (`levels`):**

- When working with factors, you can perform set operations using the `levels()` function.

- It retrieves the unique levels (categories) of a factor.

```R

factor1 <- factor(c("A", "B", "C"))

factor2 <- factor(c("B", "C", "D"))

all_levels <- union(levels(factor1), levels(factor2))

# Result: c("A", "B", "C", "D")

```

These set operations are valuable for various data manipulation tasks, especially when dealing with
categorical data or comparing different datasets. They provide a concise and efficient way to perform
set-related computations in R.

Linear regression is a statistical method used to model the relationship between a dependent
variable (often denoted as \(y\)) and one or more independent variables (often denoted as \(x\)).
The goal of linear regression is to find the best-fitting linear relationship that describes the data. This
linear relationship is represented by an equation of the form:
\[ y = \beta_0 + \beta_1 x_1 + \beta_2 x_2 + \ldots + \beta_n x_n + \epsilon \]

where:

- \( y \) is the dependent variable.

- \( x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n \) are the independent variables.

- \( \beta_0 \) is the y-intercept (the value of \( y \) when all \( x \)'s are zero).

- \( \beta_1, \beta_2, \ldots, \beta_n \) are the coefficients (slope) of the regression equation,
representing the change in \( y \) for a one-unit change in the corresponding \( x \).

- \( \epsilon \) is the error term, representing the difference between the predicted \( y \) and the
actual \( y \).

### Key Concepts:

1. **Ordinary Least Squares (OLS):**

- The most common method for estimating the coefficients in linear regression is the Ordinary
Least Squares method.

- It minimizes the sum of squared differences between the observed and predicted values of the
dependent variable.

2. **Assumptions:**

- Linear regression makes several assumptions, including linearity, independence, homoscedasticity

(constant variance of errors), and normality of errors.

3. **Fitting the Model:**

- The process of fitting a linear regression model involves estimating the coefficients that minimize
the sum of squared differences between the observed and predicted values.

- This is often done using optimization techniques.

### Steps in Implementing Linear Regression:

1. **Data Collection:**

- Gather data on the variables of interest: a dependent variable (response) and one or more
independent variables (predictors).
2. **Data Exploration:**

- Explore and visualize the data to understand the relationships between variables and identify
potential outliers.

3. **Data Preprocessing:**

- Handle missing values, transform variables if needed, and split the data into training and testing
sets.

4. **Model Building:**

- Use the training data to fit the linear regression model by estimating the coefficients.

5. **Model Evaluation:**

- Evaluate the model's performance using the testing set or other metrics like Mean Squared Error
(MSE) or R-squared.

6. **Interpretation:**

- Interpret the coefficients to understand the relationships between the independent and
dependent variables.

### Example in R:

Here's a simple example using R's built-in `lm` function for linear regression:

```R

# Generate sample data

set.seed(123)

x <- 1:100

y <- 2 * x + rnorm(100, mean = 0, sd = 10)

# Fit linear regression model

model <- lm(y ~ x)

# Summary of the model

summary(model)

```

In this example, `y` is a linear function of `x` with some random noise. The `lm` function is used to fit
the linear regression model, and `summary` provides information about the model, including
coefficients and statistical measures.

Linear regression is a foundational and widely used technique in statistics and machine learning for
modeling relationships between variables, making predictions, and understanding the underlying
patterns in data.