Inherited Change

Inheritance
 Genotype – genetic composition of an organism
 Phenotype – characteristics of an organism, often visible, resulting from both its phenotype
and its environments
 Locus – position of a gene on a chromosome
 Allele – one of a number of alternative forms of a gene
 Homozygous – condition in which the alleles of a particular gene are identical
 Heterozygous - condition in which the alleles of a particular gene are different
 Dominant – term applied to an allele that is always expressed in the phenotype
 Recessive – condition in which the effect of an allele is apparent in the phenotype of a
diploid cell organism only in the presence of another identical allele
 Diploid – term applied to cells in which the nucleus contains two sets of chromosomes
 Haploid – term referring to cells that contain only a single copy of each chromosome
 Codominant – condition in which both alleles for one gene in a heterozygous organism
contribute to the phenotype
 Law of Segregation – in diploid organisms, characteristics are determined by alleles that
occur in pairs. Only one of each pair of alleles can be present in a single gamete
 Law of independent assortment – Each member of a pair of alleles may combine randomly
with either of another pair

Monohybrid inheritance
 Inheritance dealing with one characteristic
 Types of inheritance:
o Dominant/Recessive – expected ratio = 3:1
o Codominant
o Multiple Allele
o Sex Linkage
 Why are Observed Ratios different from Expected Ratios?
o Random fertilisation of gametes
o Small sample size
o Mutation
o Selection

Dihybrid inheritance
 Two characters, determined by two different genes located on different chromosomes are
inherited
 Expected ratio = 9:3:3:1
 Dominant Alleles: S – Short tail, B – Brown
 Recessive Alleles: s – Long tail, b - White

Multiple Alleles
 When a gene has more than two alleles
 The ABO alleles is an excellent example of this:
o IA and IB are codominant, where as IO is recessive to both
o I = immunoglobulin
Blood Type Genotype Antigens produced Antibodies produced
A IA IA Antigen B Antigen A Antibodies
A O
I I
 B I B IB Antigen A Antigen B Antibodies
I B IO
AB I A IB Both Neither
O IO IO Neither Both

Sex Linkage
 A gene carried on one of the sex chromosomes, usually the X chromosome
 X chromosome is much longer than the Y chromosome, meaning some recessive alleles are
more common in males
 Haemophilia – the inability to produce a functional protein that is required in the clotting
process of blood
o Usually depicted as XH, Xh, Y as there is no gene on the Y chromosome

Autosomal Linkage
 Linked – genes on the same chromosome
 Linkage group – all the genes on a chromosome
 Autosome – name given to chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes
 Autosomal linkage – two or more genes are carried on the same autosome

Epistasis
 A condition when the allele of one gene masks or affects the expression of another in the
phenotype
 Expected ratio is always 9:3:4
 The expression of gene A (black bands) is affected by the expression of gene B (melanin
production)
 If bb, then no melanin is produced. This prevents the expression of gene A, hence an albino
coat
 If B is present in the genotype, melanin is produced. If A is also present then banding (or
agouti) is the coat. If aa is present with B then the coat is uniform black
 Another example is where genes act in sequence by determining the enzymes in a biological
pathway

Chi-squared test
 Requirements
o Large sample size – over 20
o Data must fall into discrete categories
o Only primary data (nothing that has already been calculated)
o Used to compare experimental results with theoretical ones
 The formula is:
2
2 (O-E)
o x =∑
E
o Where E = expected numbers and O = observed numbers
o Calculate expected numbers through a Punnett’s square and then ratios
 Degrees of freedom calculated by:
o Number of classes – 1
2
 If x ≥ critical value, then deviation is not significant
o Reject H0 and accept H1
2
 If x < ¿ critical value, then deviation is significant
o Reject H1 and accept H0
 Populations and Evolution

Hardy-Weinberg Principle
 Used to calculate the frequencies of the alleles of a particular gene in a population
 There are 5 assumptions that must be made to use the HWP
o No mutations arise
o Population is isolated
o No selection
o Large population
o Mating within the population is random
 The probability of each genotype occurring must = 1.0 (100%)
o Therefore, we can say AA + 2Aa + aa = 1.0
o When p = A and q = a, we can say p2 +2pq+ q 2 =1.0
o In addition, p+ q =1.0

Variation in Phenotype
 Variation due to genetic factors:
o Mutations
o Meiosis
o Random fertilisation of gametes – different combinations of alleles
 Variation due to environmental influences/selection pressures:
o Climatic conditions – temperature, rainfall, sunlight
o Soil conditions
o pH
o Food availability

Natural selection
 Selection pressures determine the frequency of all alleles within the gene pool
 Natural selection depends on:
o Organisms to produce more offspring than can be supported by the available
resources
o There is genetic variation within the populations of all species
o Variety of phenotypes that selectin operates against
 Over production of offspring
o With the aim that some of the offspring will make it to maturity
o There is often intraspecific competition in these cases
 Variation
o Conditions change over time, organisms must evolve to best suit the environment

Types of Selection
 Stabilising – preserves the average phenotype of a population by favouring average
individuals (selection against the extreme phenotypes)
o Occurs where the environmental conditions are constant over long periods of time
 Directional – changes in the phenotype of a population by favouring phenotypes that vary in
one direction from the mean of the population (selection for one extreme phenotype)
o When selection pressures change, and favourable alleles change
 Disruptive – favours individuals with extreme phenotypes rather than those with
phenotypes around the mean of the population (selection of the intermediate phenotypes)
o Least common form of selection
Isolation and Speciation
 Allelic frequencies and how selections affect them
o The number of times an allele occurs within the gene pool is referred to as the allelic
frequency
o Environmental changes affect the probability of an allele being passed on in a
population, hence the number of times it occurs within the gene pool
 Speciation
o Evolution of new species from existing ones, members of a species are
reproductively separated from other species
o Adaptive Radiation – the different phenotypes each combination of alleles produces
will be subject to selection pressure that will lead to each population becoming
adapted to its local environment
o Genetic drift – as there are few members of a population, there are few alleles to
pass on. Therefore, any form of mutation will quickly spread across the whole
population
 There are two forms of speciation:
o Allopatric – one population becomes geographically separated, if the environment
changes in either of these two locations then that population adapts
o Sympatric – speciation within a population in the same area leading to them
becoming reproductively separated
 Types of variation:
o Geographical – isolated by physical barriers
o Ecological – populations inhabit different habitats within the same area, so
individuals rarely meet
o Temporal – breeding seasons of each population don’t coincide, so they don’t
interbreed
o Behavioural – prevention of mating due to courtship rituals which are initiated by
colour of markings (genetic change in colour)
o Mechanical – Anatomical differences may prevent mating occurring (physically
impossible)
o Gametic – genetic or biochemical incompatibility
o Hybrid sterility – formed from the fusion of gametes from different species are often
sterile because they cannot produce viable gametes

Populations in Ecosystems

 Ecosystem – all the living and non-living components of a particular area

 Population – a group of individuals of the same species that occupy the same habitat at the
same time
 Community – all the living organisms present in an ecosystem at a given time
  Habitat – the place where an organism normally lives, and which is characterised by physical
conditions and the types of other organisms present
 Ecological niche – describes how an organism fits into its environment. It describes what a
species is like, where it occurs, how it behaves, its interactions with other species and how it
responds to its environment
 Species – a group of similar organisms that can breed together to produce fertile offspring
 Carrying capacity – the size of a population that can be sustained over a relatively long
period
 Intraspecific competition – individuals of the same species compete with one another for
resources
 Interspecific competition – individuals of different species compete for resources

Abiotic Factors – non-living

 Light – carrying capacity can be increased with increased light intensity
 pH – affects enzyme action, population is larger where the appropriate pH exists
 Water and Humidity – affects transpiration rates in plants and the evaporation of water from
the bodies of animals

Biotic Factors – living

 Predation – one organism consumed by another
o Predator-prey relationship (more death, leads to less food, less predators, more prey
and cycle continues)
 Selection pressure can be seen here as organisms who are able to escape predators / with
stand disease are more likely to survive and breed

Growth of populations
 Population growth = (births + immigration) – (deaths + immigration)
population change during the period
 % population growth = X 100
population at the start of the period

Investigating population growth

 Quadrats
o Obtain a map of the area
o Divide the map into grids
o Select a large number of coordinates using a running mean
o Select a random set of coordinates using a random number chart
o In each coordinate place a quadrat
o Measure abundance of the plant species in each quadrat = frequency or percentage
cover
o Calculate average for the whole area
 Belt transects
o Place a tape along the path, at regular intervals along the tape place a quadrat,
measure abundance within the quadrat
 Measuring abundance
o Frequency – likelihood of a particular species occurring in a quadrat
o Percentage cover – an estimate of the area within a quadrat that a particular plant
species covers
 Mark-release-recapture
o Set a trap
o Capture the animal species [Sample 1]
 o Mark them (tag or fluorescent marker – ensure its non-toxic and not harmful)
o Release them
o After some time (enough time for them to mix with the whole population)
o Replace the trap
o Count number in 2nd set [Sample 2] and count the number marked
o Estimated population size =
total number in first sample X total number in second sample
number of marked individuals in second sample
 Assumptions of mark-release-recapture
o No births or deaths
o No immigration or emigration
o Marked animals mix evenly with population
o Mark is not toxic
o Mark does not come off
o Large population

Succession
 How an ecosystem changes over time – relies on an environment being made less hostile by
present species via death and decomposition leading to it being outcompeted and replaced
by better more adapted species
 Primary Succession – occurs on new land – slow process
o new land appears (glacier retreats exposing rock, lava cools, sand dunes)
o pioneer species settle – adapted to surviving in hostile conditions of bare land
o pioneer species are:
 producers that have mutualistic nitrogen-fixing bacteria
 asexually reproduce (one parent, genetically identical, faster)
o xerophytes
 handle extreme conditions (extreme wind and temperatures on bare land)
 have wind dispersed seeds (spread wide – reduce competition, find favourable
environments)
 can anchor to land
o over time, the land erodes and soil forms, pioneer species die and decompose adding
humus and nutrients to the soil
o small plants can now grow, they out compete the pioneer species
o over time, more soil forms, small plants die and decompose adding more humus and
nutrients to the soil
o large plants can now grow, they out compete the small plants
o this process continues until the climax community is reached
o the climax community contains the best adapted species to the environment (they are
the final community, there will be no more succession after them)
 Secondary succession – occurs when land that has already sustained life is suddenly altered,
as the result of land clearance for agriculture or forest fire – often faster as the soil already
contains the minerals required
 Properties of succession:
o species diversity increases (peaks just before climax – species in climax will out
compete others)
o habitat diversity increases
o environment becomes less hostile
o food chains become more complex & biomass increases
Conservation of habitats
 Management of the Earth’s natural resources by humans in such a way that maximum use of
them can be made in the future
 Reasons for conservation:
o Personal – maintain our life support system
o Ethical – coexistence with other organisms
o Economic – long-term productivity is greater if ecosystems are maintained in their
natural balanced state
o Cultural and aesthetic – habitats enrich our lives