Lesson 2

Mechanisms that Produces Change in

Populations
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the student is expected to:
• identify explain that genetic variation is the prerequisite and should
therefore be present for any genetic process to cause change in
populations from generation to generation;
• state the Hardy-Weinberg Principle;
• enumerate the conditions that should be present for a gene or in a larger
scale, a population, to attain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium; and
• calculate gene and genotype frequencies and derive the Hardy-
Weinberg equation
• enumerate the genetic mechanisms that cause change in populations;
• explain how each genetic mechanism causes change in populations;
and
• calculate the change in gene and genotype frequencies cause by
selection

2.1 Population Genetics

Definition 2.1 Population

A group of individuals of the same species occupying a particular geographic

area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring. Populations may be relatively small
and closed, as on an island or in a valley, or they may be more diffuse and without
a clear boundary between them and a neighboring population of the same species.

Relevant vocabulary:
• Population Genetics – study of how populations change genetically over time
• Evo-Devo (Evolutionary + Developmental Biology) – Evolution of new forms as
a result from changes in DNA or regulation of developmental genes.
• Heterochrony – Evolutionary change in rate of developmental events
• Homeotic Genes – Master regulatory genes determine location and organization
of body parts. (E.g. Hox genes on insect)
• Gene pool - all of the alleles for all genes in all the members of the population
*Diploid species: 2 alleles for a gene (homozygous/heterozygous)
• Fixed allele - all members of a population only have 1 allele for a particular trait
*The more fixed alleles a population has, the LOWER the species’ diversity

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2.2 Sources of Genetic Variation

Definition 2.2 Genetic Variation

Darwin did not know how organisms passed traits to offspring. Mendelian
genetics supports Darwin’s theory that evolution is based on genetic variation.

2.2.1 Point Mutations

- alteration in 1 base pair of a gene
(ex. Sickle cell Disease)
2.2.2 Chromosomal Mutations
- Chromosomes, distinct structures made up of DNA and protein, are located in
the nucleus of each cell. Because chromosomes are the carriers of the genetic material,
abnormalities in chromosome number or structure can result in disease. Chromosomal
abnormalities typically occur due to a problem with cell division.
(ex. Delete, duplicate, disrupt, rearrange)
2.2.3 Sexual Recombination
- contributes to most of genetic variation in a population
a. Crossing Over (Meiosis – Prophase I)
b. Independent Assortment of Chromosomes (during meiosis)
c. Random Fertilization (sperm + egg)
2.2.4 Preserving Genetic Variation
a. Diploidy - hide recessive alleles that are less favorable
b. Heterozygote advantage - greater fitness than homozygotes
e.g. Sickle cell disease

2.3 Hardy-Weinberg Principle

Definition 2.3 Hardy-Weinberg Principle

“The allele and genotype frequencies of a population will remain constant

from generation to generation UNLESS they ae acted upon by forces other than
Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles.”
When gene frequencies remain constant from generation to generation, the
population exhibits Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and is therefore a non- evolving
population. When any of the conditions is not fulfilled, there would be changes in
gene frequencies and the population is said to be evolving.

2.3.1 Hardy Weinberg Equation

I. Allele Frequencies
Gene with two alleles:
p = frequency of dominant allele (A)
q = frequency of recessive allele (a)

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 II. Genotypic Frequencies
3 genotypes (AA, Aa, aa)
• p2 = AA (homozygous dominant)
• 2pq = Aa (heterozygous)
• q2 = aa (homozygous recessive)

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 2.3.2 Sample problems
#1 A population of rabbits may be brown (the dominant phenotype) or white (the
recessive phenotype). Brown rabbits have the genotype BB or Bb. White rabbits have the
genotype bb. The frequency of the BB genotype is 0.35
 What is the frequency of heterozygous rabbits?
 What is the frequency of the B allele?
 What is the frequency of the b allele?

#2 The frequency of two alleles in a gene pool is 0.19 (A) and 0.81(a). Assume that the
population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
• Calculate the percentage of heterozygous individuals in the population.
• Calculate the percentage of homozygous recessives in the population.

#3 If 98 out of 200 individuals in a population express the recessive phenotype, what

percent of the population are heterozygotes?

#4 In corn, kernel color is governed by a dominant allele for white color (W) and by a
recessive allele (w). A random sample of 100 kernels from a population that is in H-W
equilibrium reveals that 9 kernels are yellow (ww) and 91 kernels are white.
• Calculate the frequencies of the yellow and white alleles in this population.
• Calculate the percentage of this population that is heterozygous.

2.3.3 Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

1. No mutations.
2. Random mating.
3. No natural selection.
4. Extremely large population size.
5. No gene flow.
* If at least one of these conditions is NOT met, then the population is EVOLVING!

2.4 Causes/Mechanisms of Evolution

I. Mutations
o Considered as minor cause of evolution
o Very rare and bring about small changes in allele frequencies
II. Non-random Mating
o Considered as minor cause of evolution
o Affect genotypes, but not allele frequencies
III. Natural Selection
o One of the major causes of evolution
o Individuals with variations better suited to environment pass more alleles
to next generation
*Fitness: the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation
A. Types of Selection:
Natural selection can alter frequency distribution of heritable traits
in 3 ways:

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 • Directional: individuals that display a more extreme form of a trait have greater
fitness than individuals with an average form of a trait. (e.g. larger black bears
survive extreme cold better than small ones)
• Disruptive: individuals with either extreme variation of a trait has greater fitness
than the individuals with the average form of the trait (e.g. small beaks for small
seeds; large beaks for large seeds)
• Stabilizing: Individuals with the average form of a trait have the highest fitness
(e.g. narrow range of human birth weight)

B. Sexual Selection - Form of natural selection – certain individuals more

likely to obtain mates
• Sexual dimorphism - difference between 2 sexes such as their
size, color, ornamentation, behavior

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 • Intrasexual – selection within same sex (e.g.
Male competes with another Male)
• Intersexual – mate choice (e.g. Female
chooses showy Male)
* Natural selection cannot fashion perfect
organisms.
1. Selection can act only on existing variations.
2. Evolution is limited by historical constraints.
3. Adaptations are often compromising.
4. Chance, natural selection, and the environment
interact.

IV. Genetic Drift

o One of the major causes of evolution
o Change in frequency of an existing gene variant in a population due
to random sampling of organisms
o Small populations have greater chance of fluctuations in allele
frequencies from one generation to another
Example:
• Founder Effect - few individuals isolated
from larger population. Certain alleles
under/over represented
• Bottleneck Effect - Sudden change in
environment drastically reduces population size

V. Gene Flow
o Movement of fertile individuals between populations
o Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another.
o The population gene pool either gain or lose alleles
o Reduces genetic differences between populations

Reference Book:
Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, 14th ed by Starr, Evers, & Starr (2014)
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