THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Stimuli – Processing - Response

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• an organ system composed of nerves and glial cells that carry
messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to the different parts of
the body

Sensory and
Perception
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
SENSORY INPUT
• information received by the sensory receptors
of our 5 senses (eyes, nose, tongue, ears, skin)
• monitors the body’s internal conditions and
surroundings

INTEGRATION
• decision making
• processing of the information and deciding
what should be done about it

MOTOR OUTPUT
• response that occurs when the nervous system
activates the parts of our body
SENSORY RECEPTORS
MECHANORECEPTORS PAIN RECEPTORS
• physical stimuli • responds to excess heat, pressure,
chemicals, etc
THERMORECEPTORS ELECTROMAGNETIC RECEPTORS
• detect changes in temperature • detect electromagnetic energy

CHEMORECEPTORS
• detects chemical substances or
solutes
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS TISSUES
• densely packed of
cells

Neurons (nerve cells)

• transmit signals
throughout the body

Neuroglia (glial cells)

• connection, support,
and protection of
neurons
 NEURONS

Cell body – nucleus and organelles

Dendrites – receive information from other
neurons and brings to cell body
Axons – wrapped with myelin sheath;
transmits information away from the cell body
NEURONS send action Node of Ranvier – gaps in the myelinated
potentials or nerve axons; allow ions to diffuse in and out of
impulses responsible for neurons
all our body’s responses Synapse – junction between 2 neurons
(actions, thoughts, Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers
emotions, etc). sent across synapses
TYPES OF NEURONS
 CELL TYPE FUNCTION
Central Nervous System
blood-brain barrier,;
anchors the neurons to
their blood supply;
Astrocyte
exchange of nutrients
between neurons and
capillaries
immune cells of the
Microglial cells nervous system;
phagocyte
lines the brain and the
Ependymal cells spinal cord; produces
CSF
wrap around neurons;
Oligodendrocytes
produces myelin sheath
Peripheral Nervous System
same function as
Satellite cells
astrocytes
Schwann cells same function as
oligodendrocytes
How does a neuron send
nerve impulses?
 MEMBRANE
POTENTIAL
• difference in charge between two regions
separated by a membrane

Why is there a difference

in charge? Where does
this come from?
Outside (+) – sodium ions,
Na+ Outside the neurons

Inside (-) – potassium ions,

K+ and negatively-charged
proteins

Electrochemical Gradient –
varying concentrations of
ions inside and outside a
cell; diffusion

Inside the neurons

SODIUM-POTASSIUM
PUMPS

For every two K+ ions that enters the

neuron, it pumps out three Na+ ions.

This creates a difference in the

concentration of the ions inside and
outside the neuron and THUS A
DIFFERENCE IN CHARGE (MEMBRANE
POTENTIAL).
When do neurons
create responses?
ACTION POTENTIAL
• also known as nerve impulses
• needed to produce responses of the body
• caused by the opening of voltage-gated
channels
The bigger the difference in
charges between the inside and
outside of the cell, the bigger is
the potential – the more intense
the action potential will be.
What creates an
action potential?
Membranes are what creates an
action potential by separating the
positive and negative regions.
ION CHANNELS
• Voltage-gated Channels
• Ligand-gated Channels
• Mechanically-gated Channels
1. When a neuron
has a negative
membrane
potential, it is said to
be POLARIZED.

Resting Membrane
Potential = -70 mV

2. A neuron is
depolarized if is able
to produce a big
change in the
membrane potential
enough to open a
lot of the voltage-
gated channels
(sodium channels).
3. During
depolarization, the
membrane potential
of the neuron
becomes more
positive (40 mV)
resulting to an action
potential in which it
sends electrical
signals to its axons.

4. During
repolarization, sodium
channels close and
potassium channels
open.

5. Hyperpolarization
occurs when the
membrane potential
drops to ≥ 75 mV.
 SALTATORY
CONDUCTION
• propagation of action potentials along axons coated with myelin sheets from
one node of Ranvier to the next
• increases conduction velocity of action potentials
• affects the transmission speed of neurons
What happens next when an action
potential reaches the end of an axon?
SYNAPSES
• junction between neurons
• communication links between neurons
• use neurotransmitters (chemical signals) that diffuse across a
synaptic gap to deliver a message to another neuron

PRE-SYNAPTIC CELL
• the cell sending the signal
• axon terminal
• contains synaptic vesicle enclosing neurotransmitters

POST-SYNAPTIC CELL
• the cell receiving the signal
• accepts the neurotransmitters in the dendrites having ligand-gated
channels
When an action potential reaches an
axon terminal, it opens the voltage-gated
Ca2+ channels.

The entry of calcium ions inside the cell

causes the synaptic vesicles to fuse with
the cell membrane and release the
neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters bind to the ligand-

gated ion channels in the dendrites of the
post-synaptic cell causing them to open,
generating again an action potential.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• chemical messengers
• can be broken down by enzymes in the synapse or
can be recycled

RE-UPTAKE
• neurotransmitters can be re-absorbed by the pre-
synaptic cell

TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• Excitatory neurotransmitters - depolarizes a post-
synaptic cell
• Inhibitory neurotransmitters – hyperpolarizes a post-
synaptic cell
 EXAMPLES OF
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
DOPAMINE
• pleasure
• linked to depression and anxiety

SEROTONINE
• inhibitory neurotransmitter
• associated with mood and sleep

OXYTOCIN
• associated with mood
• contraction of muscles
 REFLEXES
• simple, automatic response to a stimulus

REFLEX ARC
• Stimulus is detected by sensory receptors.
• Sensory (afferent) neurons send the
information to CNS.
• Interneurons in the CNS processes the
information during integration.
• Motor (efferent) neurons sends information
away from CNS.
• Responses are made by effector organs
(muscles, glands)
 THE HUMAN BRAIN
MIDBRAIN
• brain stem
• Receives and processes the sensory
information
• unconscious responses

HINDBRAIN
• center in the brain responsible for
involuntary movements especially in
the respiratory and circulatory system
• associated in sleep and appetite

FOREBRAIN
• regulation of body temperature,
reproductive functions, eating,
sleeping, and the display of emotions
(limbic system)
CEREBRUM
muscle movements, motor
skills, concentration, future,
language, comprehension,
speech Sensation (touch,
pain, pressure)
GRAY MATTER
• cerebral cortex

WHITE MATTER
• white color caused by
myelinated axons

FISSURE
visual recognition
• separates the 2
hemispheres
• corpus callosum processing of auditory
information, written
and spoken language