2.

1 Evolution

Evolution

 change in the keritable characteristics of biological populations over successive

generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes that are passed on from
parent to offspring during reproduction
 the central idea of biological evolution is that all life on earth shares a common ancestor

Through the process of descent with modification the common ancestor of life on earth gave
rise to the fantastic diversity that we see dpcumented in the fossil record and around us today.

Terminologies
Population - a group of individuals of the same species living a particular area at the
same time
Gene Pool - all alleles of a population's genes
Allele- Frequency - the percentage of any one specific allele
Variations - differences among members of a species
Genetic Equilibrium - if the allelic frequency stays the same over many generations

Mechanisms of Evolution
Anything that changes the frequency of alleles in a population is a mechanism of
evolution
1. Natural Selection - individuals with the best adapted phenotypes will survive and pass
on their genes to the next generation
2. Mutation - a mutuation in a parents' DNA could result in offspring with different alleles,
changing the allele frequency of the population
3. Genetic Drift - genetic drift occurs when the allele frequency of a population changes
by chance
4. Gene flow (migration) - gene flow is any movement of genes from one population to
another
5. Non-random mating - if organisms can choose their mating partners, then the more
desirable alleles will have a higher frequency in future populations
2.2 Natural Selection

Selection

 process whereby organisms that are better adapted to their environment survive and
reproduce while those less adapted fail to do so.
 it depends upon the existence of phenotypic variation within the population.
Types of Selection:
1. Natural - is a biological theory that explains why organisms seem to match their
environmental niches so well
 Charles Darwin
o He proposed the theory of natural selection in his publication, on the
origin of species
o Father of Evolutionary thought
o Author of the book On the Origin of Species by means of Natural
Selection
o One of the organisms he observed to support his theory was the Beak
variation of Galapagos finches.
o According to him, Natural selection should be capable of substantial
modification of species over many hundreds of generations. Even if the
advantages of some heritable traits over others are slight, the
advantageous variations will gradually accumulate in the population, and
less favorable variations will diminish.
 was able to provide concrete evidences that evolution is not just an idea
 Fitness - describes how successful an organism has been at passing on its
genes. Fitness has a great influence to which trait will be passed on to the next
generation
 ability of an organism to reproduce/pass its genes
 it brings about adaptation and evolution.
Major Features of Natural Selection
1. Individuals with beneficial traits are more likely to be 'selected' that is, to have
more offspring than individuals with other, less beneficial traits.
2. When those traits have a heritable component they tend to become more
common in the next generation.
3. Alleles with an average result in greater fitness become more abundant in the
next generation, while alleles with generally reduced fitness become rarer.
4. If the selection forces remain the same for many generations. beneficial
alleles become more and more abundant, while alleles with lesser fitness
disappear.
Example:
The Galapagos Island has 13 species of finches. These finches are closely related but differ in
the shape of their beaks. The beak of species is suited to its food. This suggests that the beak's
shapes evolved by natural selection.
Stabilizing Selection
Selection favors intermediate states. The intermediate states become more
common and each extreme variation will become less common or lost
Example: Human Birth Weight

Disruptive Selections
favors individuals at both extremes of a characteristic range
Example: Population of White, Black, and Gray Rabbits, placed on an
environment with black rocks and white rocks. Both white rabbits and black
rabbits can hide from predators, while gray rabbits will be eaten.

Directional Selection
occurs when a certain allele has greater fitness than others resulting in an
increase in the frequency of that allele until it is fixed in the population gene pool
Examples: Human height
Sexual Selection
special kind of selection that acts on traits that help animals increase their
chances of mating
Example: The male peacock has an elaborate train (tail) to attract the peahen to
mate.

Polymorphism
many different phenotypes found in a population, each group represents a morph
(form)
Example: Two morphs of the moth, Boston betularia

(para kasya, nakarotate xd)

2.3 Artificial Selection

Artificial Selection
2. Artificial Selection – process of intentional or unintentional modification of a species
through human actions that encourage the breeding of certain traits over others
 breeding process does not happen naturaly and comes from external force
 Negative effects of Artificial Breeding
o It removes variation in a population
o Organisms can be susceptible to diseases or changes in the environment

Major Features of Artificial Selection

1. The genotype is altered to produce a new strain of the organism for a specific
purpose.
2. Human preferences or influences have a significant effect on the evolution of a
particular population or species.
3. Selective breeding, an example of Artificial Selection, in which particular
individuals are selected for breeding because they possess desired
characteristics or excluded from breeding because their traits are undesirable.
Examples of organisms that were products of Artificial Selection
1. Domesticated dogs such as Chihuahua and Great Dane.
2. Carrots, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, brussel sprouts, collards and kale are al
members of Brassica oleracea.

3. Thorough breed Race-Horsing

4. Cats and dogs originally domesticated for pest control, hunting or sheepherding
were bred to become working companions.
Negative Effects of Artificial Breeding
1. It removes variation in a population
2. Organisms can be susceptible to diseases  or changes in the environment . 

Remember, natural selection is not evolution. It is a driving force for evolution to happen.