VARIATION AND EVOLUTION (pg 310)

 Environmental variation: the environment causes variation only in the phenotype. This
variation is not inherited.

 Genetic variation: this is the differences in the genetic make-up of every organism. It is
inherited from its parents.
It is important as it can ensure a species survival if the environment changes drastically.

 Theory of natural selection by Charles Darwin: parents produce many offsprings but
many of them do not survive. Only those individuals that are best adapted to the
environment will be more likely to survive and reproduce. The offsprings will then
inherit the advantageous characteristics.

 Natural selection: the environment ‘selects’ those individuals that are best adapted to it’.
It is also known as ‘survival of the fittest’.
Eg peppered moth, Galapagos finches, bacterial resistance to antibiotics, pesticide
resistance, the radiation of Caribbean lizards.

 Artificial selection: humans select plants or animals with useful characteristics. Only
these organisms are allowed to produce offsprings eg. plant and animal breeding.

 Evolution: occurs because of natural selection where 1 species changes or evolves into
another. This is a very slow process.

 Mutation: this is when a change in the chromosome or DNA of an organism occurs and
it results in a change in the genotype of an organism. An example of gene mutation is
sickle cell anaemia and an example of chromosome mutation is Down’s syndrome.
In asexual reproduction (clones) variation can occur because of mutations.

 Genetic counseling: this is where a person at risk for the inherited disorder is informed
about the chances of developing the disease, what is disease is, health problems that can
occur, how to manage the disease and family planning. Eg. anaemia

 Antibiotic resistance in bacteria: this is a serious problem. When antibiotics are used
on a population of bacteria, any individuals with the resistance genes will survive and
most of the rest will be killed. The resistant bacteria will then multiply producing
populations of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The widespread use of antibiotics like
penicillin has caused many kinds of bacteria to become resistant (they are not affected) to
these drugs.

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  Genetic engineering: this involves changing the traits or genes of one organism by
inserting genetic material from another organism.

Advantages of genetic engineering Disadvantages of genetic engineering

The development of high-performance
food crops that grow quickly with less
use of fertilizers. This can help millions
of people that are starving.
Disease resistance in crop plants which
reduce the need for pesticides.
Increased growing rates in salmon and
chicken.
-Medical treatment eg incorporating the
beta carotene gene in rice for areas
affected by night blindness.
Could eating genetically modified foods
(GMO’s) affect human health?
Are we ‘playing’ God by changing God’s
creation?
If GMO’s are released into the wild this
could reduce the genetic diversity and
survival of species if the environment
changes.

Human insulin is now made in bacteria as a result of genetic engineering. It is produced by

inserting the human gene (that code for insulin) into bacteria and allowing them to grow and
multiply and produce insulin. Human insulin is then separated, purified and produced on a large
scale and used by thousands of diabetics.

-Some other advantages of genetic engineering are in: fingerprinting, DNA testing, gene therapy
(the introduction of normal genes into cells in place of missing or defective ones in order to
correct genetic disorders), captive breeding programmes (allows a species to achieve a
population size large enough so the species can be reintroduced into the wild in areas which it
once inhabited).

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 THE BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT.

Species: a group of closely related organisms that is able to interbreed and produce fertile
offsprings.
When two unrelated species mate, their offspring will die or if it survives, it will be infertile
Eg a mule (a cross between female horse and male donkey)

HOW ARE NEW SPECIES FORMED? (pg 315)

Speciation: the process by which populations evolve to become distinct species. It takes
millions of years. As a species evolve and branch off, they cannot interbreed with members of
the original species any longer.
This process is caused by:
1) Geographical isolation/ speciation: a population can be cut off from the rest by a physical
barrier such as a river forming, rise of a mountain range. This results in each population
evolving differently due to natural selection, eventually forming a new species. Eg Darwin’s
finches.
2) Behavioural speciation: this prevents some members of a population from mating with other
members. This may be due to individuals coming into their mating seasons at different times.
For example, two frog species living in the same environment could technically mate, but they
do not mate due to behavioral barriers. If the frog's courtship behaviors are too different, then
the individuals don't recognize each other as potential mates so they won't mate.
3) Ecological speciation: this is where members of a species adapt to different environments and
are isolated from each other. This results in each population evolving differently so a new
species is formed. For example there are two populations of the Bahamas mosquito fish. One
has a larger more powerful tail than the other. This group lives in an area where they have
predators. Their tails give them the ability to survive and escape. The other less powerful group
lives in an area where they have no predators. Each fish chooses the same type to mate with.

 Species can also go extinct by: hunting, habitat loss, disease eg the Caribbean Monk Seal.