INTRODUCTION TO GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) have had their DNA artificially modified by humans, using modern
genetic manipulation techniques by changing the DNA. So, changing the genome of an organism, means we
can change its characteristics.

Humans have been artificially altering the genomes of plants and animals for thousands of years by selective
breeding. Today with advances of genetic engineering techniques, means we can speed this process up by
incorporating specific new genes from one species into a completely unrelated species.

Crops, farm animals, and soil bacteria are three of the most common uses of Genetic Engineering to make
GMOs. The cotton plant that grows for your t-shirt, might have been genetically modified to be pest resistant or
the bacteria modified to produce life-saving medicines as well as the better-known GM crops that we eat.

Then, there is some wacky organisms like spider goats and glow in the dark mice. Firstly, let us find out how
genetic modification happens. The short answer is there are a couple of different ways. There are several
techniques that can be used to modify a genome, but the main one relies on bacteria. Bacteria are single-
celled organisms that do not have a nucleus like our cells but instead of one main circle of DNA called the
circular chromosome and lots of tiny circles of DNA called plasmids. In GMOs, it is all about the plasmids they
are useful tiny bits of DNA that can contain one or several genes.

The thing about plasmids is that they can be passed between bacteria as easily as shaking hands. So,
plasmids are super important of how genetic modification happens. To the steps of using the human insulin
gene:

As an Example: First, we cut the gene for human insulin for a human cell using an enzyme. We then use the
same enzyme to cut the circular bacterial plasmid open and stick the insulin gene and the plasmid together.
Then we put the modified plasmid back into bacterial cell and we wait. But, not for too long, as bacterial cells
divide roughly once every 30 minutes, and a little while later we have millions of bacteria producing the human
insulin protein and excreting it. The human insulin is filtered out and purified and can be used by people with
diabetes.
Spider goats are also a great example of genetically modified organism. They are not as scary as they sound,
their goats had the spider silk gene inserted into their DNA. So, when the female goats lactate reduced breast
milk, the milk contains spider silk. The spider silk is incredible, it is as strong as steel but so light, their strand
long enough to circle the Earth would weigh, less than 500 grams.

Scientists have used genetic modification to introduce genes that glow under UV light, such as from jellyfish
into other animals for medical research. This may seem totally useless being able to see certain cells in the
dark, has led to a lot of scientific discoveries. Glow-in-the-dark mice and fish have helped scientists make new
breakthrough research into treating cancer, Parkinson’s, and spinal cord injuries. And glow-in-the-dark cats
have been used for HIV research. Crops can also be genetically modified to make them more pest resistant, to
have a nutritional benefit, like additional Vitamin A.

Let’s Discuss GMO Effects on the Environment:

I love the environment, so I don’t think I like GMOs.

Actually, GMOs are one of the best tools farmers have to protects and preserve our water, air, land, and even
limit the impact of climate change. GMOs are one of several plant breeding technologies that help farmers
grow more food using less inputs like pesticides and land. In fact, during the last 20 years, GMOs have
reduced pesticide applications by more than 8% and increased crop yields by 22%. This increased yield
means farmers kept 48 million acres of land from agricultural production, decreasing potential deforestation
and harm to ecosystems. Without GMO seeds, we would need to convert the equivalent of almost all of our US
national parks to farmland to get the same amount of yield.

GMOs also help improve our air quality. GMO crops allow farmers to till their fields less often, using less tractor
fuel and releasing less trapped CO2 in the soil, reducing carbon emissions by 58.8 billion lbs. That is like
removing nearly 12 million cars from the road for a whole year. GMOs also help reduce water pollution. Less
oil till also means better moisture retention in the soil and reduced run-off, saving more than 6,400 bodies of
water from clogging by soil, crop residue and chemicals.

GMOs benefit not only the environment but also our daily lives. Without them, we would have increased CO2
emissions, crop yield declines and a major loss of forest and pastureland.

1. Improve Air Quality

2. Protect Land
3. Conserve Water
4. Sustainable Food Production.
 GENETIC ENGINEERING

 What is Genetic Engineering?

o It is an artificial manipulation or alteration of genes.

 Genetic Engineering Involves:

o Removing a gene (target gene) from one organism
o Inserting target gene into DNA of another organism
o ‘cut and paste’ process.

Important terms!

Recombinant DNA: the altered DNA is called recombinant DNA (recombines after small section of DNA
inserted to it).

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): is the organism with the altered DNA.

GENETIC ENGINEERING BREAKS THE SPECIES BARRIER!!!

 Genetic Engineering allows DNA from different species to be joined together.

 This often results in combinations of DNA that would never be possible in nature. For this reason,
genetic engineering is not a natural process.

 If DNA is transferred from one species to another the organism that receives the DNA is said to be
transgenic.
WHAT IS A GENETICALLT MODIFIED ORGANISM (GMO)?

o Man has been manipulating DNA in plants and animals for millennia.
o genetically modified organism: an organism or microorganism whose genetic material has been altered
by mean of genetic engineering.
o Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an
organism's genome using biotechnology. 

Transgenic - a gene is moved from one non-closely related species to another.

Cisgenic/intragenic - a gene is moved within the same species or a closely related species.

Subgenic - a gene is edited to amplify, delete, insert, silence, or repress the gene.

Some genetic engineering techniques are as follows:

1. Artificial selection

A. selective breeding
B. hybridization
C. inbreeding

2. Cloning
3. Gene splicing
4. Gel electrophoresis: analyzing DNA
1. Artificial Selection: breeders choose which organism to mate to produce offspring with desired traits.
• They cannot control what genes are passed.
• When they get offspring with the desired traits, the maintain them.

Three types of artificial selection:

A. selective breeding
B. hybridization
C. inbreeding

A. Selective Breeding: when animals with desired characteristics are mated to producing offspring with
those desired traits.

 Passing of important genes to next generation

 Example: Champion racehorses, cows with tender meat, large juicy oranges on a tree.
 For example: people breed dogs for specific purposes.
 Dachshund were once bred to hunt badgers and other burrowing animals.
 They must be small to fit into the animal’s hole in the ground.
 Selective breeding occurs when you choose the best male and female to breed.
 This allows you to fine tune and control the traits.
 The offspring or babies will then have the best traits.
 Then you continue to breed those organisms with the best traits, those traits will be maintained.

Examples of selective breeding:

o Angus cows are bred to increase muscle mass so that we get more meat,
o Egg-Laying Hen-produces more eggs than the average hen

B. Hybridizations: two individuals with unlike characteristics are crossed to produce the best in both
organisms.

Example: Luther Burbank created a disease resistant potato called the Burbank potato.

 He crossed a disease resistant plant with one that had a large food producing capacity.
 Result: disease resistant plant that makes a lot of potatoes.

LIGER: Lion and

Tiger Mix
 C. Inbreeding: breeding of organism that genetically like maintain desired traits.

 Dogs breeds are kept pure this way.

 It is how a Doberman remains a Doberman.
 It keeps each breed unique from others.
 Risk: since both have the same genes, the chance that a baby will get
a recessive genetic disorder is high.
 Risks: blindness, joint deformities.

 Variation: difference between individuals of a species.

 The differences are in the genes, but we see the physical differences.
 For example: Some humans have blond hair, and some have brown.
This is a variation among humans.
 Some finches have short beaks, some have long beaks.
 Inbreeding decreases variations.

2. Cloning: creating an organism that is an exact genetic copy of another.

• There are human clones in our school.

• identical twins are naturally created clones.
• Clone: group of cells or organisms that are genetically identical because of asexual reproduction
• They will have the same exact DNA as the parent.

How is cloning done?

 A single cell is removed from a parent organism.

 An entire individual is grown from that cell.
 Remember one cell has all the DNA needed to make an entire organism.
  Each cell in the body has the same DNA, but cells vary because different genes are turned on in
each cell.
Dolly:
 Dolly was the first mammal cloned.
 She had the same exact DNA as her mother and had no father.
 Cloning is a form of asexual reproduction.
 Only one genetic parent.

 Since Dolly, cats and other organisms have been cloned.

 The cat that was cloned had the same exact DNA but different color fur than the mother.
 How can this be?
 Environment plays a huge part in the way organisms develop.

 Eggs are haploid.

 Haploid: half the chromosomes, 23 in humans

 Body cells are diploid:

 Diploid: two sets of chromosomes, one from mom and one set from dad 46 in humans.

How could you clone a human?

 Step 1: An egg is removed from a female human.

 Eggs are haploid: 23 chromosomes.
 The nucleus of the egg is removed and is thrown away. 23
EGG CELL

 Step 2: A body cell is removed from another person.



The nucleus of the body cell is removed.
Body cells are diploid: 46 chromosomes. 46
Body Cell

 Step 3:
 The nucleus of the diploid body cell is put into the egg.
 This egg no longer needs to be fertilized since it has all 46
chromosomes. 46

 Step 4: The egg is then charged with electricity to start mitosis.

EGG CELL

 Step 5: Its then put into a surrogate mother so it can grow.

 Its going to be genetically identical to the parent of the body cell.
 But it will be a baby.
  Plants and animals can be cloned.

3. Gene splicing: DNA is cut out of one organism and put into another organism.

 A trait will be transferred from one organism to another.

 For example: the human insulin gene can be removed from a human cell.
 It can be put into a bacterial cell.
 The bacterial will now make human insulin.
 The red piece the woman is
holding is an insulin gene
from a human being. It is
being combined with DNA
from a bacterium.

Creates recombinant DNA,

something that has never
existed before.

Benefits:
• insulin is cheaper.
• There are no side effects because it is human insulin.
• We once used pig insulin but there are side effects and it more expensive.

How are genes cut for gene splicing?

• A bacterial plasmid is used.

• Plasmid: circular DNA in a bacteria cell.
• It is very simple and easy to manipulate.

 A restriction enzyme: enzyme that cuts the DNA at a specific code.

 There are thousands of restriction enzymes.
 Each cuts DNA at a different sequence.
 Some look for GGCC and cut in between the G and C.
 Every time GGCC is found in the DNA it is cut by the restriction enzyme.

 This DNA segment was cut twice creating three fragments.

 Since everyone is different, we all have a different amount of
times GGCC is found.
 My DNA may be cut seven times
 Yours may be cut ten times.
This is how a restriction enzyme works:

How is gene splicing done?

1. A restriction enzyme cuts the insulin gene out of the human DNA.
2. A plasmid is removed from a bacterium and cut with a restriction enzyme.

3. The human gene is place into the bacteria plasmid.

4. The plasmid is placed back into the bacteria.

 The cell now has directions (DNA) to make insulin.

 That is exactly what it does.
 Its human insulin, bacteria do not make insulin on their own.

Plasmid with
insulin gene
  This is called transformation: when a gene from one organism is transferred to different organism.
 The organisms that have DNA transferred to them are called transgenic organisms.

 trans: means different,

 genic: refers to genes.

 Genetic engineering has given rise to a new technological field called biotechnology (technology of
life).

1. Transgenic (GMO) animals: genes inserted into animals, so they produce what humans need.

Why? A way to improve the food supply:

A. Transgenic cows: gene inserted to increase milk production.

B. Spider goat: gene from spider inserted into goat.

• Goats makes silk of the spider web in their milk.

• Flexible, stronger than steel. Used in bullet proof jackets.

C. Glow-in-the-dark cats 

• Scientist used a virus to insert DNA from jellyfish.

• The gene made the cat produce a fluorescent protein in its fur.  

2. Transgenic bacteria: gene inserted into bacteria, so they produce things humans need.

• For example: insulin and clotting factors in blood are now made by bacteria.
3. Transgenic plants: plants are given genes, so they meet human needs.

A. Transgenic corn: given a gene so corn produces a natural pesticide.

Now they do not have to be sprayed with cancer causing pesticides.

• 25% of all corn is like this.

B. Venomous cabbage

 gene from a scorpion tails inserted into cabbage.

 Cabbage now produces that chemical.
 Why? Limit pesticides use while still preventing insects from damaging crops.
 Corporations state the toxin is modified so it isn’t harmful to humans.

C. Banana vaccines

 virus is injected into a banana; the virus DNA becomes part of the plant.
 As the plant grows, it produces the virus proteins — but not the disease part of the virus.
 When people eat a bite, their immune systems create antibodies to fight the disease — just like a
traditional vaccine.
 Vaccines for hepatitis and cholera

o A virus is often used to deliver DNA.

o In the movie “I Am Legend,” A healthy gene was inserted into a virus.
o The virus invaded the cancer cells and inserts the healthy gene to cure cancer.
o Worked at first but the virus mutated and became deadly.
o This is being attempted in real life.

 Gene therapy: when disease causing genes are cut out and good gene are inserted.
o Restriction enzymes are used to cut out bad genes.
o Viruses are used to insert good genes.
o Not approved for human use yet.
o Some possible side effects.

4. Gel electrophoresis: a technique used to compare

DNA from two or more organisms.

Why compare DNA:

1. Find your baby’s daddy
2. Who committed a crime.
3. How closely species are related.
How is electrophoresis done?

A. The DNA is cut into fragments with a restriction enzyme.

B. The cut DNA is then put into the wells of a machine filled with gel.
o The gel is spongy and the DNA squeezes through the pores.

C. The machine is plugged in and the fragments get separated based

on their size.
• The smaller fragments move further than the large.

Separation of DNA based

on size of fragments.

Result of electrophoresis

o Electricity provides the energy.

Why does DNA move?

o DNA has a negative charge.

o When the machine is plugged it, its moves towards the positive pole created by the electricity.
ELECTROPHORESIS

Your DNA is so unique it considered

to be a DNA fingerprint.
Gel electrophoresis will separate
your DNA differently from anyone
else.

Genetic engineering creates organisms with recombinant DNA.

Recombinant DNA: when DNA is combined from at least two
organisms.
Which techniques create recombinant DNA
1. Sexual reproduction: natural
2. selective breeding
3. Hybridization
4. Gene splicing

o Does cloning create organisms with recombinant DNA?

o No, the DNA from one organism is copied.
o DNA is not recombined.