Chapter 22: Genetic Modification

DNA is a molecule found in the nucleus of every cell and is made up of 4 subunits represented
by the letters A, T, G, and C. The order of these subunits in the DNA strand holds a code of
information for the cell. Just like the English alphabet makes up words using 26 letters, the
genetic language uses 4 letters to spell out the instructions for how to make the proteins which an
organism will need to grow and live.

Genetic modification (GM) -Genetic modification (GM), genetic manipulation (GM) and
genetic engineering (GE) all refer to the same thing – the use of modern biotechnology
techniques to change the genes of an organism, such as a plant or animal. A genetically modified
organism (GMO) is a plant, animal or other organism that has been changed using genetic
modification.

Some genetic engineering uses the principle of recombination. Recombination is the process
through which a new gene is inserted into a bacterial DNA "The plasmid". The DNA needs to
be cut with an enzyme called a restriction enzyme(restriction endonucleases). The restriction
enzyme used must have a specific shape that allows it to move along the DNA that is to be cut.
The restriction enzyme looks for a specific point in the DNA sequence at which to cut the DNA.

Some restriction enzymes make a straight cut and leave a blunt end. Others make a staggered cut
and leave a "Sticky end" which helps a new gene to attach at that point. Another enzyme is used
to attach the new DNA segment; this is called "DNA ligase". The new organism that received the
gene(s) is called a transgenic organism.

Genetically engineered
bacterium is cultured and
many new copies of the
bacteria with the new genes
are grown. Genetic
modifications can be made to
both plants and animals.
Biologists now use a method
to transfer a gene from any
cell to a bacterium. They
insert a gene into a plasmid and transfer it into a bacterium. This type of plasmid is called a
vector. Another type of vector is called bacteriophage or phage which is a virus that attacks a
bacterial cell and captures it to produce more viruses.
Uses of genetically modified bacteria: Different types of bacteria are modified to produce
different products. Some of them are given below:

Products Purpose

Human insulin Supplies diabetic people with sufficient amount of insulin

Washing powder enzymes Remove marks of stains and grease from clothes
Glucose Isomerase Enzymes that turns glucose into fructose which is more sweeter,
cheaper and healthier than glucose
Human Growth Hormone Restores normal patterns of dwarf children
Bovine Somatotrophin Increases amount of milk and meat in cattle
Human Vaccine Produces antigens of viral diseases and pushed into the human body.
The body then makes antibodies and builds resistance against the
disease.

Genetic Modification of Plants

Inserting genes into a plant cell would have been impossible if a

bacterium called Agrobacterium was not discovered. This
bacterium acts as a vector and easily inserts plasmids into plant
cells.

To apply it, a special technique called the gene gun method is

used. This gun shoots microscopic gold particles coated with
copies of the transgene (organism that contains gene of a
different species) into cells of the recipient organism. The genetically modified tissue then grows
into a new plant using the micropropagation technique.

Genetic engineering has increased the crop yields, improved agricultural practices, or added
nutritional quality to products. For example, transgenic crop plants are capable of degrading
weed killers and allowing farmers to spray weeds without affecting yield. Use of herbicide-
tolerant crops helped people greatly in decreasing soil erosion and water loss. Transgenic plants
that express insecticidal toxins resist attacks from insects. Crops engineered to resist insects are
an alternative to sprays, which may not reach all parts of the plant. They are also cost effective,
reducing the use of synthetic insecticides.
Genetic engineering has also been used to increase the nutritional value of food; for instance the
production of "golden rice". This rice had three genes, two of which came from daffodils and
one from a bacterium, Agrobacterium.

Together these genes allow the rice to make

beta-carotene. Moreover, this beta-carotene is
converted to vitamin A when eaten, thus saving
millions of children from vitamin A deficiency
diseases like night blindness.

Genetic engineering provides plants with:

Increased resistance to a range of pests

Increased heat and drought resistance
Increased salt tolerance
Increased nutritional value of crops

If genetic modification can upgrade plants like cereals and potatoes by forming root nodules on
their roots, then vast amount of fertilizers won’t be needed any more and the cost of producing
these plants would be much less.

If transgenic plants can help to prevent vitamin deficiencies, can they also produce vaccines?
Edible vaccines available in crops could help people in developing nations where transportation,
refrigeration, and disposable needle supplies are limited. Hugh Mason and his colleagues (Boyce
Thompson Institute) have expressed a gene that encodes an E. coli protein in potatoes.
Volunteers who ate raw, modified potatoes developed antibodies to the protein. Research is
underway to see whether the antibodies will protect against diarrhea induced by disease-causing
E. coli.

Genetically modified mammalsare an important category of genetically modified organisms.

Ralph L.Brinster and Richard Palmiter developed the techniques responsible for transgenic
mice, rats, rabbits, sheep, and pigs in the early 1980s and established many of the first transgenic
models of human disease, including the first carcinoma caused by a transgene. The process of
genetically engineering animals is a slow, tedious, and expensive process. However, new
technologies are making genetic modifications easier and more precise.

The first transgenic (genetically modified) animal was produced by injecting DNA into mouse
embryos then implanting the embryos in female mice.

Genetically modified animals currently being developed can be placed into six different classes
based on the intended purpose of the genetic modification:

To research human diseases

To produce industrial or consumer products
To produce pharmaceutical products
To enhance production or food quality
To improve animal health
To produce organs for transplantation

Genetically modified (genetically engineered) animals are becoming more vital to the discovery
and development of cures and treatments for many serious diseases. By altering the DNA or
transferring DNA to an animal, we can develop certain proteins that may be used in medical
treatment. Stable expressions of human proteins have been developed in many animals, including
sheep, pigs, and rats.

Moreover, the most advanced research involves the genetic modification of pigs to produce
hearts for xenotransplantation. It means transplanting animal organs into humans. The cells of
the pig’s organs get human antigens, so there is a possibility of acceptance. However, there are a
number of risks involved with it, these are:

a. There could be more rejections of xenotransplants than human transplants.

b. The transplanted organ may carry pathogens like virus, bacteria, etc.
c. Some passes can be hidden in the DNA of the transplanted organ and could pass unnoticed.
d. Treatment of the recipient with immune suppressant drugs could allow pathogens to
reproduce.