CHEMISTRY IGCSE NOTES

Chapter – 29

POLYMERS

Polymers – Polymers are formed by joining monomers or by condensing them.

Monomers are the smallest unit to represent a polymer. They can be repeated many times
to form the polymer. The repetition of monomers is called repeating unit.

Addition polymerisation

Addition polymerisation is done by joining up many small molecules called monomers to

make one big molecule called the polymer. For e.g. many ethene molecules are joined
together to make polythene. Some polymers are biodegradable but others are not. The
term biodegradable means decay or breakdown by bacteria. Others are not biodegradable
as they are unreactive.

There are numerous products made by addition

polymer. Some common products are: polythene,
polypropene and polychloroethene.
Polychloroethene is also called poly vinyl
chloride (PVC).

The displayed formula for ethene becoming

polythene, and chloroethene becoming
polychloroethene are shown here.

Similarly, propene is polymerised to make

polypropene or polypropylene. The displayed
formula for this change is given below:

Uses for :

Polythene - Low density polythene is used as polythene bags and high density polythene
is used as plastic bottles.

Polypropene - It is stronger than polythene so it is used to make ropes and crates.

Polychloroethene - It is very strong and so used for drain pipes or replacement windows.
It can also be used for electrical insulation
Teflon - Teflon is polytetrafluoroethene, or PTFE. The molecular structure of Teflon is
based on a chain of carbon atoms, the same as all polymers. Unlike some other
fluoropolymers, in Teflon this chain is completely surrounded by fluorine atoms. The
bond between carbon and fluorine is very strong, and the fluorine atoms shield the
vulnerable carbon chain. This unusual structure gives Teflon its unique properties. PTFE
is distinguished by its slippery surface,
high melting point, and resistance to attack
by almost all chemicals. These properties
have made it familiar to consumers as the
coating on nonstick cookware; it is also
fabricated into industrial products,
including bearings, pipe liners, and parts
for valves and pumps.

How to work out the repeating unit and monomer of a polymer: The structure of an
unknown polymer is given below :

C2H5 H C2H5 H C2H5 H C2H5 H C2H5 H

Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι
–C – C – C –C – C – C– –C – C – C= C
Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι Ι
H H H H H H H H H H
Repeating unit Monomer

The changes that occur during formation of an addition polymer from its monomer
are:

 Many small monomers join up

 Double bond becomes single bond

 Increase in mass/chain length/size

Disposal problems - Addition Polymers are made of chains of C-C covalent bonds. These
bonds are very strong and so are difficult to break. Bacteria cannot break down addition
polymers so they are said to be non-biodegradable.

Problems with landfill - This is a problem because if

we land-fill them they will never rot. So they will take
up space that could be used for something else. And
they are made from oil, so making addition polymers
and then dumping them is a waste of useful resources.
And light plastic bags can blow into the ocean where
they kill turtles that mistake them for jellyfish.
 Problems with incineration
Oil products can burn. This solves the problem of wasting land for landfill, and reduces
the amount of fossil fuels needed to produce energy. But many polymers contain
Chlorine (notably PVC)
So burning unsorted polymers produces toxic and acidic gases.

But sorting polymers is expensive. And so is neutralising the exhaust gases.

Problems with recycling - Recycling usually means melting down and making into a
new shape and so this is the ideal answer for waste polymers. But because we use
different polymers for different tasks they have to be hand-sorted before melting which
is why plastic items have different marks underneath. This is expensive and not 100%
reliable. So recycled polymers are less pure than fresh polymers. In addition, there are
polymers that do not melt. So we can't recycle those in this way.

Condensation polymerization – It is
done by releasing small molecules such as
water or hydrogen chloride from a large
polymer.

Monomers in nylon – There are 2

monomers in nylon; one is hexanedioic
acid that has 6 carbon atoms. Hexanedioic
acid is one of a family of compounds
called dicarboxylic acids. Its formula is

HOOC(CH2)4COOH
The other monomer is a diamine called 1,6 - diaminohexane. The amino group is - NH2.
Its formula is:
H2N(CH2)6NH2.

Nylon – It is a condensation polymer as it forms by releasing water or hydrogen chloride.

It forms by the combination of hexanedioic acid and 1, 6-diaminohexane.

Industrially, this reaction is done at 350oC but the hydroxide group in the hexanedioic
acid is replaced by chlorine atoms. This time the hydrogen chloride is lost instead of
water. Nylon is used for making ropes and can be cast into solid shapes for cogs and
bearings in machines.

Forming polyesters - A polyester forms from two different monomers:

 a 'dicarboxylic acid' which contains two carboxylic acid groups, –COOH

 a 'diol' which contains two alcohol groups, –OH
 R stands for a group of atoms that includes carbon. For example, PET is a polyester made
from terephthalic acid and ethane-1,2-diol. It is used to make drinks bottles and fleece
clothing.

The formation of PET

Notice that:

 Both ends of each monomer molecule have a functional group, so can react with
another monomer molecule.
 One molecule of water is formed every time an ester link is formed.

Biodegradable polyesters - Just like addition polymers, polyesters do not break down
easily in the environment and can take up space in landfill for years. However, scientists
have developed biodegradable polyesters (called biopolyesters) that can be broken
down by microorganisms into carbon dioxide and water. These are much more
environmentally friendly than non-biodegradable addition polymers which can persist
in landfill sites for hundreds of years.