GENETIC ENGINEERING

What is genetic engineering?

• Genetic engineering refers to the direct
manipulation of DNA to alter an
organism’s characteristics (phenotype) in
a particular way.
• sometimes called genetic modification, is the
process of altering the DNA? in an
organism’s genome
• This may mean changing one base pair? (A-T or C-
G), deleting a whole region of DNA, or introducing
an additional copy of a gene?. It may also mean
extracting DNA from another organism’s genome
and combining it with the DNA of that individual.
• Genetic engineering is used by scientists to
enhance or modify the characteristics of an
individual organism.
genetic engineering, the artificial manipulation, modification,
and recombination of DNA or other nucleic acid molecules in
order to modify an organism or population of organisms. The
term genetic engineering is generally used to refer to methods of 
recombinant DNA technology, which emerged from basic
research in microbial genetics.
 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
•The term genetic engineering initially referred to various techniques used for the

modification or manipulation of organisms through the processes of heredity

 and reproduction. As such, the term embraced both artificial selection and all the
interventions of biomedical techniques, among them artificial insemination, 
in vitro fertilization , cloning, and gene manipulation. In the latter part of the 20th
century, however, the term came to refer more specifically to methods of 
recombinant DNA technology (or gene cloning), in which DNA molecules from
two or more sources are combined either within cells or in vitro and are then
inserted into host organisms in which they are able to propagate.
The possibility for recombinant DNA technology emerged with the discovery
of restriction enzymes in 1968 by Swiss microbiologist Werner Arber. The
following year American microbiologist Hamilton O. Smith purified so-called 
type II restriction enzymes, which were found to be essential to genetic
engineering for their ability to cleave a specific site within the DNA (as
opposed to type I restriction enzymes, which cleave DNA at random sites).
Drawing on Smith’s work, American molecular biologist Daniel Nathans
 helped advance the technique of DNA recombination in 1970–71 and
demonstrated that type II enzymes could be useful in genetic studies.
Genetic engineering based on recombination was pioneered in 1973 by
American biochemists Stanley N. Cohen and Herbert W. Boyer, who were
among the first to cut DNA into fragments, rejoin different fragments, and
insert the new genes into E. coli bacteria, which then reproduced.
Genetice Engineering in Animals
• Genetic engineering is used in
animals, such as ones on farms,
to increase the food quality. This
means that the animals are being
induced with either a chemical or
a certain protein, in order for the
food or milk they produce to
contain more nutrients that have
benefits for humans.
Genetic modification of an animal involves altering its genetic material by
adding, changing or removing certain DNA sequences in a way that does not
occur naturally. It aims to modify specific characteristics of an animal or
introduce a new trait, such as disease resistance or enhanced growth. DNA is
the genetic material of an organism and carries the instructions for all the
characteristics that an organism inherits. Changes introduced in an animal’s
genetic make-up can therefore be transmitted to the next generation.
Scientists are now capable of creating new species of animals by taking genetic
material from one, or more, plants or animals, and genetically engineering them
into the genes of another animal. This means that science can engineer farm
animals to grow faster, have healthier meat and flesh, and be less able to feel the
pain and suffering often associated with the conditions present in modern factory
farms.  Genetically engineered animals are also created to help medical researchers
in their quest to find cures for genetic disease, like breast cancer.   Finally,
endangered animal species can be cloned, thus helping wildlife management in its
goals of preserving wild populations of the earth’s biological diversity, and by
ensuring that endangered animals' genetic information will not be lost when the
last of the species dies.  
• Transgenic animals are animals that have, through genetic
engineering, genes from other plants and animals.   Unlike
controlled breeding, which is confined to the genetic material
contained in a single species, modern genetic engineering
permits an almost limitless scope of modification and introduction
of otherwise foreign genetic material.  This permits specific traits,
and not the host of other traits common from crossbreeding, to
be effectively introduced into new, transgenic animal species. 
Genetic engineering is able to create whole organisms that are
not natural to the planet, and whose specific genetic make-up is
as much a result of human manipulation as it is natural selection.
Genetic engineering is the deliberate modification of the animal’s genome using
techniques of modern biotechnology.  By incorporating genes from other organisms
in a process called transgenesis, GE animals are being developed to address five
broad goals:
• Advance human health:  GE animals
can improve human health by
producing novel replacement
proteins, drugs, vaccines and tissues
for the treatment and prevention of
human disease.
• Enhance food production and
quality:  Animals that are genetically
engineered have improved food
production capabilities, enabling
them to help meet the global demand
for more efficient, higher quality and
lower-cost sources of food.  
• Mitigate environmental impact:  GE
animals can contribute to
improving the environment and
human health by consuming fewer
resources and producing less
waste.
• Optimize animal welfare.  Genetic
engineering offers tremendous
benefits to the animals by
enhancing the health, well-being
and welfare of the animal itself.
• Improve industrial
products:  Genetic
engineering can produce
high-value industrial
products, such as spider
silk, for both medical and
defense applications.
List of animals engaged in genetic
engineering
• The first genetically modified
animal was a mouse created in
1974 by Rudolf Jaenisch. In 1976
the technology was
commercialised, with the advent of
genetically modified bacteria that
produced somatostatin
• Enviropig
• also known as Frankenswine, is a type of
pig which was genetically modified: it
contains DNA from the mouse and E.
Coli. So it can process and digest
phosphorus better, and then it is
unnecessary to feed them with
additional phosphorus. This kind of pig
is created for the current issue that
normal pig manure contains high levels
of phosphorus, so if it is used as
fertilizer, this chemical gets into the
water, leading to algae blooms and
oxygen depletion as well as death of
marine life. The enviropig won't need to
be fed with phosphorus, so their
manure has quite low level of it, thus
they won't do harm to the marine
animals.
• Web-spinning goats
• When it comes to natural goods,
flexible and strong spider silk is
incredibly valuable. If we were able to
make it on a larger scale, it would be
useful for parachute cords, artificial
ligaments, and everything in between.
Nexia Biotechnologies announced in
2000 the creation of one of the
genetically engineered animals to fix
this problem. They engineered a goat
which produces the protein found in
spiders' webs in its milk. To do this,
they inserted a dragline silk gene from
spiders into goats. You can use the silk
milk produced by the goats to create
Biosteel, a web-like material.
• Fast-Growing Salmon
• AquaBounty made their contribution to
the world' genetically modified animals in
the form of a fast-growing salmon. This
fish is actually able to grow twice as fast as
typical fish, despite having the same odor,
color, texture, and flavor of standard
salmon. These Atlantic salmon were
genetically engineered to add the growth
hormone of Chinook salmon so they can
produce the necessary growth hormone
throughout the entire year. The hormone
stays activated thanks to a gene of ocean
pout, a fish that is eel-like. There are still
debates, however, as to whether this fish
is safe to eat. If the FDA approves them,
they would not need a label indicating that
these are genetically modified.
• Less-Flatulent Cows
• Cows are known for their high
production of methane, the second
largest factor for the greenhouse effect.
Cows naturally produce methane due
to their digestion process, specifically a
bacterium that results from the cow
diet of grass and hay, both of which are
high in cellulose. Agriculture research
scientists from the University of Alberta
worked to identify this bacterium that
is responsible for methane. Afterwards,
they created cattle with 25 percent less
production of methane compared to
average cows.
• Sudden-Death Mosquitoes
• Some mosquitoes were engineered as a way
to fight malaria. This disease causes a million
deaths annually as well as infecting
additional 300 million people. These malaria
fighting mosquitoes are able to resist the
plasmodium parasite, which means that it is
almost impossible for them to become
infected with the disease. The thing,
however, is that plasmodium parasites can
evolve quickly, leading to some people
wondering if we would be better off by killing
mosquitoes. To deal with this option, some
scientists created sudden-death mosquitos
which pass the relevant gene to their
offspring. This gene means that the baby
mosquitoes would die (naturally of old age)
before reaching sexual maturity. The issue,
however, is that without mosquitoes, the
entire ecosystem would be affected with
facing extinction of bats and other predators.
• Glittering Gold Seahorses
• You can actually buy a glittering gold
seahorse if you really want to.
Vietnamese scientists created this, the
first of genetically modified animals
originating from Vietnam. Scientists
used the gene shooting method to
insert a mixture of jellyfish proteins and
gold dust into the eggs of a seahorse.
While gold seahorses are pretty, gene
shooting has many other implications,
such as treating diabetes and other
incurable diseases by replacement of
problematic DNA within the body.
• Mostly Male Tilapia
• Over the years, tilapia have
undergone genetic modifications to
let them mature much faster, survive
on a smaller quantity of food, and
grow larger. Tilapia farmers,
however, want to take this a step
further and make male tilapia more
common than female ones. This is
because females "mouthbrood",
which means they hold their eggs in
their mouths over an extended
period of time. During this time, they
won't eat anything so they don't
accidentally swallow the eggs,
resulting in smaller fish. Because of
mouthbrooding, tilapia farmers
rather have males on their farms.
• Featherless Chicken
• Scientists in Israel are responsible for
this prototype, which is a featherless
chicken. They are significantly
cheaper to raise, more
environmentally friendly, and don't
require plucking, which saves time.
The scientists say they bred a species
which has naked neck with a standard
broiler chicken. There are, however,
some drawbacks. The feathers on
chickens help protect them from
harsh weather, parasites, and even
overzealous cocks during mating.
• Glow-in-the-Dark Rabbit
• The glow-in-the-dark rabbit is one of the
genetically modified animals that
stemmed from art. Eduard Kac uses
genetic engineering for creating works
of art that are alive. In May 2000, he
introduced Alba, an albino rabbit that
will glow fluorescent when in blue light,
known as his "GFP bunny." The idea to
create Alba has a public debate
concerning animals with modified genes
for research. He then took Alba home to
be his pet. To create Alba, a French
research institute injected fluorescent
jellyfish protein in a rabbit egg which
was fertilized. They never agreed for Kac
to take Alba home and there were
animal rights debates, but Alba died
before the issue could be resolved.
• Glow-in-the-Dark Cat
• The glow-in-the-dark cat was developed
as a way to fight feline immunodeficiency
virus (FIV), which is related to HIV and
typically affects feral cats. American and
Japanese scientists in 2011 inserted
genes in cats to help resist FIV. In order to
mark the cells more easily, they also
inserted a green fluorescent protein and
both genes transferred to feline eggs.
This let the scientists examine how this
resistant gene developed within the cats
by examination under a microscope. The
cats are always normal during the day,
but sometimes glow at night.