Chapter 9

CHAPTER 9

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND BIOLOGICAL INVA

SIONS
 

9.1 WHAT IS BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY? 

Biological diversity​ (or biodiversity) refers to the variety of living organisms​ ​in an area,
including microorganisms, plants and animals.​ (The text here reviews the terms ​species
and ​population​.) Biodiversity also refers to the number of genetic types in an area. In
popular viewpoints, biodiversity may simply refer to the threat faced by certain species
such as whales, but a more ecological view illustrates the interdependence of species,
including their relationships with humans.
● ​Why Do People Value Biodiversity? 
There are nine primary reasons people value biodiversity: utilitarian, public-service,
ecological, moral, theological, aesthetic, recreational, spiritual, and creative. Some are
material and others nonmaterial. Many may be included in more than one of these. Think
about classifying various local resources into the various values they fall under. How do
the terms ​tangible​ and ​intangible​ relate to these values.
9.2 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY BASICS 
The total amount of genetic variability within a population or species is called ​genetic 
diversity​. ​Habitat diversity​ refers to the different kinds of habitat in a given area.
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Species diversity​ can be described in several ways: ​species richness​ is the total number
of species, ​species evenness​ is the relative abundance ​(population density) ​of each
species, while ​species dominance​ singles out the most abundant species.​ (See Figure 9.5,
which makes a short but interesting classroom exercise).

● ​The Number of Species on Earth 

Organisms that can mate to produce fertile offspring are said to belong to the same
species​. Another way to state this is that a species is a group of individuals that shares, or
can share, from a common gene pool. Scientists have named 1.5 million species, but there
are many more still unnamed and undiscovered. Some estimate that the number is as
great as 3 million or even much larger. Major taxonomic groups contain different
numbers of species and are known with varying degrees of certainty. For example,
mammals are relatively well known and have few species in comparison to insects.
Species diversity is not uniform across the earth’s surface. Tropical regions have far
greater species diversity than temperate regions.
Humans are having a negative impact on diversity. A recent study (Thomas et al. 2004.
Science 303:1879-1881) suggests that global extinction rates of vertebrate and plant
species have an unrecorded parallel among the invertebrates, strengthening the
hypothesis that the natural world is experiencing the sixth major extinction event in its
history. The fifth extinction was the dinosaur extinction.
The living world is classified by a hierarchy of terms called ​taxa​, the highest of which is
a ​Domain​. Terms which narrow in on the identity of organisms and place them in groups
of similar organisms are ​Kingdoms​, ​Phyla​, ​Classes​, ​Orders​, and ​Families​. There are
also many interspersed taxa, such as “Supraorders” and “Infraclasses”.
Traditionally phenotypic characteristics were used, but nucleic acid analysis is being used
with increasing frequency. Differences (and similarities) in the DNA among species tell
us a lot about evolutionary relationships. You would expect that closely related species
should have DNA that are very similar. They do. All bird species have DNA that is
similar. Humans and chimps have DNA that is about 96% identical.
Humans now have the capacity to genetically modify species by inserting the genes from
other organisms. We have the capacity to create new species. Certainly new species will
not be manufactured for the sake of increasing biodiversity, but new organisms could be
manufactured for specialized purposes like bacteria designed to degrade an
environmental toxin or a crop species designed to resist disease. One significant impact
that genetic engineering will have on biodiversity is the capacity to preserve the genetic
material of endangered species and the potential to clone extinct species from preserved
genetic material.
9.3 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION 
Biological evolution​ is the heritable changes that shape the appearance and function of
organisms over time. The theory of ​natural selection​ explains how evolutionary
changes occur. ​Charles Darwin​ is given credit for developing the theory of natural
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selection. Darwin began his observations that led to his theory when he was appointed as
the naturalist aboard the HMS Beagle. During the 5 year voyage he made numerous
observations and extensive collections of organisms. He presented his ideas in ​On the 
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races 
in the Struggle for Life​ (1859). This was very controversial at the time (and still is in
some circles). Students often feel that science is trying to persuade them to “believe” in
evolution - it is perhaps more helpful to discuss evolution as an explaining tool (a
scientific theory) rather than as a belief system.

● ​The Four Key Processes of Biological Evolution 

The source of some new genetic variation is ​mutation​. Mutations are usually deleterious,
but provide new genetic combinations that may be favorable to survival. Additional
genetic diversity may be provided by gene transfer, sexual recombination, or polyploidy.
Natural selection​ is a process that sorts out the less favorable phenotypes from the better
ones. Natural selection is based on three main concepts:
1. All species produce an excess number of offspring - not all can survive.
2. There is variability between individuals. Some of this variability will be advantageous
when individuals compete for resources.
3. This variability can be inherited, and so the advantageous characteristics of individuals
will tend to be passed along to future generations. The fittest (strongest) organisms
will have a greater probability of surviving the competition, and their offspring will
inherit their characteristics.
The really remarkable thing is that in the face of numerous catastrophic events, life on
earth persisted, and even flourished. The process of natural selection ensures that
organisms will adapt to their environment. In a changing world, natural selection insures
that life will change, and biodiversity insures that life will persist even through habitat
alteration. There is a great deal of redundancy in the functions of species in an
ecosystem. Through redundancy there is stability.

Migration ​and​ geographic isolation​ can lead to separate genetic development​, and can
result in genes that are no longer compatible, that is, these organisms can no longer draw
from the same gene pool. Courtship behavior can change, reproductive parts may change
so that they no longer fit, or hybrid offspring can be sterile. ​This can lead to ​speciation​,
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the formation of new species, a basic principle in ​macroevolution​ and ​adaptive 

radiation​.
Genetic drift ​is a change in gene frequency that is not caused by natural selection,
mutation or migration, but rather due to chance occurrences. ​Population bottlenecks​ such
as the ​founder effect​ are examples.

● ​Biological Evolution as a Strange Kind of Game 

A lesson for ecology is that biological diversity is always changing, species react
differently to environmental change, populations can become isolated and undergo
speciation, and endangerment often results from environmental change occurring faster
than it can be coped with.

An important aspect of natural selection is that environmental change does not lead to
mutation, it selects from existing gene types. The use of chloroquine did not somehow
cause the mutation that produced resistance in ​Plasmodium​, it merely caused it to become
more common. (The first demonstration of this was in 1943 in the Luria–Delbrück
experiment, for which they won a Nobel Prize. It is worth presenting to students if time
permits - they have a great deal of trouble with this concept.)
9.4 COMPETITION AND ECOLOGICAL NICHES 
Species compete with one another for scarce resources, so you might expect that natural
selection would simply eliminate inferior competitors and reduce the diversity of species.
In fact, natural selection forces specialization; the successful species is not only the one
that outcompetes its neighbors, it is the species that avoids competition from its
neighbors. With increasing specialization comes greater diversity. Species coevolve.
● ​The Competitive Exclusion Principle 
This Principle basically predicts that if two species with the exact, or heavily
overlapping, requirements try to occupy the same habitat, one will eventually exclude the
other from the habitat. This suggests that there should be very few species in the world,
so there must be more to add to this - see below.
● ​Niches: How Species Coexist  
Although there is duplication in the functions of many of the species within an
ecosystem, each species is different from all others in some key aspect of its life or its
niche. Every species has a niche. An ​ecological​ ​niche​ is a species’ place in the
ecosystem, including where it lives, where it breeds, what it eats, what eats it, its
tolerance limits of various abiotic conditions, its optimal conditions, and so on. A habitat
may be loosely described as a species’ address while a niche is its profession. You
should be able to distinguish a habitat as a place/home from a niche as it’s job/role within
an ecosystem.
The breadth of a species niche partly determines if it is rare or common. A cosmopolitan
species is usually one that has a ​broad niche​. Some species have extremely ​narrow 
niches​ that greatly limit their distribution​. Although still a subject of debate, some
scientists argue that the climatic stability of the tropics has led to the evolution of more
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species. This is the ​diversity-stability hypothesis.​ In a stable environment natural

selection favors specialists, while generalists are favored in an unpredictable
environment.
The ​Competitive Exclusion Principle ​can now be better stated that no two species can
coexist in the same habitat and ​occupy the same niche.​ If two species have extensively
overlapping niches, they will compete more heavily than if their niches only overlap
slightly. Many different types of birds can exist in the same forest by utilizing slightly
different foods in different proportions as well as different nesting sites. Such differences
tend to minimize competition, so are favored by natural selection.
● ​Measuring Niches  
The ​fundamental niche​ is the niche space of an organism in the absence of competitors.
The ​realized niche​ is the niche space of an organism when restricted by the pressures of
other competing species. For example, a potential food item might be monopolized by a
competitor, constraining a species’ niche.
Measuring a niche can be performed by analyzing all characteristics of a habitat that an
organism needs, and then locating those sites where all of those needs are met.
Sometimes a set of bell curves are used, one for each requirement. If all of the ranges
overlap in a given area for a given creature, then it can survive there.
9.5 SYMBIOSIS 
Organisms interact with each other in three main ways: ​competition​,
predation-parasitism​, and ​symbiosis​. Symbiosis refers to two organisms living together
in a relationship. Those relationships that benefit both organisms are often termed as
mutualism​, although the term symbiosis alone can imply mutualism. There are many
examples of this in nature.
(Note: Some texts classify mutualism as ONE type of symbiosis. Another form is
commensalism​, in which one species benefits from an interaction and another is
unaffected, such as when ​Staphylococcus epidermidis​ colonizes your skin. These can be
difficult to demonstrate, and some classic examples have actually turned out to be
mutualism. Some also classify parasitism as being a form of symbiosis as well.)
● ​A Broader View of Symbiosis 
Symbioses can be social and behavioral as well as physiological.
● ​A Practical Implication 
Because of species interactions, the demise of one species often leads to the fall of others.
However, saving one species also can “umbrella” others.
9.6 PREDATION AND PARASITISM 
In both of these relationships, one participant benefits from an interaction with another,
but one is harmed or killed by the encounter. ​ In ​parasitism​, one organism lives on (or
in) the body of the host. The host is generally weakened to some extent. It is not in the
best interest of the parasite to kill the host, but this can occur. In ​predation​, organisms
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feed on and often kill the other organism in they encounter. (Do you think mosquitoes
and ticks are predators or parasites?)
● ​A Practical Implication  
Both of these relationships tend to encourage ​coevolution​, in which each member in the
interaction “tries” to develop characteristics that thwart the attempts of the other to
attack/escape. This tends to encourage diversity. There are complicated relationships
between predator and prey in terms of life cycles and relative numbers.
9.7 HOW GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY AFFECT BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 
Biogeography​ is the study of the geographical distribution of species.​ Organisms are
distributed across the Earth based on their needs and the availability of the habitats that
provide them. Changes in species can occur with different geologic substrates, elevations,
rainfall, stressfulness, degree of disturbance, and temperature conditions.
● ​Wallace’s Realms and Biotic Provinces  
In 1876 Alfred Russel Wallace proposed that the world could be divided into six
biogeographic regions, referred to as ​Wallace’s realms​, on the basis of fundamental
features of the animals common to those areas. These realms were Nearctic (N.
America), Neotropical (Central and S. America), Palaearctic (Europe, N. Asia, N Africa),
Ethiopian (central and S. Africa), Oriental (Indian subcontinent and Malaysia), and
Australian.
Different families of animals dominate in each of the realms. These realms are still valid,
and are now referred to as ​biotic provinces​, but the concept has been extended to plants
and invertebrates​. A biotic province is a region inhabited by a characteristic set of taxa
(species, families, orders) bounded by barriers that inhibit the exchange of taxa. These
barriers result in the coevolution of taxa within each province in isolation from taxa from
other provinces. The barriers have arisen due to continental drift.
The same processes that led to continental scale patterns also produce patterns on the
subcontinental scale. Each continent has its own pattern of climate and geomorphology
that have shaped the distribution and evolution of its own species
● ​Biomes 
Biomes are major ecosystems that are usually defined by their dominant vegetation and
climate. ​The same biome can be found in different biogeographic provinces when the
climates are similar, because similar environments select for similar traits. One can think
of the environment as presenting an engineering challenge, and natural selection finds a
solution.
The two most important determinants of the biome type are rainfall and temperature. ​ For
a given combination of temperature and rainfall, you find the same type of biome
anywhere on the planet. Within a given biome type, the species will differ from place to
place, but they will look the same. Natural selection finds the optimum solution to
environmental problems, such as limited water availability. Also note that this is a high
correspondence between the biomass of a biome (see Fig. 9.17) and the global
distribution of rainfall and temperature.
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Major Earth biomes:

1. Tundra: treeless plains that occur in harsh climates of low rainfall and low average
temperature (Fig. 9.16). The dominant vegetation types are grasses and sedges,
mosses and lichens. Tundra includes arctic and alpine tundra.
2. Taiga or boreal forest: The taiga includes high latitude and high altitude forests in
cold climates. They are dominated by conifers, especially spruces, firs, larches and
some pines. Aspen and birch are also common. Boreal forests include a few large
mammals, small carnivores, rodents, many insects, and migratory birds.
3. Temperate deciduous forests occur in somewhat warmer climates than the taiga with
sufficient rainfall. They are dominated by maples, beeches, oaks, hickories and
chestnuts. There are few remaining uncut deciduous forests left.
4. Temperate rain forests occur where temperatures are moderate and precipitation
exceeds 250 cm/yr. These are rare. Redwood forests of California and Oregon are
examples.
5. Temperate woodlands occur where climate is slightly drier than in temperate
deciduous forest. They are dominated by small trees such as pinion pines and
evergreen oaks. Fire is a common natural disturbance.
6. Temperate shrublands (chaparral) are found in drier climates. Chaparral occurs in a
Mediterranean climate (low rainfall that is concentrated in a cool season) like that
found along the coast of California and Chile. Chaparral vegetation is aromatic (e.g.
sage). These aromatic compounds may be defensive, and they render the vegetation
susceptible to fire. Chaparral is a fire-adapted ecosystem.
7. Temperate grassland occurs where it is too dry for forests and too moist for desert.
The soils have a deep organic layer and are ideally suited for crop plants (which are
grasses). Grasslands harbor the highest abundance and diversity of large mammals.
Fire is also a natural element.
8. Tropical rain forests occur where average temperature is high and relatively constant
and where rainfall is high. They have the highest diversity. Tropical soils are low in
nutrients.
9. Tropical seasonal forests and savannas occur at low latitudes where the average
temperature is high, relatively constant, and rainfall is abundant but seasonal. Such
forests are found in India and SE Asia, Africa and S and Central America.
10. Deserts occur in the driest regions, typically where rainfall is less than 50 cm/yr.
There are cool and warm deserts. The vegetation is highly specialized for water use
efficiency.
11. Wetlands include swamps, fens, bogs, and saltwater marshes. The vegetation is
dominated by trees or grasses depending on the type of wetland. For example, salt
marshes are dominated by grasses (salt marshes are physiological deserts). Wetlands
are important for a number of reasons. ​The transition between biomes is not sharp
usually. Transition areas are referred to as ​ecotones​. A wetland is viewed by many
ecologists as an ecotone between aquatic and terrestrial biomes.
12. Some other habitat types that may or may not be considered biomes include:
freshwater lakes, ponds, rivers and streams; intertidal environments (includes salt
marshes); benthic environments; upwelling regions and hydrothermal vents.
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Biodiversity varies among biomes. ​Tropical biomes typically have greater diversity than
temperate biomes. The reasons for this is​ ​still debated. One theory holds that diversity is
related to climatic stability. Temperate zones have been repeatedly jolted by glacial
cycles that have, perhaps, resulted in a loss of species. Also, the ecological specialization
of a species, its niche, is thought to be related to environmental variability and
predictability. Stable and predictable environments favor specialization, and perhaps
greater species diversity is possible when niche dimensions are narrow.
● ​Convergent and Divergent Evolution 
Species that have distant evolutionary relationships may perform the same task using
different phenotypic equipment, such as when birds and dragonflies both fly, but using
completely different genes to produce different structures.​ Similar environmental
constraints force similar solutions, a process known as ​convergent evolution​.​ ​It occurs
when species are separated by time or space but must adapt to similar conditions.
Divergent evolution​ occurs when members of a species is separated into different
evolutionary courses, often by barriers such as oceans, rivers and mountains, and develop
different structures based on their environments. It is a major cause of speciation.
 
9.8 INVASIONS, INVASIVE SPECIES, AND ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY 
Islands are unique ecosystems and are cut off from large landmasses. They are unique
environments to study for their unique evolution patterns and especially the role played
by invasive species.
The species diversity of islands is proportional to the size of the island and is inversely
proportional to the distance of the island from the nearest continent. ​This is the basis for
the theory of island biogeography.
The following generalizations about species diversity on islands can be made: (1) the two
sources of new species are migration from the mainland and evolution of new species; (2)
islands have fewer species than continents; (3) diversity is proportional to island size; and
(4) diversity is inversely proportional to distance from the nearest mainland. ​ These
concepts apply also to ​ecological islands​.
The Galapagos Islands provide wonderful examples of the processes that shape island
biogeography and provided Charles Darwin with powerful insights into evolution and
natural selection. ​For example, the finches on the island are closely related and are
descended from a common ancestor, yet each island has a unique species that possess
adaptations that give it a competitive advantage on its island. This process is known as
adaptive radiation​.
The zebra mussel (​Dreissena polymorpha​) is native to the Caspian Sea. It reached North
America in the mid-1980's, probably in ballast water. It rapidly became established in the
Great Lakes and it eventually will colonize most of the water in North America except
where it is too warm or saline. The zebra mussel was discovered in the Hudson River in
1991. Since then they have expanded throughout much of the river in densities over 1000
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individuals per square meter. This population is capable of filtering all of the water in the
tidal-freshwater part of the river every 2 to 3 days. Prior the invasion of the zebra mussel
all other filter feeders combined filtered the water about once every 50 days. The feeding
of the zebra mussel has had a great impact on the Hudson River ecosystem and its food
web. For example, phytoplankton that are one base of the aquatic food web have
declined about 90% in biomass. Since the decline of the plankton population, beds of
submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) have expanded. What would you hypothesize was
the reason for the increase in SAV? What are the potential positive and negative impacts
of the mussel invasion? What could be done to prevent similar invasions of aquatic
organisms in the future?
● ​Biogeography and People 
Biogeography affects biological diversity, and changes in diversity in turn affect people
and their living resources.
The European continent has low species diversity because of the combination of climate
change and topography. In Europe the major mountain ranges run east-west, which
blocked the migration of species during previous glacial periods, whereas N. American
mountain ranges run north-south and did not block the retreat of species. Soon after
Europeans colonized N. America they began to import many exotic species. For example,
the number of tree species native to Britain is only 30, and today there are 100s.

Human interference with the distributions of organisms has had varied results in terms of
biological diversity. People have altered biodiversity by introducing exotics, which can
have positive and negative effects.​ Introductions of new species on islands, e.g. Hawaii,
have been catastrophic for native species. Introductions of new species are prohibited in
most cases. Habitat degradation and hunting has resulted in a reduction of the range of
the whooping crane. It is now being reintroduced into areas where it once thrived. This
positive action can be contrasted to the accidental introduction of foreign species, such as
a seaweed named ​Caulerpa taxifolia​ from its native habitat in the Pacific Ocean to the
Mediterranean Sea, where it is choking out native seaweeds that serve as food for
Mediterranean animals.
The effects of species introductions are usually unpredictable, but several generalities can
be made: Moving a species within its own biotic province is not likely to be harmful.
Moving a species into the same biome from a different biotic province is likely to be
harmful, and local moves are likely to be less harmful than global moves.
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​Critical Thinking Questions

1. As a top predator, is the polar bear a necessary part of its ecosystem? (Hint: Consider
the polar bear's ecological niche.)
Regardless of its position as an apex predator within an ecosystem, the polar bear is an
essential aspect of its Arctic environment, who helps maintain stability within the
ecosystem, as it is a keystone species that keep the biological populations of other species
in balance.
2. Do the Inuit who live among polar bears value them as part of the Arctic diversity of
life? (This will take some additional study on your part.)
The Inuit population who live among polar bears disregard the value of polar bears within
the Arctic diversity of life since the Inuit population depend largely on the hunt of polar
bears for survival purposes, such as food, pelts, etc.
3. Of the nine reasons we discussed earlier for conserving biological diversity, which
ones are the primary reasons for conservation of polar bears?
Referring to the nine reasons for conserving biological diversity, the primary reason for
the conservation of polar bears consists of geological purposes since polar bears are
keystone species that maintain stability of the species within an arctic environment,
therefore, the sustenance of the polar bears population is crucial.
4. Based on the current status of polar bears, do you think that they should continue to be
listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act? Explain your reasons.
Currently, the status of polar bears should continue to be listed as vulnerable under the
Endangered Species Act as a result of drastic shifts of climate change which have
provoked a substantial loss of ice caps that serve as the livelihood of polar bears,
therefore, the polar bear population should be monitored and considered cautiously by the
government.
Study Questions 
1. Why do introduced species often become pests?
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Introduced species often become pests because they can alter an environment
significantly to satisfy the conditions required for their adaptability and they will either
become predators or competitors of the native species.
2. On which of the following planets would you expect a greater diversity of species? (a)
a planet with intense tectonic activity; (b) a tectonically dead planet. (Remember that
tectonics refers to the geologic processes involving the movement of tectonic plates and
continents, processes that lead to mountain building and so forth.)
In my opinion, I presume that a planet with intense tectonic activity will entail greater
diversity of species since the formation of mountain ranges, continents, and areas with
differing geologic features will inhabit different variations of species, as the adaptation of
a species to an area ensues changes in physical traits, therefore, the evolution of different
species will cause greater diversity.
3. You are going to conduct a survey of national parks. What relationship would you
expect to find between the number of species of trees and the size of each park?
The relationship I would expect to find between the number of species of trees and the
size of each park is that they vary accordingly, as a park with a large terrain will harbor
an increased species diversity, while a park with a smaller radius will contain less trees,
therefore, the diversity of trees would be expected to decrease. However, the relationship
between species diversity of trees and the size of a park large depends on the ecology of
the environment.
4. A city park manager has run out of money to buy new plants. How can the park’s labor
force alone be used to increase the diversity of (a) trees and (b) birds in the park?
Despite a lack of funding to maintain the diversity of plants within a park, a park’s labor
force could be used to increase the diversity of trees and birds in the park by travelling to
other biomes that are identical and immigrating new plant species into the park. Once the
new trees have established and proliferated, various species of birds will become
attracted to the diverse plant species, therefore, the diversity of birds will increase.
5. A plague of locusts visits a farm field. Soon after, many kinds of birds arrive to feed on
the locusts. What changes occur in animal dominance and diversity? Begin with the time
before the locusts arrive and end after the birds have been present for several days.
Before the locusts arrive, the species of plants within the farm field, usually one plant
species, is the dominant species, however, the locusts will become the dominant species
of the farm field and biodiversity will substantially increase after their arrival. As a result,
the birds will migrate into the farm field that has an abundant supply of locusts, which
serve as a food source, so the bird becomes the dominant species. The biodiversity will
increase significantly due to the birds' arrival, as the birds will introduce the seeds of a
variety of plants and the predators of birds will appear.
6. What will happen to total biodiversity if (a) the emperor penguin becomes extinct? (b)
the grizzly bear becomes extinct?
If the emperor penguin becomes extinct the total biodiversity will generally decrease.
Due to the extinction of the emperor penguin, its natural prey will experience a drastic
increase in population for a temporary amount of time, as the abundance of population
will generate competition for a food source and the population will decline. Additionally,
the predator of the emperor penguin will experience a population loss since they will lose
a food source. If the grizzly bear becomes extinct, the total biodiversity of its ecosystem
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will decrease significantly since a grizzly bear is a keystone species within its ecosystem,
therefore, an imbalance in the food web would ensue and the populations of other species
would fluctuate and decline. The prey of the grizzly bear would experience a temporary
increase in population, but would decrease as competition for a food source would
increase, so its prey and its own population would decrease. In general, biodiversity
would decrease.
7. What is the difference between a habitat and a niche?
The difference between a habitat and a niche is that a habitat is the place where an
organism lives, while a niche is the range of physical and biological conditions in which a
species lives and the way the species obtain what it needs to survive and reproduce.
8. More than 600 species of trees grow in Costa Rica, most of them in the tropical rain
forests. What might account for the coexistence of so many species with similar resource
needs?
The coexistence of numerous species within the tropical rainforests of Costa Rica, with
similar resource needs, is possible since the rainforest ecosystem is vast and complex,
therefore every species of trees can survive in different conditions that are present within
the ecosystem.
9. Which of the following can lead to populations that are less adapted to the environment
than were their ancestors?
a. Natural selection: ​No d. Genetic drift: ​it could lead to a
b. Migration:​ Some species will not population with little genetic variation
become accustomed to a new
environment after immigration
c. Mutation: ​a negative mutation can
influence the new population’s
survivability

Web Resources 
www.wri.org This is the World Resources Institute portal to information about
biodiversity and other environmental issues. Follow the links under ‘biodiversity and
protected areas’. Featured are tables on threatened and endangered species and other
useful information. You will need to complete a free online registration to access much
of the information.

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/alllife/eukaryotasy.html​ This is site devoted to the broad

systematics of the Eukaryota with excellent illustrations

http://www.actionbioscience.org/biodiversity/simberloff.html​ This is a comprehensive

AIBS site maintained by Daniel Simberloff that is devoted to the ecological effects of
invasive species.

http://nas.er.usgs.gov/​ Here the USGS provides a database on non-indigenous aquatic

plants and other organisms.