College of Mathematics and Natural Sciences

BIOL 103 GENERAL ECOLOGY

Unit I. Introduction to Ecology

G. Evolutionary Ecology - examines the environmental factors that drive species adaptation. Studies
of the evolution of species might seek to answer the question of how populations have changed
genetically over several generations but might not necessarily attempt to learn what the underlying
mechanisms might be.

Evolution is defines as the change that occurs in the characteristics of the living things over time.

 It may be change in the form and behavior of organisms between generations.

 It may be genetic changes in a population of organisms over time.

1. How variation originates?

a. Mutations - A gene mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up
a gene, such that the sequence differs from what is found in most people.
b. Gene flow (migration) - is any movement of individuals, and/or the genetic material they
carry, from one population to another. Gene flow includes lots of different kinds of events, such as
pollen being blown to a new destination or people moving to new cities or countries.
c. Genetic drift - also called genetic sampling error or Sewall Wright effect, a change in the
gene pool of a small population that takes place strictly by chance. Genetic drift can result in genetic
traits being lost from a population or becoming widespread in a population without respect to the
survival or reproductive value of the alleles involved.
d. Natural Selection - is one of the basic mechanisms of evolution, along with mutation,
migration, and genetic drift. If you have variation, differential reproduction, and heredity, you
will have evolution by natural selection as an outcome.
e. Sexual Selection - acts on an organism's ability to obtain (often by any means necessary!)
or successfully copulate with a mate.

2. How variation is maintained?

The discovery of large amounts of genetic variation in nearly all populations led to the
formulation of a different question: How is genetic variation maintained? In many cases, after all,
natural selection removes genetic variation by eliminating genotypes that are less fit. Many factors
act to increase or maintain the amount of genetic variation in a population. One of these is mutation,
which is in fact the ultimate source of all variation. However, mutations do not occur very frequently,
only at a rate of approximately one mutation per 100,000 to 1,000,000 genetic loci per generation.
This rate is too slow to account for most of the polymorphisms seen in natural populations. However,
mutation probably does explain some of the very rare phenotypes seen occasionally, such as albinism
in humans and other mammals.
A second factor contributing to genetic variation in natural populations is selective neutrality.
Selective neutrality describes situations in which alternate alleles for a gene differ little in fitness.
Because small fitness differences result in only weak natural selection, selection may be overpowered
by the random force of genetic drift. Alleles whose frequencies are governed by genetic drift rather
than by natural selection are said to be selectively neutral. Under neutrality, allele frequencies vary
over time, increasing or decreasing randomly.
 College of Mathematics and Natural Sciences

Over long periods of time, random fluctuations in the relative frequencies of different alleles
may result in some being eliminated from the population. However, genetic polymorphisms are long-
lived, and novel neutral alleles may arise continually through mutation.

Finally, several forms of natural selection act to maintain genetic variation rather than to
eliminate it. These include balancing selection, frequency-dependent selection, and changing patterns
of natural selection over time and space.

3. How much variation exists in nature?

A great variation exists in nature, it`s complexity makes it a great topic on evolutionary
ecology. There is no definite measurement but it is classified dependent to its different types (natural,
genetics, etc.).

4. Reduction in variation?
Variability Reduction is a multi-part strategy to reduce product variation and make a product
more robust or fit to use, e.g., meet its performance requirements regardless of variation.

Evolutionary solution is ADAPTATION – a genetically determined characteristics that improves

an organism`s ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.

REFERENCES:

[1] https://www.britannica.com/science/evolutionary-ecology
[2] https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/mutationsanddisorders/genemutation
[3] https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_21
[4] https://www.britannica.com/science/genetic-drift
[5] https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/genetic-variation-
population.
[6] http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Genetic_variation_in_nature