962 IEEE ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS, VOL. 43, NO.
6, JUNE 2022
An Artificial Spiking Nociceptor Integrating
Pressure Sensors and Memristors
Jiaxue Zhu, Xumeng Zhang , Member, IEEE, Ming Wang, Rui Wang, Pei Chen, Lingli Cheng, and Qi Liu
Abstract — Artificial nociceptors based on emerging
devices show intriguing potential for constructing
humanoid sensory systems. However, current artificial noci-
ceptors either produce analog output that limits their inter-
action with spiking systems or use discrete sensors. In this
letter, we report an artificial spiking nociceptor integrating a
pressure sensor and a NbOx -based memristor. The pressure
sensor perceives mechanical stimuli, together with which
the memristor enables a neuron that converts the pressure
information into spike signals. Our spiking nociceptor emu-
lates four key features of biological nociceptors: threshold,
relaxation, no adaptation, and sensitization. Furthermore,
the magnitude of the nociceptor’s output spike is compara-
ble to the action potential (∼100 mV) with the help of a read-
out resistor, making our nociceptor suitable for constructing
efficient sensory systems and neural interfaces.
Index Terms — Spiking nociceptor, pressure sensor,
memristor, spiking neuron.
I. I NTRODUCTION
N OCICEPTORS are critical receptors in the biological
somatosensory system by responding to harmful stimuli
to avoid the injury of the organisms [1]. Some diseases, such as
spontaneous pain and congenital insensibility to pain, are often
caused by pain neuropathy or malfunction [2], [3]. Therefore,
the implementation of artificial nociceptors based on elec-
tronic devices shows great significance for the construction
Manuscript received February 20, 2022; revised April 9, 2022;
accepted April 11, 2022. Date of publication April 14, 2022; date of
current version May 24, 2022. This work was supported in part by
the National Key Research and Development Program under Grant
2017YFA0206102; in part by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China under Grant 61732020, Grant 61821091, Grant 61834009,
Grant 61804167, Grant 61851402, and Grant 62104044; in part by
the Major Science and Technology Special Project of China under
Grant 2017ZX02301007-001; in part by the China Postdoctoral Science
Foundation under Grant 2020M681167; in part by the Strategic Pri-
ority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences under
Grant XDB44000000; and in part by the Project of MOE Innovation
Platform. The review of this letter was arranged by Editor S. Pourkamali.
(Corresponding author: Qi Liu.)
Jiaxue Zhu, Rui Wang, and Lingli Cheng are with the Key
Laboratory of Microelectronics Devices and Integrated Technology,
Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing
100029, China, and also with the School of Integrated Circuits, University
of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
Xumeng Zhang, Ming Wang, and Qi Liu are with the State Key
Laboratory of ASIC and System, Frontier Institute of Chip and System,
Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China, and also with the Shanghai
Qi Zhi Institute, Shanghai 200232, China (e-mail: qi_liu@fudan.edu.cn).
Pei Chen is with the Key Laboratory of Microelectronics Devices
and Integrated Technology, Institute of Microelectronics of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China.
Color versions of one or more figures in this letter are available at
https://doi.org/10.1109/LED.2022.3167421.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/LED.2022.3167421
0741-3106 © 2022 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
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of artificial sensory systems and physical therapy of pain-
related diseases. At present, the development of neuromorphic
devices [4], such as memristors [5] and synaptic transistors [6],
provides a solution for building artificial nociceptors [7]–[16].
For example, threshold switching (TS) memristors have suc-
cessfully emulated the basic characteristics of biological noci-
ceptors and responded to pain stimuli such as mechanical
force [10], ultraviolet light [9], [13], and heat [8], which has
been used in the artificial alarm system. In addition, synaptic
transistors have also been used to construct artificial noci-
ceptors due to their excellent regulation capability of channel
current [14]–[16]. However, these artificial nociceptors output
analog signals rather than spikes [7]–[16], which is incom-
patible with spiking sensory systems and biological neural
interfaces. Besides, some nociceptors use electrical signals to
mimic external stimuli [7], [11], [12], ignoring the sensing
capability of the systems. Therefore, the development of a
spiking nociceptor with spiking output and sensing capability
is in urgent need.
In this work, we report an artificial nociceptor that inte-
grates a pressure sensor and a NbOx -based memristor. The
nociceptor successfully emulates four key basic characteristics
of biological nociceptors. When the nociceptor works in a
normal state, it shows threshold, relaxation, and no adaptation
characteristics. Once the nociceptor is injured, it shows sen-
sitization characteristics, including allodynia and hyperalge-
sia. Our spiking nociceptor simultaneously senses mechanical
stimuli and converts the pressure information into spike signals
without the use of conversion modules, which is favorable for
spiking sensory systems. Meanwhile, the action potential-like
amplitude of the output spike makes the nociceptor suitable for
embedding in the neural interface. Our work provides guidance
for building spiking nociceptors and lays the foundation for
constructing humanoid sensing systems.
II. E XPERIMENTS
To fabricate nociceptors that integrate pressure sensors and
memristors, a Ti (5 nm)/Pt (35 nm) film was grown by e-beam
evaporation and patterned through a lift-off process, which
is used as bottom electrodes (BEs) of the memristor. Then,
a 50 nm NbOx switching layer was deposited by magnetron
sputtering at room temperature on BEs. Subsequently,
Ti (5 nm)/Pt (35 nm) top electrodes (TEs) and pairs of comb-
tooth planar electrodes of pressure sensor were deposited
and patterned using the same process as BE. To avoid
the electrical interconnection of BEs and TEs during the
 ZHU et al.: ARTIFICIAL SPIKING NOCICEPTOR INTEGRATING PRESSURE SENSORS AND MEMRISTORS
preparation of the nociceptor array, a 50 nm HfO2 insulated
film was sputtered on intersection areas before the deposition
of TEs. The active area of the crossbar structured memristor is
5 μm×5 μm. For fabricating pressure sensor, the pyramidal
structured polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) film was prepared
[17] and sprayed with the carbon nanotube (CNT) aqueous
solution (0.15 wt%) on a hotplate at 120 ◦ C. Finally, cutting
the CNT-covered PDMS film into small pieces and placing
these pieces on comb-tooth planar electrodes, free-standing
pressure sensors were fabricated. The area of the pressure
sensor is 3 mm×3 mm. The DC tests were performed on an
Agilent B1500A semiconductor parameter analyzer. During
the pulse measurement, a Keysight 81160A pulse generator
and a Keysight Infinii Vision MSO-X 3104T oscilloscope
were used for supplying power source and monitoring the
output, respectively.
III. R ESULTS AND D ISCUSSION
A. Biological Nociceptor vs. Artificial Nociceptor
In the biological somatosensory system, receptors of noci-
ceptive neurons in the skin can respond to harmful stimuli in
the environment and generate receptor potentials [18]. When
the receptor potential of the neuron exceeds a threshold, the
neuron produces an action potential and transmits the action
potential to the spinal cord (see Fig. 1a) [18]. Similarly, the
spiking nociceptor in this work can perceive the harmful
environmental stimuli and produce spike signals. As shown
in Fig. 1b, the nociceptor consists of a pressure sensor and
a NbOx -based memristor. The pressure sensor senses the
external pressure and converts it into corresponding resistance,
so that the potential of the parasitic capacitor in the memris-
tor changes under electrical stimulation. When the capacitor
potential (i.e., capacitor voltage VC ) exceeds a threshold
voltage, the nociceptor generates continuous spike signals.
B. Characteristics of the Pressure Sensor and Memristor
The pressure sensor used in our nociceptor is responsible
for sensing pressures and adjusting the working states of the
nociceptor. Fig. 2a shows the cross-sectional and planar SEM
images of the pyramidal structured PDMS film used in the
resistive pressure sensor. We measured the resistance (RP ) of
10 pressure sensors under different pressures (F) as shown
in Fig. 2b. The RP shows better uniformity under a higher
pressure range (0.25 mN < F < 2.5 mN) than that under low
pressures (< 0.25 mN). Also, the resistance state of the sensor
within the higher pressure range is recoverable, providing
the reference for the tests of the nociceptor in the normal
state. As one of the important components for constructing
the spiking nociceptor, the memristor’s SEM image is shown
in Fig. 2c. The inset displays the vertical structure of the
Ti/Pt/NbOx /Ti/Pt memristor. Fig. 2d shows the memristor’s
typical I-V curves operated in 50 cycles. In the forward voltage
sweep, when the voltage reaches the threshold voltage (VTH )
∼1.63 V, the current surges to the compliance current (ICC )
of 500 μA, thus the memristor device switches from a high
resistance state (ROFF ∼ 200 k) to a low resistance state
(RON ∼ 1 k). As the voltage drops to the hold voltage
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963
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram of the biological nociceptor. (b) Schematic
diagram of the artificial nociceptor that integrates a pressure sensor and
a memristor.
(VH ∼ 1.20 V) in the reverse voltage sweep, the device
switches from RON to ROFF spontaneously. This volatile TS
characteristic of the memristor plays an important role in
generating continuous spikes in the neuron circuit [19]–[21].
C. Key Features of the Spiking Nociceptor in the Normal
State
To characterize key features of the spiking nociceptor in
the normal state (without injury), we measured the nociceptor
under the pressure within the normal operating range. The
schematic diagram of the nociceptor circuit is shown in
Fig. 3a. The input voltage (VIN ) is 4 V in all electrical tests.
To reduce the output frequency of the circuit and facilitate
testing, a 10 nF capacitor (C) and a 100  read-out resistor
(RC ) are introduced into the circuit. Considering the applica-
tion of the nociceptor in compact sensing systems, the external
capacitor can be eliminated to reduce the area overload of the
circuit. To ensure the normal firing of the circuit, the RP should
meet: VIN × (ROFF,TH + RC )/(ROFF,TH + RC + RP ) > VTH and
VIN ×(RON,H +RC )/(RON,H +RC +RP ) < VH , where ROFF,TH
(RON,H ) is the high (low) resistance state of the memristor
at the time of threshold (hold) switching [22]. In this case,
when applying a pressure to the sensor, the capacitor charges
because of a smaller time constant (τ 1 = RP C) in loop ①
compared to that of loop ② (τ 2 = (ROFF + RC )C). As VC
reaches VTH , the memristor switches from ROFF to RON . Thus,
the nociceptor fires a voltage spike (VOUT ), and the capacitor
discharges due to a smaller τ 2. Subsequently, the nociceptor
generates continuous voltage spikes because of the charging
and discharging of the capacitor [19], [20].
Fig. 3b displays voltage changes (including VC and VOUT )
overtime at different pressures. When the force is ≥0.75 mN,
enabling that VC comes to VTH , the nociceptor fires spikes
(∼ 100 mV), which reflects the “threshold” characteristic.
And the higher the force, the higher the output frequency of the
nociceptor. Besides, the nociceptor has “relaxation” behavior
(Fig. 3c). When a higher force (0.82 mN) causes the nocicep-
tor to fire, a following small force of 0.63 mN could trigger
the nociceptor to fire during the relaxation time (T). But
the same small force cannot trigger the nociceptor to produce
spikes outside T. Another important feature of the nociceptor
 964
Fig. 2. (a) SEM planar and cross-sectional images of the pyramidal
structured PDMS film. (b) Resistance change of 10 pressure sensors at
different pressures. (c) SEM image of the memristor. Inset: schematic
diagram of the vertically stacked Ti/Pt/NbOx /Ti/Pt memristor device.
(d) I-V curves of the memristor operated in 50 cycles.
Fig. 3. Output characteristics of artificial nociceptor in the normal state.
(a) Circuit diagram of the spiking nociceptor. (b) “Threshold” feature
at different intensities of force. (c) “Relaxation” feature and (d) “No
adaptation” feature.
that works in the normal state is “no adaptation” (Fig. 3d).
When exposed to long-term harmful stimuli (∼1.0 mN),
it allows the nociceptor to keep firing to avoid injury.
D. “Sensitization” of the Artificial Nociceptor Under Injury
Sensitization is another key feature of nociceptors in the
injured skin, including “allodynia” and “hyperalgesia” [23].
The former shows a decreased response threshold to the
stimulus, and the latter shows an increased response intensity
under the identical stimuli [23]. These two characteristics
protect injured skin by enhancing pain sensitivity [8]. Fig. 4a
shows the schematic diagram of the human hand injury and
corresponding damage simulation. In the case of injury, the
pressure sensor is vigorously touched by a large force from
a wedge with the area of ∼1 mm2 so that CNTs on the
PDMS film fall off. The residual amount of CNTs reflects
the degree of damage of the nociceptor. The ranges of forces
that cause slight and serious injuries to the nociceptor are
roughly from 0.5 to 1.0 N and 1.0 N to 3.0 N, respectively.
Since the wedge area is smaller than the area of the pressure
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IEEE ELECTRON DEVICE LETTERS, VOL. 43, NO. 6, JUNE 2022
Fig. 4. (a) Schematic diagram of the human hand injury and corre-
sponding simulation. (b) Output spikes at the same force, indicating the
“hyperalgesia” feature. (c) Output spikes at different pressure thresholds,
indicating the “allodynia” feature. (d) “Sensitization” feature of the noci-
ceptor with injury, including “allodynia” and “hyperalgesia”.
sensor, the sensor will suffer local damage after removing
the destructive force. However, it still works under normal
pressures (0.25 mN ∼ 1.02 mN), just the resistance of the
sensor is less than the condition without damage. As shown
in Fig. 4b, applying the same force to the pressure sensor,
the more severe the injury, the higher the output frequency
of the nociceptor, featuring the “hyperalgesia” characteristic.
Compared to the normal state, the injured nociceptor produces
spike signals at a lower pressure threshold (FTH ), which
displays the “allodynia” characteristic (Fig. 4c). Fig. 4d shows
the statistical results of frequency changes under different
pressures at the sensor’s three working states. These results
illustrate that our spiking nociceptor successfully emulates
the sensitization characteristics of the biological nociceptors.
Notably, the damage to the nociceptor is unrecoverable
because the sensor’s damage is irreversible, corresponding
to a permanent skin allergy. It is worth mentioning that this
spiking nociceptor is extensible and has the potential to detect
other harmful stimuli by replacing the pressure sensor with
other resistive sensors. And the resistance of sensors needs to
meet the conditions of nociceptor firing. In addition, we can
prepare sensors and memristors on flexible substrates [24]
to obtain flexible nociceptors, applying for flexible sensing
systems such as soft robots and biological interfaces.
IV. C ONCLUSION
In summary, we demonstrated an artificial nociceptor with
both sensing and spike output capabilities for the first time.
Through integrating the pressure sensor and the NbOx -based
memristor, the nociceptor shows four key features: “thresh-
old”, “relaxation”, “no adaptation”, and “sensitization”. More-
over, the amplitude of the output spike is equivalent to an
action potential, making the nociceptor suitable for neural
interface applications. Our research illustrates the feasibility
of the spiking nociceptor in building intelligent sensory sys-
tems and guides the construction of humanoid robots, neural
prostheses, and neural interfaces.
 ZHU et al.: ARTIFICIAL SPIKING NOCICEPTOR INTEGRATING PRESSURE SENSORS AND MEMRISTORS
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