Unit 2

Europe from 1815-1850

a. Metternich and the Concert of Europe and the Congress System:

Congress of Aix-La- Chapelle (1818), Congress of Troppau (1820),
Congress of Laibach (1821), Congress of Verona (1822), London
Conference (1830), Holy and Quadruple Alliances

1. Metternich and His Influence:

- Klemens von Metternich was a prominent figure in European politics during the early 19th
century, serving as Chancellor of Austria from 1809 to 1848.
- Metternich was a staunch conservative who sought to maintain the status quo and
suppress revolutionary movements across Europe.
- He believed in the principles of legitimacy (restoring legitimate monarchies),
conservatism (preserving traditional institutions), and balance of power (preventing the
dominance of any single state).

2. The Concert of Europe and Congress System:

- The Concert of Europe was an informal diplomatic arrangement among major European
powers aimed at maintaining peace and stability on the continent.
- It operated on the principle of collective security, where European powers would consult
and cooperate to resolve conflicts and prevent the outbreak of war.
- The Congress System, also known as the Congress System, was a series of diplomatic
congresses held between 1818 and 1822 to address specific issues and maintain the
balance of power.

3. Key Congresses:
- Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818): Focused on the withdrawal of Allied troops from
France and addressing the issue of French indemnities. It aimed to reintegrate France into
the European diplomatic framework after the Napoleonic Wars.
- Congress of Troppau (1820): Addressed the issue of revolutionary movements in Spain
and Italy, with Metternich advocating for the principle of intervention to suppress liberal
revolutions.
- Congress of Laibach (1821): Authorized Austrian intervention in Italy to crush
revolutionary uprisings, particularly in Naples and Piedmont.
- Congress of Verona (1822): Discussed the situation in Greece and reaffirmed the
principle of intervention to suppress liberal revolutions and maintain the status quo.
- London Conference (1830): Addressed the Belgian Revolution of 1830 and recognized
Belgian independence while reaffirming the principle of intervention to preserve conservative
monarchies.

4. Holy Alliance and Quadruple Alliance:

 - The Holy Alliance was a coalition of conservative monarchies, including Russia, Prussia,
and Austria, established after the Congress of Vienna to uphold Christian principles and
preserve the status quo in Europe.
- The Quadruple Alliance, consisting of Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia, was formed
to maintain the balance of power and prevent the resurgence of French aggression after the
Napoleonic Wars.

5. Metternich's Legacy and Criticisms:

- Metternich's diplomatic efforts were largely successful in maintaining peace and stability
in Europe for several decades.
- However, his policies of repression and conservatism also stifled political and social
change, leading to widespread criticism and discontent.
- The revolutions of 1848 marked a turning point, challenging Metternich's conservative
order and ultimately leading to his resignation and the dissolution of the Concert of Europe.

In summary, Metternich and the Concert of Europe played a crucial role in shaping European
diplomacy and politics in the early 19th century, with their efforts focused on maintaining
peace and stability through diplomatic cooperation and intervention.

b. The Democratic and Nationalist Aspirations in Europe:

Independence of Belgium, Great Britain, France, Portugal, Italy,
Germany, Austria-Hungry

Democratic and nationalist aspirations in Europe from 1815 to 1850, covering the
independence movements in various European countries.

1. Independence Movements:

Belgium:
- The Belgian Revolution of 1830 was a pivotal moment in European history, leading to the
independence of Belgium from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
- Belgians, primarily influenced by liberal and nationalist ideals, rebelled against Dutch
rule, leading to a brief but intense conflict.
- The European powers recognized Belgian independence in the London Conference of
1830, solidifying Belgium as a sovereign state.

Greece:
- The Greek War of Independence (1821-1829) was a successful rebellion against
Ottoman rule, inspired by nationalist sentiment and philhellenism across Europe.
- Greek revolutionaries, led by figures such as Theodoros Kolokotronis and Lord Byron,
fought against Ottoman forces and eventually secured independence with the support of
European powers.
- The Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation,
although its borders were subject to further adjustments.
 Italy:
- Italy remained fragmented into various states under foreign control, including Austria,
France, and Spain, after the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
- Nationalist movements, such as the Carbonari and the Risorgimento, emerged to
advocate for Italian unification and independence from foreign domination.
- The Italian unification movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century, culminating
in the Risorgimento led by figures such as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Count Cavour.

Germany:
- Germany was similarly fragmented into numerous states under the influence of Austria
and Prussia, with no unified national identity.
- The German Confederation, established after the Congress of Vienna, maintained the
status quo of divided German states.
- The desire for German unity and nationalism grew throughout the 19th century, leading to
the Revolutions of 1848 and the eventual unification of Germany under Prussian leadership
in 1871.

Poland:
- Poland had lost its independence and was partitioned among Russia, Prussia, and
Austria in the late 18th century.
- Polish nationalists, including figures like Adam Mickiewicz and Tadeusz Kościuszko,
fought for Polish independence throughout the 19th century.
- The November Uprising of 1830 and the January Uprising of 1863 were two major
attempts by Poles to regain their independence, though both were ultimately suppressed by
Russian forces.

2. Great Britain, France, Portugal:

Great Britain:
- Great Britain experienced political stability and economic growth during this period,
largely avoiding the revolutionary upheavals that swept across Europe.
- The Industrial Revolution transformed Britain into an industrial powerhouse, leading to
urbanization, technological advancements, and the expansion of the British Empire.

France:
- France saw political instability, with several revolutions and changes in government
during the early to mid-19th century.
- The Bourbon Restoration, following the defeat of Napoleon, was followed by the July
Revolution of 1830, which established a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe.
- The February Revolution of 1848 led to the establishment of the Second Republic,
marking a brief period of liberal reforms before the rise of Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) and
the Second Empire.

Portugal:
- Portugal faced internal strife and conflicts with its former colonies in South America,
particularly Brazil.
 - Dom Pedro I declared Brazil's independence in 1822, leading to the dissolution of the
United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves.
- Portugal struggled with political instability and economic challenges throughout the 19th
century, leading to several revolutions and changes in government.

3. Austria-Hungary:

- Austria-Hungary, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was a multinational

empire comprising various ethnic groups, including Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks,
and others.
- The empire faced nationalist movements and demands for autonomy from its diverse
population, particularly in Hungary and Italy.
- The Hungarian Revolution of 1848, led by Lajos Kossuth, sought to establish Hungarian
independence from Austrian rule but was ultimately suppressed by Austrian forces.

In summary, the period from 1815 to 1850 witnessed a wave of democratic and nationalist
aspirations across Europe, leading to the independence of Belgium and Greece, the rise of
nationalist movements in Italy and Germany, and political upheaval in countries like France
and Portugal. These movements reshaped the political landscape of Europe and set the
stage for further revolutions and the eventual unification of several European nations.

c. Working Class Movement: 1848 Revolution, Socialism and Marx

1. The 1848 Revolution:

- The revolutions of 1848, also known as the Springtime of Nations, were a series of
widespread uprisings and protests that swept across Europe.
- The revolutions were fueled by a combination of economic hardship, political repression,
and calls for democratic reforms.
- Workers, intellectuals, and liberal activists joined forces to demand constitutional rights,
political representation, and social justice.
- The revolution began in France with the overthrow of the July Monarchy and the
establishment of the Second Republic.
- It quickly spread to other European countries, including Germany, Italy, Austria, and
Hungary, where protesters called for the end of autocratic rule and the implementation of
liberal reforms.
- Although the revolutions achieved some short-term gains, such as the abolition of feudal
privileges and the introduction of constitutional reforms in some countries, they ultimately
failed to bring about long-term systemic change and were crushed by conservative forces.

2. Socialism and Marx:

- Socialism emerged as a response to the social and economic inequalities brought about
by industrialization and capitalism.
- Socialists advocated for collective ownership of the means of production, redistribution of
wealth, and the creation of a classless society.
 - Karl Marx, a German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary socialist, became one of
the most influential figures in the socialist movement.
- Marx's theories, outlined in works such as "The Communist Manifesto" (1848) and "Das
Kapital" (1867), laid the foundation for modern socialism and communism.
- Marx's theory of historical materialism posited that the history of society is shaped by the
conflict between different social classes over the means of production.
- He argued that capitalism, characterized by exploitation and alienation, would ultimately
lead to its own downfall, as the working class (proletariat) would rise up against the
bourgeoisie (capitalist class) in a revolution.
- Marx envisioned a communist society, where private property would be abolished, and
the means of production would be owned collectively by the workers.
- While Marx's ideas initially gained traction among workers and intellectuals, they also
sparked controversy and debate within the socialist movement.

3. The 1848 Revolution and Socialism:

- The 1848 Revolution played a significant role in the development of socialist thought and
the rise of the working-class movement.
- Workers and socialists participated in the revolution alongside liberal and nationalist
groups, advocating for their rights and interests.
- The failure of the revolution to bring about lasting change prompted Marx and other
socialists to reevaluate their strategies and tactics.
- Marx and Friedrich Engels, in "The Communist Manifesto," called for the organization of
the working class into a revolutionary movement aimed at overthrowing capitalism and
establishing socialism.
- The events of 1848 served as a catalyst for the growth of socialist organizations and the
spread of socialist ideas throughout Europe.

4. Legacy and Impact:

- The 1848 Revolution and the emergence of socialism had a profound impact on
European politics and society.
- While the revolutions of 1848 were largely unsuccessful in achieving their immediate
goals, they paved the way for future struggles for democracy, workers' rights, and social
justice.
- The ideas of Marx and socialism continued to influence political movements and social
reform efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries, shaping the course of modern history.
- The working-class movement gained momentum, leading to the formation of labor
unions, the implementation of labor reforms, and the eventual rise of socialist and social
democratic parties across Europe.

In summary, the working-class movement in Europe during the mid-19th century, epitomized
by the 1848 Revolution and the emergence of socialism, marked a period of significant
social, economic, and political upheaval. These developments laid the groundwork for future
struggles for workers' rights and social justice, while also shaping the trajectory of modern
socialist thought and political movements.
 d. Women’s Movement

1. Emergence of the Women's Movement:

- The 19th century saw the emergence of the women's movement, which sought to
address the social, economic, and political inequalities faced by women.
- Women began organizing for social and political change, advocating for issues such as
women's suffrage, access to education, employment opportunities, and legal rights.

2. Key Figures and Events:

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797):

- Mary Wollstonecraft, an English writer and philosopher, is often regarded as one of the
earliest advocates of women's rights.
- Her seminal work, "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792), argued for women's
education and equal rights, challenging prevailing notions of women's inferiority.

Seneca Falls Convention (1848):

- The Seneca Falls Convention, held in Seneca Falls, New York, in July 1848, was the first
women's rights convention in the United States.
- Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, and other leading suffragists, the
convention adopted the Declaration of Sentiments, which outlined demands for women's
equality, including the right to vote.
- The Seneca Falls Convention marked a significant milestone in the women's rights
movement and inspired similar gatherings and activism across the country.

Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906):

- Susan B. Anthony was a prominent suffragist and social reformer who played a key role
in the women's suffrage movement in the United States.
- She dedicated her life to advocating for women's rights, including suffrage, and
co-founded the National Woman Suffrage Association with Elizabeth Cady Stanton in 1869.

Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928):

- Emmeline Pankhurst was a British suffragette who led the militant campaign for women's
suffrage in the United Kingdom.
- She founded the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903, employing tactics
such as civil disobedience, hunger strikes, and direct action to demand women's right to
vote.
- Pankhurst's leadership and activism played a crucial role in securing women's suffrage in
Britain with the passage of the Representation of the People Act in 1918.

3. Struggles and Achievements:

Suffrage Movement:
- The suffrage movement, also known as the women's suffrage movement, focused on
securing women's right to vote.
 - Suffragists organized rallies, marches, petitions, and lobbying efforts to raise awareness
and pressure governments to grant women suffrage.
- The movement achieved significant victories in various countries throughout the 19th and
early 20th centuries, with New Zealand becoming the first self-governing nation to grant
women suffrage in 1893.

Legal Reforms:
- The women's movement also advocated for legal reforms to address issues such as
property rights, marital rights, and access to education and employment.
- Legislation such as the Married Women's Property Acts, which granted married women
the right to own property and enter into contracts, and the Matrimonial Causes Act, which
provided women with greater legal protections in marriage, marked important milestones in
the struggle for women's rights.

4. Global Impact:

- The women's movement had a global impact, inspiring women around the world to
organize and advocate for their rights.
- Women's rights activists in countries such as France, Sweden, Australia, and Canada
formed their own suffrage organizations and campaigned for women's suffrage and equality.
- The struggle for women's rights intersected with other social movements, including the
abolitionist movement, labor movement, and civil rights movement, leading to alliances and
collaborations between different marginalized groups.

5. Legacy:

- The women's movement of the 19th century laid the foundation for future generations of
feminists and women's rights activists.
- The achievements of suffragists and reformers paved the way for women's increased
participation in public life, including politics, education, and the workforce.
- While significant progress has been made, the struggle for gender equality continues,
with women around the world still advocating for equal rights, representation, and
opportunities.

In summary, the women's movement of the 19th century was a transformative period in
history, marked by the emergence of feminist activism, the fight for women's suffrage, and
the quest for gender equality. Through the efforts of courageous individuals and collective
action, women made significant strides towards achieving greater rights and recognition in
society.