Atomic Force Microscopy

Advanced Physics Laboratories PL1

April 2024
João Pedro Rodrigues Simões Vinı́cius de Lima

1 Introduction
This work aims to present a type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM). SPM is a collective term for a variety of
non-optical techniques that form images through the interaction of a physical probe with the specimen. Atomic force
microscopy (AFM) is an established type of SPM, which will be elaborated upon. AFM is a high-resolution imaging
technique that was demonstrated by Binnig, Quate and Gerber in 1985, receiving the Kavli prize in nanoscience
for this achievement in 2016.
Instead of focusing light or electrons onto the sample surface, the operating principle of AFM relies on passing a
probe that ”touches” the sample surface with a sharp tip, registering small inter-atomic forces. With this method,
one can study the topography of samples with a scale size ranging from microns to sub-nanometers.

2 Operating Principle
The AFM technique focuses on mapping different characteristics of a given sample. The primary component
responsible for this is the probe acting as a force sensor. Probe is the term used for the assembly cantilever/tip
(see figure 1). As the position of the tip changes, it interacts with the sample surface through raster scanning
motion. However, it will become evident later that this interaction is not limited to raster scanning, it could also
involve tapping or even not touching the surface at all. The important thing to note is that it interacts with the
sample surface. Due to the irregularities of the sample, it causes the cantilever to deflect and twist during the raster
motion. By shinning a laser onto the cantilever, one can monitor the up/down and side to side motion that the tip
induces on the cantilever, through the reflection of light that is directed into the photodiode detector, generating a
electronic signal. A feedback component compares this signal with a certain reference value and uses the difference
between the two to produce three-dimensional topographical representation of the sample surface. A computer is
used for data acquisition, data storage and management, system control, and image display. The tip-sample atomic
interactions open the possibility to measure sample topography, but also other properties such as variations in local
stiffness, friction force, and lateral stiffness.

Figure 1: Scheme of the AFM system

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 As already mentioned, the tip is free to move side to side, this movement allows for the study of friction in the
material. When the tip scans over the surface, frictional forces cause the cantilever to twist. Changing the position
of the cantilever results in a difference in the the light luminosity reaching the photodiode detector, thus registering
a frictional change in the material.

Figure 2: Effect of slope and friction in the surface (black semicircle).

There has to be a mechanism to change the position of the probe with respect to the surface of the sample. For
this purpose, a piezoelectric scanner is used. This component allows high precision, both in the lateral (X, Y) and
vertical (Z) directions. The Z direction is needed to be adjust because if the tip were scanned at a constant height,
there would be a risk that the tip would collide with the surface, causing damage. Hence, in most cases a feedback
mechanism is employed to adjust the tip-to-sample distance to maintain a constant force between the tip and the
sample. Now, there is two ways of changing the position of the probe with respect to the surface of the sample: the
sample can move while the probe remains still, known as sample-scanning mode, or vice versa, tip-scanning mode.
In both cases the cantilever deflects due to the sample topography and twists around its longitudinal axis due to
in-plane friction forces. The movements of the cantilever are measured using an optical detection system.
The way that the tip interacts with the sample surface depends on the forces involved. AFM can detect
mechanical contact force, Van der Waals forces, capillary forces, chemical bonding, electrostatic forces, magnetic
forces, Casimir forces, solvation forces etc. Depending on the interaction under investigation, the surface of the tip
of the AFM probe needs to be modified with a coating. Among the coatings used are gold – for covalent bonding
of biological molecules and the detection of their interaction with a surface, diamond for increased wear resistance
and magnetic coatings for detecting the magnetic properties of the investigated surface.

3 AFM Components
In general, the AFM equipment (figure 1) usually consists on the following components:

3.1 Probe, or tip

The probe plays a crucial role in the high-resolution and sensitivity of the instrument. Probes are typically made
of silicon or silicon nitride and are attached at the end of the cantilever. The force between the probe and sample
relies on both the stiffness of the cantilever (spring constant) and the separation distance between the probe and
the sample surface. This force accordingly to Hooke’s Law is F = −kz, where F represents the force, k the spring
constant, and z the deflection of the cantilever. When the spring constant of the cantilever is lower than that of the
surface, the cantilever bends and its deflection is monitored. AFM probes come in a variety of materials, shapes,
stiffnesses and resonance frequencies. Probe selection depends on the material and application.

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3.2 Cantilever
The cantilever is a thin and flexible beam that is attached to the probe. If the probe changes position, the
cantilever also does. These oscillations are noticed with the change in light intensity that is reflected. For high-
resolution imaging, the cantilever should be coated with a reflective material to enhance the detection of its motion.
If the cantilever can oscillate, there must be a resonant frequency associated to it, this should be synchronized with
the electronics (more on this later).

3.3 Photodiode detector

This component is responsible for the optical detection system that collects a laser beam reflected by the back of
the cantilever. As previously explained, while performing the scan over the sample surface, the the cantilever deflects
due to the sample’s topography and twists around due to the friction forces. These movements are monitored by
the protodiode, which detects variations in light intensity corresponding to each movement. There are many ways
of detecting the deflection of the cantilever, but beam-deflection is the most common.
The working principle for perceiving the movements in the cantilever is at it follows. It has already been discussed
that the cantilever can go up/down (deflection) or side to side (torsional). To perceive all these movements, the
photodiode is segmented into four quadrants (see Figure 3). In this way, the deflection and torsional signals can be
determined by measuring the difference in optical powers between either the upper and the lower half, or the left
and the right half of the photodetector, respectively. Normalize it to the total power reaching the photodiode:

(A + D) − (B + C) (A + B) − (C + D)
d= t=
A+B+C +D A+B+C +D
d is the deflection signal, t is the torsional signal, and A, B, C, D are the powers corresponding to the segments of
the photodetector (figure 2).

Figure 3: Illustration of how the photodetector detects vertical and horizontal deflection of the cantilever.

3.4 Piezoelectric scanners

Piezoelectric materials change dimensions in response to an applied voltage and conversely, they develop an
electrical potential in response to mechanical pressure. In AFM they play a fundamental role because they permit
tiny and accurate movements and can be designed to move in x, y, and z by expanding in some directions and
contracting in others. Piezoelectric scanners are the components responsible for moving the probe over the sample
(or the sample under the probe) and controlling, through the feedback system, the interaction between the probe
and the sample. In order not to damage anything, they must be able to control the position extremely accurately.

3.5 Feedback control

This is not a specific component, but rather a system that controls a specific parameter in order to maintain
constant interaction between the tip and the sample as the tip scans the surface. It will become evident later that
we are interested in controlling the force applied to the sample and the frequency at which the tip ”touches” the
sample surface. Depending on the different modes, the feedback system tries to maintain the parameter at the
setpoint.
For example, in static mode (contact mode), the feedback parameter is cantilever deflection. To prevent damege
to the tip and/or surface, the feedback circuit will adjust the height of the cantilever during the scan to mantain a

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constant force. This adjustment is made based on the information provided by the photodiode (beam-deflection).
The instrument aims to keep the feedback parameter constant at its setpoint value by adjusting the z-piezo to move
the cantilever up and down.
In tapping or non-contact mode (presented in the next section), cantilever oscillation amplitude and frequency
is the feedback parameter. It is crucial to match the resonant frequency of the cantilever with the frequency of the
AFM feedback loop to achieve optimal performance.
When there is a discrepancy between the setpoint and the actual deflection, it is called a error. This error is
scaled by the gain, and this signal is used to control the Z drive of the scanner. The following system keeps the
cantilever motion constant as the tip scans along in contact with the surface.

Figure 4: Schematic depicting feedback loops in XY and Z to create an AFM image. This diagram is based on a
tube-shaped piezo scanner. Some systems do not use a tube scanner, but the feedback principle remains the same.

If the gains are too low, the system will not respond fast enough to changes in sample topography, the image
quality will be poor, and the tip will wear quickly. If the gains are set to high, though, the feedback loop will
become unstable and the image will appear excessively noisy.

4 Modes of AFM Operation

4.1 Topographic Modes
Knowing that different forces are involved for different sample, one should choose the best imaging mode that
suits the type of force being measured. AFM has three main types of operational modes that can be divided into
two groups: Static - contact mode; Dynamic - tapping and non-contact mode. These three operating modes are
distinguished based on the way the probe interacts with the sample.

Figure 5: Interaction force versus tip-sample distance.

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4.1.1 Contact Mode
Contact mode is the most basic mode for AFM used for measuring topography. As the name suggest, the probe
is always in contact with the sample while the tip raster scans the surface. As the scanner traces the probe across
the sample surface, the cantilever height will be adjusted using the z piezoelectric to maintain the force that the
tip asserts on the sample constant, otherwise, the sample could be damaged. The cantilever exerts a force normal
to the surface and the deflection of the cantilever is proportional to the force applied. At small deflections, the
cantilever can be considered as a Hookean spring with spring constant k (units N/m). It is important that the
cantilever spring constant is low because when it bends due to surface irregularities, there is a response time during
which the feedback system orders the z piezoelectric to move. Therefore, in order to prevent the tip from damaging
the sample during this time, the spring constant should be low. Because the probe is ”dragged” along the sample
surface, the forces between the tip and the sample are repulsive (figure 5), the separation of the two are less than
few angstrom.
The feedback parameter here is the force applied on the sample by the probe. The operator chooses a reference
force (setpoint) at which the tip should always assert on the sample surface. When the tip encounters a change in
height in the sample, there will be a deflection in the cantilever. This movement is recorded by the photodiode,
which passes the information to the feedback system. By comparing it to the setpoint, the feedback control adjusts
the new force applied due to the change in height to the force setpoint by changing the height of the cantilever.
This adjustment is done by the z piezoelectric scanner. In short, The feedback system attempts to maintain a
constant cantilever deflection and consequently a constant interaction force, this is done by adjusting the height of
the cantilever. Force constants typically range from 0.01 to 1.0 N/m. Contact mode usually has the fastest scanning
times but can deform the sample surface. It is also the only mode that can attain ”atomic resolution”.

The advantages of this method are:

• High scan speed
• The only mode that can obtain ”atomic resolution” images
• Rough samples with extreme changes in topography can sometimes be scanned more easily
Disadvantages:
• The high lateral (shear) and normal forces can damage soft samples (i.e. polymers or biological samples)

4.1.2 Tapping Mode

In contrast to contact mode, tapping mode is a dynamic AFM technique that allows the cantilever to oscillate
at or near its resonance frequency and with an amplitude that varies from several nanometers to 200 nm. This
oscillation is commonly achieved with a small piezo element in the cantilever holder, but other possibilities include
an AC magnetic field (with magnetic cantilevers), piezoelectric cantilevers, or periodic heating with a modulated
laser beam. The probe scans the sample’s surface by ”tapping” with a oscillating motion. Due to the changing in
oscillations caused by the tip-sample interaction forces, a topography image is produced.
In this mode, the tip makes intermittent contact with the sample surface during the acquisition, for that reason,
both repulsive and attractive forces are involved. The feedback parameter here is the amplitude and frequency of
the cantilever oscillation; therefore, the amplitude and frequency difference between the setpoint signal and the
detected signal provides information about material-specific mechanical properties. This amplitude and frequency
difference is adjusted by a piezoelectric scanner (changing the height of the cantilever) that is commanded by the
feedback loop circuit. This feedback control ensures that the probe operates in the regime where intermittent
contact occurs.
When operating in tapping mode, the phase relationship between the cantilever’s oscillation and the driving
signal can also be monitored. This aspect provides insights into the energy dissipation by the cantilever during each
oscillation cycle. Samples that contain regions of varying stiffness or with different adhesion properties can give a
contrast in this channel that is not visible in the topographic image. This method is gentler than contact AFM
since the tip is not dragged across the surface.

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Advantages:
• High lateral resolution
• Imaging condition more stable than in non-contact mode
Disadvantages:
• Lower scan speed than contact mode
• Higher normal forces than non-contact mode

4.1.3 Non-contact Mode

Different from the other two modes, non-contact mode doesn’t touch the sample during the AFM scan. The
cantilever oscillates just at or above its resonance frequency in close proximity to the surface of a sample but never
touches it (tip-sample distance is on the order of tens to hundreds of angstroms). As the probe is further away from
the sample, the van der Waals forces dominate (appreciable from 1 nm to 10 nm). These forces act to decrease
the frequency of the candilever. A difference in frequency is translated into a force change above the sample. By
utilizing a feedback loop to monitor changes in the oscillation frequency or amplitude due to attractive van der
Waals forces, the average tip-sample distance is measured, creating a topography of the surface sample.

Advantages:
• Lower lateral resolution (1 to 5 nm)
• Lower lateral and normal forces and less damage to soft samples (ideal to biological samples and organic thin
film and extends lifetime of the tip).
Disadvantages:
• Lower scan speed than contact mode
• Quite unstable imaging conditions
• Does not provide very good resolution unless placed under a strong vacuum

4.2 Non-topographic Modes

AFM can also be utilized to obtain more than just topographic information. While the tip is held fixed over a
specific are of the sample surface, one can investigate the electronic properties of materials at the atomic scale.
Some examples are:
1. Force Spectroscopy - maintaining the x-y position of the AFM probe fixed, while ramping it in the z axis,
allows for measuring the deflection as the tip approaches and retracts from the sample surface. Thus, force
spectroscopy consists of simply measuring force–distance curves. Through this method, one can directly
measure the force between the contacting atoms or molecules on the end of the probe and sample surface,
enabling single-molecule interaction studies.
2. Mechanical property imaging - simultaneously measure the interaction of the probe with the sample surface
while acquiring topographical data. This method offers two advantages: faster data acquisition and direct
correlation of mechanical information with measured topography.
3. Magnetic force microscopy - directly measuring the presence and distribution of magnetic fields using a
magnetic-coated probe on standard silicon cantilevers. Coating with materials like cobalt can affect the
cantilever’s durability and resolution. Typically, magnetic forces are much weaker than other tip-sample
forces, so measurements are often made with the tip at a certain distance from the surface (5–50 nm) to
minimize interference.
4. Electrochemical force microscopy - allows the study of surfaces as a function of applied potential with AFM.
This technique observes changes in sample topography resulting from electrochemical reactions.

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5 Vibration Noise
Environmental vibrations where the AFM machine is located should be taken into consideration. This can cause
the probe to vibrate at an undesired frequency, leading to distortion in the image and potential damage to both
the probe and the sample. There are two main sources of vibrations: floor and acoustic vibrations.
• Floor vibrations as the name indicates, originate from the building where the AFM is placed. The source could
even be people walking outside the AFM laboratory. These vibrations can be as much as several microns,
typically occurring at frequencies below 5 Hz. If not properly filtered, can cause periodic structure in an
image. The effect of these vibrations is most often noticed when imaging very flat samples because of the low
amplitude.
• Acoustic vibrations, on the other hand, originate from sound waves. The source of the sound could be from
an airplane going over a building or from the tones in a person’s voice. Acoustic isolation is achieved by
enclosing the AFM in a cabinet with acoustic shielding on the inside.

6 High-resolution imaging
Trying to maximize the resolution of the image is of great interest. Achieving high-resolution imaging in AFM
requires optimization of the following factors:
• Probe Tip Quality: the sharper and cleaner the probe tip is, the better the resolution, generally. Trying
multiple tips or using a tip-check sample can help diagnose problems.
• Sample Stability: the sample must be fixed to prevent movement during imaging. One should also ensure
thermal equilibrium between the probe and the sample.
• Minimizing External Noise and Vibration: as already mentioned, external vibrations can affect image quality,
so is is essential to remove unnecessary sources of noise and ensure effective vibration isolation.
• Optimization of Scanning Parameters: Adjusting parameters such as the scanning speed and feedback can
help achieve the desired imaging conditions.

7 General Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
• Provides a three-dimensional surface profile
• Samples do not require any special treatments (such as metal/carbon coatings)
• Can work well in ambient air or even a liquid environment
• Can be used to characterize various properties of materials: topography, adhesion, hardness, friction, etc.
• Can provide higher resolution than SEM
• Non-destructive (unlike TEM)
Disadvantages:
• Can only scanning area of about 150×150 micrometers and a maximum height on the order of 10–20 microm-
eters (limited by PZ scanners)
• The scanning time is high
• Nonlinearity, hysteresis, creep of piezoelectric material, and cross-talk between axes can affect AFM images
• Depending in the environment artifacts can distort the resulting image.
• The sample cannot be scanned if it is rougher than the maximum vertical range of the piezo.

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8 Applications
Applications of AFM include imaging:
• Biological molecules
• Cellular components
• Cells or tissues in biochemistry applications
• Polymers
• Semiconductors
• Other materials in chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology, and cancer research

9 References
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