Chap 5

Detecting and avoiding collision with CSMA/CD

- USE “COUNTDOWN TIMERS” that require them to wait for periods of time

- avoid data collision

Distributed coordinated function(DFC) – use layer 2 (transmission unit)

Chap 4

IEEE 802.11i introduced what is known as the Robust Secure Network (RSN)

- The RSN must support Counter mode with Cipher-block chaining Message Authentication
code Protocol (CCMP)
- It also may support Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP)
• A dynamic rekeying mechanism to change encryption and integrity keys
• Message Integrity Check (MIC) to prevent forgery attacks
• Allowing backward compatibility with WEP
• Configuring a wireless network to use TKIP is usually a straightforward process, using
a web or command-line interface

IEEE 802.1X is a port-based access control method

- RADIUS is a networking service that provides centralized authentication and administration

of users
- Supplicant (wireless client device) - the wireless client device attempting to connect to the
wireless network
- Authenticator (wireless access point) -the authenticator passes the authentication
information between the two devices
- Authentication server (RADIUS or AAA server)- authenticate the wireless supplicant

1. Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS):

 Importance:

 Ad-Hoc Networking: IBSS is primarily used for ad-hoc networking, where

wireless devices communicate directly with each other without the need for
a central access point (AP). This mode is ideal for scenarios where devices
need to establish temporary, self-forming wireless connections, such as
peer-to-peer file sharing or collaboration in a conference room.

 Flexibility: IBSS allows devices to communicate on an ad-hoc basis, making it

suitable for situations where infrastructure-based networking is not feasible
or desirable.
  Implementation:

 No Central AP: In an IBSS, there is no central AP. Instead, devices

communicate directly with each other. They form a wireless network by
selecting a common channel and SSID (Service Set Identifier).

 Self-Configuring: Devices in an IBSS self-configure their wireless settings,

including channel selection and security settings if applicable.

 Limited Range: IBSS networks typically have a limited range since devices
need to be in close proximity to each other for communication.

Advantages:

1. Flexibility: IBSS is highly flexible, as it allows devices to establish ad-hoc connections

without the need for a central access point. This flexibility is ideal for scenarios where
quick, temporary connections are required.
2. Simple Setup: Setting up an IBSS network is relatively straightforward, as devices can
communicate directly with each other without the complexities of a central
infrastructure.
3. No Single Point of Failure: Since there is no central access point, there is no single
point of failure in an IBSS network. If one device fails, other devices can continue to
communicate.

2. Basic Service Set (BSS):

 Importance:

 Infrastructure Mode: BSS is the fundamental building block of infrastructure-

based wireless networks. It consists of one or more wireless devices
(stations) connected to a central access point (AP).

 Managed and Controlled: BSS allows for better network management and
control by centralizing communication through the AP. This mode is ideal for
larger networks where devices need to connect to a centralized network
infrastructure.

 Implementation:

 Central AP: In a BSS, there is always a central AP that serves as a bridge

between wireless devices and the wired network. The AP manages channel
selection, security, and network configuration.

 Extended Coverage: Multiple BSSs can be interconnected to create a larger

wireless network, forming an Extended Service Set (ESS).
 Advantages:

1. Centralized Control: BSS networks offer centralized control through a central access
point (AP). This allows for better network management, security, and configuration.
2. Better Range: BSS networks generally provide better range and coverage compared
to IBSS, making them suitable for larger areas and more devices.
3. Improved Security: Centralized control in a BSS allows for stronger security
enforcement, including the use of encryption and authentication protocols.

3. Extended Service Set (ESS):

 Importance:

 Seamless Roaming: ESS extends the coverage of a wireless network by

interconnecting multiple BSSs through a distribution system, enabling
seamless roaming for wireless clients. As users move from one coverage
area to another, they can stay connected without interruption.

 Scalability: ESS allows for the expansion of wireless network coverage by

adding more APs as needed, making it suitable for larger organizations and
areas.

 Implementation:

 Multiple BSSs: An ESS consists of multiple BSSs, each with its own AP. These
BSSs share the same SSID and security settings, allowing devices to roam
between them seamlessly.

 Distribution System: A distribution system, often a wired Ethernet network,

connects the APs within an ESS, facilitating communication between them.

 Common SSID: All BSSs within an ESS should have the same SSID and
security configuration to enable seamless roaming.

Advantages:

1. Seamless Roaming: ESS networks support seamless roaming, allowing wireless

devices to move between different BSSs (APs) within the same ESS without losing
connectivity.
2. Scalability: ESS networks are highly scalable and can cover large areas by deploying
multiple APs, providing consistent coverage and capacity.
3. Redundancy: ESS networks can be designed with redundancy in mind, reducing the
risk of network downtime due to AP failure.
1. Autonomous Access Points:

Importance:

 Simplicity: Autonomous APs are standalone devices that operate independently without the
need for a central controller. They are easy to set up and manage, making them suitable for
small-scale deployments and locations with minimal IT support.

Differences:

 Centralized Control: Autonomous APs lack centralized control and management. Each AP is
configured individually, making it more challenging to enforce consistent network policies
and security settings.

 Limited Scalability: Managing a large number of Autonomous APs can become cumbersome,
as each AP must be configured and monitored separately.

 Basic Features: Autonomous APs offer basic wireless connectivity and security features, such
as WPA/WPA2 encryption and SSID broadcasting.

2. Lightweight or Controller-based Access Points:

Importance:

 Centralized Management: Lightweight APs are managed by a central controller, providing

centralized control, configuration, and monitoring of the entire wireless network.

 Scalability: They are suitable for larger and more complex deployments, where the ability to
scale and manage numerous APs efficiently is critical.

Differences:

 Central Controller: Lightweight APs rely on a central controller for configuration, policy
enforcement, and coordination. This centralized approach simplifies network management
and enables consistent settings across all APs.

 Advanced Features: Controller-based APs often support advanced features such as seamless
roaming, load balancing, and intrusion detection, enhancing network performance and
security.

 Cost: Implementing a controller-based solution typically involves higher initial hardware and
licensing costs for the central controller but can be cost-effective for large-scale
deployments in the long run.

 Redundancy: Controller-based networks can incorporate controller redundancy to minimize

network downtime in case of controller failures.

3. Cooperative Access Points:

Importance:
  Cooperative APs combine some elements of autonomous and controller-based APs, offering
a compromise between flexibility and centralized control.

 They are used in networks where centralized control is desired but without the dependency
on a dedicated controller appliance.

Differences:

 Centralized Control (Partial): Cooperative APs have some level of centralized control
through cooperative protocols, where neighboring APs collaborate to provide features like
seamless roaming and load balancing.

 Hybrid Approach: These APs provide a balance between autonomous and controller-based
models, offering a level of flexibility while still benefiting from certain centralized
management capabilities.

 Cost-Efficiency: Cooperative APs often have a lower initial cost compared to fully controller-
based solutions, making them attractive for mid-sized deployments that require some
centralized features but don't want to invest heavily in a dedicated controller.

When to Use ESS Mode:

ESS mode operation in Wireless LANs is typically used in scenarios where you need to extend the
coverage area of your wireless network beyond the reach of a single Access Point (AP). Here are
situations where ESS mode is advantageous:

1. Large Coverage Areas: ESS mode is essential when you need to cover a large physical area,
such as a campus, office building, or warehouse. A single Basic Service Set (BSS) provided by
a single AP may not provide sufficient coverage.

2. Seamless Roaming: ESS mode allows for seamless roaming as users move from one area to
another within the extended coverage. This is critical for organizations where users need to
maintain network connectivity while moving around.

3. Scalability: As the organization grows, it's easier to scale the wireless network by adding
more Access Points to the ESS. This approach ensures that additional users and devices can
be accommodated without major network redesign.

4. Redundancy: ESS networks can be designed with redundancy in mind. Multiple Access
Points can be strategically placed to ensure that if one AP fails, others can take over,
minimizing network downtime.

How ESS Mode Works:

In ESS mode, multiple Basic Service Sets (BSSs) are interconnected to create a single logical network.
Here's how it works:
  Each Access Point (AP) within the ESS has its own BSS with a unique BSSID (Basic Service Set
Identifier) but shares the same SSID (Service Set Identifier). This allows devices to see and
connect to the same network as they move through the coverage area.

 The APs within the ESS communicate with each other through a distribution system, often a
wired Ethernet network. This allows devices to roam between APs while maintaining
network connectivity.

 The ESS can provide a seamless and consistent wireless experience for users, as they can
move from one AP's coverage area to another without needing to reconnect manually.

Why Lightweight or Controller-Based Access Points Are Preferred for Large Organizations:

Large organizations often prefer lightweight or controller-based Access Points (APs) over
autonomous APs for several reasons:

1. Centralized Management: Controller-based APs are managed through a central controller,

which offers a single point of control for configuration, security policies, and monitoring. This
centralized management simplifies network administration, ensures consistency in
configurations, and facilitates troubleshooting.

2. Scalability: Controller-based APs are highly scalable. Adding new APs to the network is
streamlined, and configurations can be pushed out to all APs simultaneously, making it
easier to expand the network as the organization grows.

3. Advanced Features: Controller-based APs often support advanced features like seamless
roaming, load balancing, and quality of service (QoS). These features enhance network
performance, reliability, and user experience, which are crucial for large organizations with
high demands on their networks.

4. Security: Centralized management allows for more robust security implementations,

including intrusion detection and prevention, as well as consistent application of security
policies across all APs.

5. Monitoring and Reporting: Controller-based solutions typically offer better visibility into the
network, including real-time monitoring and reporting, which is essential for troubleshooting
and ensuring network health.

6. Redundancy and High Availability: Controller-based networks can be designed with

controller redundancy for high availability, reducing the risk of network downtime in case of
controller failures.
1. Transmitter:

 Functionality: The transmitter is responsible for generating and modulating the RF

signal. Its primary functions include:

 Signal Generation: The transmitter generates an electrical signal, often in the

form of an analog or digital waveform, which carries the information to be
transmitted.

 Modulation: The transmitter modulates the baseband signal onto an RF

carrier wave. Modulation techniques include amplitude modulation (AM),
frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM), depending on the
specific communication standard.

 Power Amplification: The modulated signal is then amplified to achieve the

required signal strength for transmission. The power amplifier ensures that
the signal can travel over the desired distance.

 Frequency Generation: Transmitters generate the RF carrier frequency,

which is essential for encoding the information.

 Signal Conditioning: Various signal processing and filtering may be applied to

ensure that the RF signal meets regulatory and performance requirements.

 Importance: A transmitter ensures that the information is properly encoded onto an

RF carrier wave, enabling wireless communication.

2. Antenna:

 Functionality: The antenna is responsible for radiating the RF signal into space
during transmission and capturing RF signals from the space during reception. Its
functions include:

 Signal Radiation: During transmission, the antenna converts the electrical RF

signal into electromagnetic waves that propagate through the air or a
transmission medium.

 Signal Reception: During reception, the antenna captures incoming RF

signals and converts them into electrical signals that are then sent to the
receiver.

 Signal Directivity: Antennas can have different directional properties, such as

omnidirectional (radiates or receives signals in all directions) or directional
(focuses on a specific direction).

 Impedance Matching: Antennas are designed to match the impedance of

the transmitter and receiver to maximize power transfer.

 Importance: Antennas play a crucial role in ensuring that RF signals are efficiently
transmitted and received over the desired coverage area.
 3. Receiver:

 Functionality: The receiver is responsible for demodulating and processing the

received RF signal. Its functions include:

 Signal Reception: The receiver captures the RF signal from the antenna and
converts it into an electrical signal.

 Signal Demodulation: Demodulation is the process of extracting the original

information signal from the modulated RF carrier. It reverses the modulation
process applied by the transmitter.

 Signal Amplification: The received signal is often amplified to compensate

for signal loss during transmission and improve signal-to-noise ratio.

 Filtering: Filtering is used to remove unwanted noise and interference from

the received signal.

 Signal Decoding: The decoded signal is processed to extract the original

information (data, voice, video, etc.) carried by the RF signal.

 Importance: The receiver is essential for recovering the transmitted information

from the received RF signal, making it available for further processing or playback.

2. Importance of Achieving Proper Antenna Polarization:

 Matching Polarization: Proper antenna polarization is crucial to ensure efficient signal

transmission and reception. If the transmitting and receiving antennas have mismatched
polarizations, signal strength can significantly degrade or even lead to signal loss.

 Reducing Interference: Using the same polarization for both the transmitting and receiving
antennas helps reduce interference from other signals with different polarizations,
improving signal quality.

3. Various Types of Antenna Design and Characteristics:

 Dipole Antenna: Simple and widely used. Omnidirectional radiation pattern. Used in
applications like Wi-Fi routers.

 Yagi-Uda Antenna: Directional antenna with high gain. Common for TV reception and point-
to-point communication.

 Patch Antenna: Compact and flat design, often used in wireless communication devices.
Typically has a directional radiation pattern.

 Parabolic Dish Antenna: Highly directional with very high gain. Used in long-distance
communication and satellite reception.

 Log-Periodic Antenna: Wideband, directional antenna often used in broadband applications

like TV antennas.
3. Spread Spectrum Methods for Connecting to Wireless Medium - FHSS and DSSS:

 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): In FHSS, the transmitter and receiver rapidly
switch between multiple frequencies within a specified frequency band. This hopping
pattern is synchronized between the sender and receiver. FHSS is resistant to narrowband
interference and offers some level of security due to frequency agility.

 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): DSSS spreads the signal across a wider bandwidth
by modulating the data with a spreading code. The receiver uses the same code to
demodulate the signal, effectively reducing the impact of interference. DSSS provides better
data integrity and can recover from interference.

4. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) Technique:

 Purpose: OFDM is a modulation technique used in wireless communication to transmit data

over multiple subcarriers simultaneously. Its purpose includes:

 Mitigating Multipath Interference: OFDM divides the channel into subcarriers,

reducing the impact of multipath interference and improving reliability.

 Efficient Spectrum Use: OFDM efficiently uses the available spectrum, allowing high
data rates without excessive interference.

 Implementation: OFDM splits the data into multiple parallel streams, modulates each
stream separately, and combines them for transmission. It's commonly used in Wi-Fi and
4G/5G cellular networks.

5. Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) Technology:

 Purpose: MIMO technology enhances wireless communication by using multiple antennas at

both the transmitter and receiver. Its purpose includes:

 Increasing Data Rates: MIMO improves data rates by transmitting multiple data
streams simultaneously on different spatial channels.

 Enhancing Signal Reliability: MIMO can mitigate signal fading and interference,
improving signal reliability in challenging environments.

 Implementation: MIMO systems utilize smart algorithms to process and transmit multiple
streams of data over the air. This technology is prevalent in modern Wi-Fi routers and
cellular networks, improving overall wireless performance.
1. Enhancements in TKIP for WPA Certification:

Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) was introduced as part of the Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
certification to address vulnerabilities found in the original Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) protocol.
Key enhancements in TKIP include:

 Dynamic Encryption Keys: TKIP uses dynamic keys, making it significantly more secure than
WEP's static keys. TKIP automatically generates a new encryption key for each packet,
preventing the reuse of keys.

 Key Mixing: TKIP combines the static WEP key with the sender's MAC address and a packet
sequence number to create unique per-packet keys. This ensures that even if an attacker
captures multiple packets, they cannot decrypt future packets.

 Message Integrity Check (MIC): TKIP includes a MIC in each packet to detect any tampering
or modification of data during transmission. If a packet is altered, the MIC will fail, and the
packet is discarded.

 Rekeying: TKIP enforces key rekeying, changing the encryption keys periodically to reduce
the window of opportunity for attackers.

 WPA-PSK: WPA introduced a Pre-Shared Key (PSK) mode, simplifying key management for
home and small office users.

2. 802.1x/EAP Authentication Mechanism for Wireless Clients:

The 802.1x/EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol) authentication mechanism assists in

authenticating wireless clients attempting to access a wireless LAN. Here's how it works:

 Client Authentication: When a wireless client attempts to connect to a WLAN, the access
point (AP) requests authentication credentials from the client.

 EAP Framework: EAP provides a framework for various authentication methods, such as
EAP-TLS, EAP-PEAP, or EAP-TTLS. The client and authentication server agree on an EAP
method to use.

 Secure Exchange: The client and authentication server engage in a secure exchange of
authentication information. This often includes digital certificates, username/password
combinations, or other credentials.

 Authentication Server Verification: The authentication server verifies the client's

credentials. If successful, the client is granted access to the WLAN.

 Session Key Generation: Once authenticated, a session key is generated, which is used to
encrypt and protect data transmitted between the client and the WLAN.
  Dynamic User Authentication: 802.1x/EAP allows for dynamic user authentication, ensuring
that only authorized users with valid credentials can access the network. It also provides a
more secure authentication process than shared keys (e.g., WEP keys).

3. Purpose of OSI Layer 1 and 2 Audits in WLANs:

 Layer 1 (Physical Layer) Audit: The purpose of a Layer 1 audit is to assess the physical
aspects of the WLAN infrastructure, including:

 Verification of cable quality, connectors, and proper grounding.

 Identification of interference sources that can degrade wireless signals.

 Inspection of antenna placement and orientation.

 Evaluation of signal coverage, strength, and quality.

 Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) Audit: The Layer 2 audit focuses on data link layer components,
including:

 Examination of MAC address filtering and access control lists.

 Inspection of VLAN configurations.

 Verification of encryption and authentication settings.

 Identification of rogue or unauthorized devices connected to the WLAN.