Biology 3

BBOK407 | BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS | SEARCH CREATORS.
Subject Code: BBOK407
Subject : BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS
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MODULE-02
HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO DESIGNS - 1
CONTENTS
Topics Page N0.
• Lungs as purification system 03-15

• Kidney as a filtration system 16-25
• Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds 26-48

MODULE-03
HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO-DESIGNS – 2
3.1 Lungs as Purification System:
Figure: Representing the oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange in the alveoli and

capillary

Lungs as Purifier
The lung purifies air by removing harmful substances and adding oxygen to the
bloodstream. The process of purifying air in the lungs can be described as follows:
• Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against harmful
substances in the air, such as dust, dirt, and bacteria. The tiny hairs in the nose,
called cilia, and the mucus produced by the respiratory system trap these
substances and prevent them from entering the lungs.
• Moisturization: The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist lining of
the respiratory tract, which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent them
from drying out.
• Gas Exchange: Once the air reaches the alveoli, the gas exchange process
occurs, where oxygen diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into
the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from
the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled. This process ensures that the
bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air, while waste carbon
dioxide is removed from the body.
Overall, the lung serves as a vital purification system, filtering out harmful
substances, adding oxygen to the bloodstream, and removing waste carbon dioxide.
It plays a critical role in maintaining the body's homeostasis and supporting life.

3.1.1 Architecture of Lungs as Purification System
Figure: Representing structure of lung

The architecture of the lung is designed to maximize surface area for efficient gas
exchange. The lung is divided into several parts, including the trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, and alveoli.
• Trachea: The trachea is the main airway that leads from the larynx (voice box)
to the lungs. It is lined with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter
out harmful substances and trap them in the mucus.
• Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi, one for each lung. The
bronchi are larger airways that continue to branch into smaller airways called
bronchioles.
• Bronchioles: The bronchioles are smaller airways that eventually lead to the
alveoli. They are surrounded by tiny air sacs called alveoli, which are the sites
of gas exchange.

• Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined with a network of
capillaries. This close proximity of the alveoli and capillaries allows for
efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the alveoli
and the bloodstream.
Overall, the architecture of the lung is designed to provide a large surface area for
gas exchange, while filtering out harmful substances and humidifying the air. The
close proximity of the alveoli and capillaries, along with the moist lining of the
respiratory tract, ensures that the air is properly purified and the bloodstream is
supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air.
3.1.2 Gas Exchange Mechanism of Lung
The gas exchange mechanism in the lung involves the transfer of oxygen from the
air in the alveoli to the bloodstream, and the transfer of carbon dioxide from the
bloodstream to the air in the alveoli. This process is known as diffusion and occurs
due to differences in partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Oxygen Diffusion: The partial pressure of oxygen in the air in the alveoli is
higher than the partial pressure of oxygen in the bloodstream. This difference
creates a gradient that causes oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli into the
bloodstream, where it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells to form
oxyhemoglobin.
• Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the

bloodstream is higher than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air in
the alveoli. This difference creates a gradient that causes carbon dioxide to
diffuse from the bloodstream into the alveoli, where it is exhaled.

3.1.3 Spirometry
Spirometry is a diagnostic test that measures the function of the lungs by

measuring the amount and flow rate of air that can be exhaled. The test is
commonly used to diagnose lung conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), and interstitial lung disease.
Principle: The principle behind spirometry is to measure the volume of air that can
be exhaled from the lungs in a given time period. By measuring the volume of air
exhaled, spirometry can provide information about the functioning of the lungs and
the ability of the lungs to move air in and out.
Working: Spirometry is performed using a spirometer, a device that consists of a

mouthpiece, a flow sensor, and a volume sensor. The patient is asked to exhale as
much air as possible into the spirometer, and the spirometer measures the volume
and flow rate of the exhaled air. The volume of air exhaled is displayed on a graph
called a flow-volume loop, which provides information about the lung function.
Figure: Image of a spirometer

Interpretation of Results
The results of spirometry can be used to determine if the lungs are functioning
normally and to diagnose lung conditions. For example, a decrease in the volume
of air exhaled or a decrease in the flow rate of the exhaled air can indicate a
restriction in the airways, which can be a sign of a lung condition such as asthma or
COPD.
3.1.4 Abnormal Lung Physiology - COPD
Figure: Representing the causes of COPD
Abnormal lung physiology refers to any deviation from the normal functioning of
the respiratory system. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including
diseases, injuries, or genetic conditions. Some common examples of abnormal lung
physiology include:

• Asthma: A chronic inflammatory disease that causes the airways to narrow,

making it difficult to breathe.
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A progressive lung disease

that makes it hard to breathe and can include conditions such as emphysema
and chronic bronchitis.
• Pulmonary fibrosis: A disease in which scar tissue builds up in the lungs,

making it difficult to breathe and reducing lung function.
• Pneumonia: An infection in the lungs that can cause inflammation and fluid
buildup in the air sacs.
• Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the pulmonary arteries, usually by

a blood clot, which can cause lung damage and reduce oxygen flow to the
body.
• Lung cancer: A type of cancer that originates in the lung and can impair lung
function by interfering with normal air flow and oxygen exchange.
Treatment for abnormal lung physiology depends on the underlying cause and may
include medications, lifestyle changes, or surgery.
It's important to seek prompt medical attention if you experience symptoms such as
shortness of breath, wheezing, or chest pain, as these can be indicative of a serious
lung problem.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a group of progressive lung

diseases that cause breathing difficulties. It's characterized by persistent airflow
limitation that is not fully reversible. The two main forms of COPD are chronic
bronchitis and emphysema.
In COPD, the airways and small air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs become damaged or
blocked, leading to difficulty in exhaling air. This results in a decrease in lung
function, leading to shortness of breath, wheezing, and coughing. Over time, these
symptoms can get worse and limit a person's ability to perform everyday activities.
The primary cause of COPD is long-term exposure to irritants such as tobacco

smoke, air pollution, and dust. Other risk factors include a history of frequent lung
infections, a family history of lung disease, and exposure to second-hand smoke.
There is no cure for COPD, but treatment can help manage the symptoms and slow
the progression of the disease. Treatment options include medication, such as
bronchodilators and steroids, oxygen therapy, and lung rehabilitation. In severe
cases, surgery may also be an option. In addition, quitting smoking and avoiding
exposure to irritants is crucial in managing COPD.
3.1.5 Ventilators
Ventilators are medical devices used to assist or control breathing in individuals

who are unable to breathe adequately on their own. They are commonly used in the
treatment of acute
respiratory failure, which can occur as a result of a variety of conditions such as

pneumonia, severe asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
Figure: Representing a ventilator machine

There are several different types of ventilators, including volume-controlled
ventilators, pressure-controlled ventilators, and bilevel positive airway pressure
(BiPAP) devices. The type of ventilator used depends on the patient's individual
needs and the type of respiratory failure being treated.
Ventilators work by delivering pressurized air or oxygen into the lungs through a
breathing tube or mask. The pressure can be adjusted to match the patient's needs
and to help maintain adequate oxygen levels in the blood.
While ventilators can be lifesaving for individuals with acute respiratory failure,
they also come with potential risks and complications. For example, prolonged use
of a ventilator can increase the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia, and
patients may experience discomfort or pain from the breathing tube.
The use of ventilators is carefully monitored and managed by healthcare

professionals to ensure that the patient receives the appropriate level of support
while minimizing potential risks and complications.

3.1.6 Heart-Lung Machine
A heart-lung machine, also known as a cardiopulmonary bypass machine, is a

device used in cardiovascular surgery to temporarily take over the functions of the
heart and lungs. The heart-lung machine is used during open-heart surgery, such as
coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery and valve replacement surgery, to
support the patient's circulatory and respiratory functions while the heart is
stopped.
The heart-lung machine works by circulating blood outside of the body through a
series of tubes and pumps. Blood is taken from the body, oxygenated, and then
returned to the body. This allows the heart to be stopped during the surgery without
causing any harm to the patient.
The use of a heart-lung machine during surgery carries some risks, including the
potential for blood clots, bleeding, and infections. Additionally, there may be some
long-term effects on the body, such as cognitive decline, that are not yet fully
understood. However, the use of a heart-lung machine has revolutionized the field
of cardiovascular surgery, allowing for more complex procedures to be performed
and greatly improving patient outcomes.

Figure: Representing a heart-lung machine
3.1.7 Artificial Lungs
Artificial lungs are devices designed to mimic the function of the natural
respiratory system. They are used to support patients with acute respiratory distress
syndrome (ARDS) or acute lung injury (ALI) and to help the patient's own lungs
recover and heal.
Types
There are two main types of artificial lungs: membrane oxygenators and
extracorporeal lung assist devices.
Membrane Oxygenators: These are devices that use a semipermeable membrane to

transfer oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the air. The blood is

pumped through the membrane, where it comes into contact with air, allowing for
the exchange of gases.
Figure: Representing a membrane oxygenator

Extracorporeal Lung Assist Devices: These devices work by removing carbon
dioxide from the blood and adding oxygen, allowing the patient's natural lungs to
rest and heal. One example of an extracorporeal lung assist device is the
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) machine, which is used to treat
patients with severe respiratory failure. ECMO works by removing carbon dioxide
from the blood and adding oxygen, and it can be used as a bridge to recovery or as
a bridge to lung transplantation.

Figure: Representing veno-venous and veno-arterial extracorporeal

membrane oxygenation

3.2 Kidney as a Filtration System:
Figure: Anatomy of kidney

The kidney is a complex organ that acts as a filtration system for the body. It removes
waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream and maintains a delicate balance of
electrolytes, hormones, and other substances that are critical for the body's normal
functioning.
The kidney also plays an important role in regulating blood pressure by secreting the
hormone renin, which helps control the balance of fluid and electrolytes in the body.
It also regulates red blood cell production and the levels of various minerals in the
blood, such as calcium and phosphorus.
Without the kidney, waste and excess fluid would accumulate in the body, leading
to serious health problems.

3.2.1 Architecture of Kidney
The kidney is composed of functional units called nephrons, which are the basic
structural and functional units of the kidney. Each kidney contains approximately
one million nephrons, and each nephron performs the functions of filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion.
Figure: Representing kidney and nephron

Figure: Representing the parts ofnephron

The nephron is comprised of several key structures:
• Bowman's capsule: This is a cup-shaped structure that surrounds the
glomerulus and filters waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream into the
renal tubule.
• Glomerulus: A network of tiny blood vessels within the Bowman's capsule
that filters waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream.
• Proximal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs

important substances, such as glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, back into
the bloodstream.
• Loop of Henle: A U-shaped segment of the renal tubule that is critical for the
reabsorption of ions and water.
• Distal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that regulates the
levels of electrolytes and other important substances in the bloodstream.
• Collecting duct: A series of ducts that collect the filtrate from the renal tubules
and transport it to the renal pelvis, where it drains into the ureter and
eventually into the bladder.
The nephrons are surrounded by a network of blood vessels, including the afferent
arteriole and the efferent arteriole, which bring blood into and out of the glomerulus,
respectively. The filtrate produced by the nephron passes through the renal tubules,
where it is modified by reabsorption and secretion, before being eliminated from the
body as urine.
3.2.2 Mechanism of Filtration – Urine Formation
Figure: Schematic of mechanism of filtration in human kidney

The mechanism of filtration in the kidneys is a complex process that involves

multiple steps to remove waste and excess fluids from the bloodstream. The
following is a summary of the steps involved in the filtration process:
• Blood enters the kidney through the renal arteries and flows into tiny filtering
units called glomeruli.
• At the glomerulus, the pressure in the blood vessels causes a portion of the
plasma and dissolved substances to filter out and enter a structure called
Bowman's capsule.
• In Bowman's capsule, the filtrate is then transferred into the renal tubules,
which are the main filtering units of the kidneys.
• In the renal tubules, the filtrate passes through a series of specialized cells,
such as proximal tubular cells and distal tubular cells, which reabsorb
important substances such as glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes back into
the bloodstream.
• At the same time, the renal tubules secrete waste products, such as urea and
creatinine, back into the filtrate.
• Finally, the filtered fluid, now known as urine, is transported through the renal
pelvis and ureters to the bladder, where it is eventually eliminated from the
body.
This process of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion helps to maintain the proper
balance of fluids and electrolytes in the body, as well as to remove waste and excess
substances.

3.2.3 Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
CKD stands for Chronic Kidney Disease. It is a long-term condition in which the
kidneys gradually become less able to function properly. It can be caused by a variety
of factors, including diabetes, high blood pressure, and other health problems that
damage the kidneys.
Symptoms of CKD include fatigue, swelling in the legs and feet, trouble sleeping,
and difficulty concentrating. As the disease progresses, it can lead to more serious
complications, such as anemia, nerve damage, and an increased risk of heart disease
and stroke.
Treatment for CKD may include lifestyle changes, such as eating a healthy diet and
exercising regularly, as well as medications to manage symptoms and underlying
health conditions. In severe cases, kidney transplant or dialysis may be necessary.
It is important for individuals with risk factors for CKD to get regular check-ups and
to talk to their doctor about how to best manage their condition.
3.2.4 Dialysis Systems
Dialysis is a medical treatment that helps to filter waste and excess fluids from the
blood when the kidneys are unable to function properly. There are two main types
of dialysis systems: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
Hemodialysis is a procedure that uses a machine to clean the blood. During

hemodialysis, blood is removed from the body, passed through a dialysis machine
that filters out waste and excess fluids, and then returned to the body. Hemodialysis

typically takes place in a hospital or dialysis center, and is typically performed three
times a week for three to four hours at a time.
Figure: Representing a Hemodialysis
Peritoneal dialysis is a type of dialysis that uses the lining of the abdomen, called the
peritoneum, to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood. A sterile solution is
introduced into the abdomen, where it absorbs waste and excess fluids, and is then
drained and replaced with fresh solution. Peritoneal dialysis can be performed at
home and allows for more flexibility in scheduling.

Figure: Representing a Peritoneal dialysis
Both hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis can effectively treat the symptoms of
kidney failure, but each has its own advantages and disadvantages. The choice of
dialysis system depends on various factors such as the individual's overall health,
lifestyle, and personal preferences.

3.2.5 Artificial Kidney
While much progress has been made in developing an artificial kidney, it is still in
the experimental stage and is not yet widely available. Further research and
development is needed to improve the efficiency and safety of artificial kidney
devices, and to ensure that they can be widely adopted as a treatment for chronic
kidney disease.
a)
b)
Figure: a) Schematic representation b) a prototype of artificial kidney
An artificial kidney is a device that is being developed to mimic the functions of the
human kidney. The goal of an artificial kidney is to provide a more effective and

efficient means of treating patients with chronic kidney disease, who currently rely
on dialysis or kidney transplantation.
There are currently two main approaches to developing an artificial kidney: a

biological approach and a technological approach.
The biological approach involves using living cells, such as kidney cells or stem
cells, to create a functional, implantable artificial kidney.
The technological approach involves using synthetic materials, such as silicon or

polymer, to create a dialysis device that can filter the blood and remove waste and
excess fluids.
It's important to note that while the development of an artificial kidney holds great
promise, it is not a cure for chronic kidney disease and patients with kidney failure
will still need dialysis or kidney transplantation in the meantime.

3.3 Muscular Systems as Scaffolds:

The use of muscular systems as scaffolds in regenerative medicine is an area of
active research and development. Muscles have the potential to be used as
scaffolds for the regeneration of tissues due to their inherent mechanical properties
and ability to support cell growth and tissue formation.
One example of using muscular systems as scaffolds is in the treatment of damaged

or diseased heart tissue. Researchers have developed methods for using muscle
cells to create a functional, three-dimensional scaffold that can support the growth
of new heart tissue. In this approach, muscle cells are harvested from the patient
and then seeded onto a scaffold, such as a hydrogel or artificial matrix. The
scaffold provides a framework for the cells to grow and differentiate into new heart
tissue, which can help to repair the damaged or diseased tissue.
Another example is in the treatment of skeletal muscle injuries, such as those

caused by trauma or disease. In this case, muscle cells can be harvested and seeded
onto a scaffold, which can then be implanted into the damaged muscle to promote
the growth of new, functional tissue.
While the use of muscular systems as scaffolds is still in the experimental stage, it
holds great promise for the treatment of a variety of conditions and represents an
area of active research and development in the field of regenerative medicine.

3.3.1 Architecture
Figure: The Three Connective Tissue Layers: Bundles of muscle fibers, called
fascicles, are covered by the perimysium. Muscle fibers are covered by the
endomysium.
Inside each skeletal muscle, muscle fibers are organized into bundles, called
fascicles, surrounded by a middle layer of connective tissue called the perimysium.
This fascicular organization is common in muscles of the limbs; it allows the
nervous system to trigger a specific movement of a muscle by activating a subset
of muscle fibers within a fascicle of the muscle. Inside each fascicle, each muscle
fiber is encased in a thin connective tissue layer of collagen and reticular fibers
called the endomysium. The endomysium surrounds the extracellular matrix of the
cells and plays a role in transferring force produced by the muscle fibers to the
tendons.
Inside the muscle fibers, there are tiny structures called myofibrils. Myofibrils are
made up of smaller units called sarcomeres, which are responsible for muscle
contraction.

Figure: Representing the sacromere
Sarcomeres contain thin (Actin) and thick filaments (Myosin) that work together to
make the muscle fibers contract. Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a protective
layer called endomysium. Multiple muscle fibers are grouped together into bundles
called fascicles. Fascicles are surrounded by another layer of connective tissue
called perimysium.
All the fascicles together make up the entire muscle, which is surrounded by a
layer called epimysium. The muscle also has a special membrane called the
sarcolemma, which protects the muscle fiber. Inside the muscle fiber, there are
small tunnels called T-tubules that help transmit signals for muscle contraction.
Muscles work through the coordination of motor units, which consist of a motor
neuron and the muscle fibers it controls. This architecture allows muscles to
generate force, move our bodies, and perform various activities.

3.3.2 Mechanisms
The mechanism of how the muscular system can be used as a scaffold in

regenerative medicine involves the use of muscle cells and a scaffold to support the
growth and regeneration of new tissue.
The method of growing muscle tissue using hydrogel or artificial scaffold is

explained below:
Figure: Representing the muscle tissue growth using hydrogel or

artificial scaffold

Figure: Representing the formation of polymer based scaffold and

cell culture
The basic steps in this process are as follows:
• Harvesting of muscle cells: Muscle cells are typically obtained from the
patient and then isolated and expanded in culture.
• Seeding onto scaffold: The muscle cells are then seeded onto a scaffold, such
as a hydrogel or artificial matrix. The scaffold provides a framework for the
cells to grow and differentiate into new tissue.
• Cell differentiation and tissue formation: Once the cells are seeded onto the
scaffold, they undergo differentiation, in which they change into specific cell
types, such as muscle cells or heart cells. The cells also begin to organize and
form new tissue, such as heart tissue or skeletal muscle tissue.
• Implantation into patient: The scaffold and cells are then implanted into the
patient to promote the growth of new, functional tissue.

3.3.3 Muscle Cells as Scaffold
Muscle cells can be used as a scaffold for tissue generation by removing the living
cells from the muscle tissue, leaving behind the structure known as the
extracellular matrix (ECM). This decellularized muscle scaffold provides a
framework that can guide and support the growth of new tissues.
Figure: Representing muscle scaffold for tissue growth
The Process
• Harvesting muscle tissue: A small sample of muscle tissue is taken, typically

from a donor or an animal model.
• Cell removal: The living cells within the muscle tissue are removed using a
process called decellularization. This involves treating the tissue with specific
chemical solutions
or enzymes that break down and wash away the cellular components, while
preserving the ECM.

• ECM scaffold: The remaining ECM, which forms the structure of the muscle,
is now a scaffold. It consists of proteins, such as collagen and elastin, and
other molecules that provide support and signals for tissue growth.
• Seeding cells: The decellularized muscle scaffold is then seeded with desired
cells. These can be stem cells or specialized cells relevant to the type of tissue
being regenerated. The cells are introduced onto the scaffold, allowing them
to attach and populate the structure.
• Tissue growth: Over time, the seeded cells proliferate and differentiate,
meaning they multiply and transform into specific cell types required for the
desired tissue. The ECM scaffold guides the cells' growth, providing physical
support, and biochemical cues to influence their behavior.
• Tissue integration: As the cells continue to grow, they populate the scaffold
and form new tissue. The new tissue integrates with the surrounding native
tissue, gradually replacing the decellularized scaffold with functional,
regenerated tissue.
By utilizing the decellularized muscle scaffold, the process of tissue generation

takes advantage of the existing three-dimensional architecture and mechanical
properties of the muscle. This approach has the potential to address challenges in
tissue engineering, such as creating a suitable environment for cell growth,
promoting vascularization, and facilitating functional integration of regenerated
tissues.

3.3.4 Bioengineering Solutions for Muscular Dystrophy
Muscular dystrophy
Figure: Representing normal muscle and muscular dystrophy
Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic disorders that result in progressive

weakness and degeneration of the skeletal muscles, which are responsible for
movement. The disorders are caused by mutations in genes that encode proteins
needed for muscle function. The most common type of muscular dystrophy is
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, which typically affects young boys and leads to
severe disability by early adulthood. Other forms of the disease include Becker
muscular dystrophy, limb-girdle muscular dystrophy, and facioscapulohumeral
dystrophy, among others.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) usually appears early in childhood between

the ages of 2 and 3. DMD primarily affects boys but can affect girls in rare cases.
The primary symptom of DMD is muscle weakness that begins in the muscles
close to the body and later affects muscles in the outer limbs.
Becker muscular dystrophy typically becomes apparent between the ages of 5 and
15. It is similar to Duchenne MD, except that it progresses slower and symptoms

begin to appear later. Boys are primarily affected by Becker MD. Becker MD
causes muscle loss that begins in the hips and pelvic area, thighs, and shoulders.
The age of onset of limb-girdle muscular dystrophy is highly varied, ranging from
early childhood to later adulthood. The disease is characterized by muscle
weakness and atrophy of the muscles of the hip and shoulder areas (the limb
girdles).
Facioscapulohumeral dystrophy (FSHD) typically appears before the age of 20, but
can appear later in adulthood or even in childhood in both males and females.
FSHD affects the muscles of the face, around the shoulder blades, and in the upper
arms.
There is currently no cure for muscular dystrophy, but various treatments can help
manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These may include
physical therapy, assistive devices, orthopedic surgery, and medication to manage
muscle spasms and pain. In some cases, genetic therapy and stem cell
transplantation are also being explored as potential treatment options.
It's important for individuals with muscular dystrophy to work closely with a
healthcare team that includes specialists in neurology, rehabilitation medicine, and
orthopedics, to develop a comprehensive care plan that meets their specific needs.
Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy
Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy aim to improve the lives of

individuals affected by the disease by addressing the underlying genetic mutations
and muscle weakness. Some of the approaches being explored include:

• Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of the missing or

mutated gene to the affected muscle cells. The goal is to restore the production
of the missing protein and improve muscle function.
• Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged muscle
cells and promote repair and regeneration of the muscle tissue. Stem cells can be
taken from the patient's own body (autologous stem cells) or from a donor
(allogenic stem cells).
• Exoskeleton technology: This involves using wearable devices, such as robotic
exoskeletons, to support and enhance the movement of individuals with muscular
dystrophy. The devices use motors and sensors to mimic the movements of the
wearer and help improve mobility.
• Tissue engineering: This involves using a combination of materials, such as
scaffolds and growth factors, to promote the growth and repair of muscle tissue.
The goal is to create functional muscle tissue that can replace the damaged tissue
in individuals with muscular dystrophy.
These approaches are still in the early stages of development, but hold promise for
the future treatment of muscular dystrophy. Clinical trials and further research are
needed to determine the safety and efficacy of these therapies.
3.3.5 Artificial Muscles
Artificial muscle refers to a type of technology that aims to mimic the properties
and functions of natural muscle. Artificial muscles can be made from various
materials, including shape memory alloys, electroactive polymers, and carbon
nanotubes.
Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) are materials with the ability to remember and
recover their original shape after being deformed. SMAs, like nickel-titanium
(NiTi) alloys, are commonly used in artificial muscle applications. When exposed
to heat or an electric current, SMAs undergo a phase transformation, enabling them
to contract and generate force. This property makes them suitable for mimicking
muscle-like movements in devices such as prosthetics, robotics, and actuators. The
unique combination of shape memory and superelasticity in SMAs provides
excellent mechanical properties and durability for artificial muscle applications.
Electroactive Polymers (EAPs) are a class of materials that exhibit significant

changes in shape or size when subjected to an electric field. These polymers, such
as polypyrrole and polyacrylonitrile, have the ability to undergo large deformation
and respond quickly to electrical stimulation. EAPs are particularly advantageous
for artificial muscle applications due to their lightweight nature, flexibility, and
biocompatibility. They can be designed to contract or expand in response to
electrical signals, enabling precise control and mimicry of muscle-like movements.
EAPs have promising potential in areas such as soft robotics, haptic devices, and
biomedical applications.
Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical structures composed of carbon atoms,

exhibiting exceptional mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. CNTs
possess high tensile strength and are highly conductive, making them suitable for
artificial muscle development. By utilizing the electromechanical properties of
CNTs, they can act as actuators that contract or expand when stimulated by an
electric current. CNT-based artificial muscles offer advantages such as high power-
to-weight ratio, fast response times, and potential scalability. Research is underway
to optimize CNT-based artificial muscles for applications in robotics, aerospace,
and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS).
Artificial muscles have a number of potential applications, including:

• Robotics: Artificial muscles can be used to create more advanced and flexible
robots that can move and perform tasks more like humans.
• Prosthetics: Artificial muscles can be used to create more advanced prosthetic

limbs that are more responsive and capable of performing a wider range of
movements.
• Biomedical devices: Artificial muscles can be used in various biomedical

devices, such as heart assist pumps and artificial hearts, to improve their
performance and reliability.
• Textile and clothing applications: Artificial muscles can be integrated into

textiles and clothing to create smart garments that can change shape and adjust to
the wearer's movements.
Artificial muscles have several advantages over traditional motors, including

higher power-to-weight ratios, faster response times, and greater flexibility.
However, the technology is still in the early stages of development and further
research is needed to fully realize its potential
and overcome its limitations.

3.4 Skeletal Systems as Scaffolds:
3.4.1 Skeletal System
The skeletal system of human beings refers to the framework of bones, joints, and
connective tissues that provide structure, support, and protection to the body.
The key components and functions of the skeletal system are:
Bones: The human body consists of 206 bones that vary in size and shape. Bones
are composed of hard and dense connective tissue that provides strength and
support. They serve as the anchor points for muscles, protect internal organs, and
store minerals like calcium and phosphorus.
Cartilage: Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in certain joints and

structures such as the ears and nose. It acts as a cushion between bones, reducing
friction and absorbing shock.
Ligaments: Ligaments are tough bands of fibrous tissue that connect bones to other
bones in joints, providing stability and preventing excessive movement.
Figure: Representing bone, cartilage, ligament

Tendons: Tendons are strong fibrous tissues that connect muscles to bones, enabling
movement by transmitting the force generated by muscles.
Figure: Representing tendon
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes
the skull, vertebral column, and ribcage. The skull protects the brain, and the
vertebral column (spine) supports the body's weight and houses the spinal cord. The
ribcage encloses and protects the heart, lungs, and other thoracic organs.
Appendicular Skeleton: The appendicular skeleton comprises the bones of the limbs
and the shoulder and pelvic girdles. The upper limbs (arms) consist of the humerus
(upper arm bone), radius and ulna (forearm bones), and the hand bones. The lower
limbs (legs) include the femur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (lower leg bones), and
the foot bones. The shoulder and pelvic girdles attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.

Figure: Representing axial and appendicular skeleton
Joints: Joints are the points where bones meet and allow for movement. There are
different types of joints, including hinge joints (e.g., elbow and knee) that enable
bending and straightening, ball-and-socket joints (e.g., hip and shoulder) that allow
for a wide range of motion, and pivot joints (e.g., between the atlas and axis
vertebrae) that allow rotational movement.
Figure: Representing various skeletal joints A) Ball and socket, B) Hinge, C)

Pivot, D) Ellipsoidal, E) Saddle, and F) Glider or planar

The skeletal system works in conjunction with muscles, tendons, and ligaments to
allow for movement, protect internal organs, support the body's weight, and provide
a structural framework for the body.
3.4.2 Skeletal System as Scaffold
The skeletal system can be used as a scaffold for tissue growth in certain
applications. Scaffold-based tissue engineering is a field that aims to create artificial
scaffolds to support the growth and regeneration of tissues and organs. In some
cases, the natural structure of the skeletal system can serve as a scaffold or template
for tissue engineering purposes.
For example, bone tissue engineering often involves the use of scaffolds to facilitate
the repair and regeneration of bone defects or injuries. Synthetic or natural
biomaterial scaffolds, designed to mimic the properties of bone, can be used to fill
the void left by a bone defect. The scaffold provides a three-dimensional structure
that supports the attachment, proliferation, and differentiation of cells involved in
bone regeneration. Over time, the scaffold can be replaced by newly formed bone
tissue, resulting in the restoration of bone structure and function.
In addition to bone tissue engineering, the skeletal system has also been explored as
a scaffold for other tissues. For instance, researchers have investigated using
decellularized bone or cartilage scaffolds as templates for the regeneration of other
tissues like muscle, blood vessels, or nerves. The existing extracellular matrix and
structure of the skeletal system can provide a framework for cells to populate and
guide tissue growth.

However, it's important to note that using the skeletal system as a scaffold for tissue
growth requires careful consideration and modification to match the specific
requirements of the target tissue. Additional steps, such as surface modifications,
incorporation of bioactive molecules, or cell seeding, may be necessary to optimize
the scaffold's effectiveness for promoting tissue regeneration.
Though the skeletal system has potential as a scaffold for tissue growth, successful
application requires further research, customization, and integration with tissue
engineering strategies specific to the desired tissue type.
3.4.3 Bioengineering Solutions for Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a condition that weakens the bones and makes them more likely to
break (fracture), especially the bones in the hip, spine, and wrist. It occurs when the
body loses bone mass and density more quickly than it can be replaced, leading to
fragile bones that are prone to fracture.
Figure: Representing healthy bone and osteoporotic bone

Osteoporosis is a common condition, especially among older women, and it can

increase the risk of falls and fractures, which can result in significant pain and
disability. Risk factors for osteoporosis include being female, older age, having a
family history of the condition, smoking, drinking excessive amounts of alcohol,
being thin or having a small body frame, and having a low calcium intake.
Treatment for osteoporosis aims to slow down bone loss, prevent fractures, and treat
fractures if they occur. Some of the treatments include:
• Medications: Bisphosphonates, denosumab, and teriparatide are some of the

medications that can slow down bone loss and reduce the risk of fractures.
• Calcium and Vitamin D supplementation: Calcium and Vitamin D are essential

for healthy bones, and taking supplements can help maintain bone mass.
• Exercise: Weight-bearing and resistance exercises can help improve bone

density and reduce the risk of fractures.
• Lifestyle changes: Quitting smoking, reducing alcohol consumption, and eating

a healthy diet that includes enough calcium and Vitamin D can help maintain
healthy bones.
It's important to work closely with a healthcare provider to develop a comprehensive

treatment plan for osteoporosis, as the right approach may vary depending on the
individual's specific needs and medical history.
Bioengineering solutions for osteoporosis
Bioengineering solutions for osteoporosis aim to improve bone health and prevent
fractures. Some of the approaches being explored include:
• Tissue engineering: This involves using scaffolds and growth factors to stimulate
the growth of new bone tissue and promote the repair of damaged bones.
• The goal is to create functional bone tissue that can replace the lost bone mass
and density in individuals with osteoporosis.
• Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged bone
cells and promote the repair and regeneration of bone tissue. Stem cells can be
taken from the patient's own body (autologous stem cells) or from a donor
(allogenic stem cells).
• Biomaterials: This involves using synthetic or natural materials to replace or

augment damaged bone tissue. Biomaterials can be designed to mimic the
properties of natural bone and promote the growth of new bone tissue.
• Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of a gene involved in

bone growth and repair to the affected bone cells. The goal is to restore the
production of the missing protein and improve bone health.
These approaches are still in the early stages of development, but hold promise for
the future treatment of osteoporosis. Clinical trials and further research are needed
to determine the safety and efficacy of these therapies.
In addition, traditional treatments for osteoporosis, such as medication, exercise,

and lifestyle changes, will likely continue to play an important role in preventing
fractures and maintaining healthy bones in individuals with osteoporosis.

3.4.4 Artificial Bones
Artificial bones, also known as bioceramic implants, are medical devices used to
replace damaged or missing bones. They are made from biocompatible materials,
such as ceramics or polymers, that mimic the properties of natural bone.
Ceramics:
Ceramics commonly used in artificial bone applications are biocompatible materials

that resemble the mineral component of natural bone. Some examples include:
Hydroxyapatite (HA): HA is a calcium phosphate ceramic that closely resembles

the mineral phase of natural bone. It provides excellent biocompatibility,
osteoconductivity (ability to support bone ingrowth), and chemical similarity to
bone mineral. HA-based ceramics are widely used in bone grafts, coatings for
orthopedic implants, and scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.
Tricalcium Phosphate (TCP): TCP is another calcium phosphate ceramic that is

similar in composition to natural bone. It has good biocompatibility and
biodegradability, allowing it to gradually resorb as new bone tissue forms. TCP
ceramics are commonly used in bone graft substitutes and as fillers for bone defects.
Bioactive Glass: Bioactive glasses, such as silicate-based glasses, possess the ability
to bond with bone tissue through the formation of a biologically active interface.
These glasses promote bone regeneration and are used in bone grafts, coatings for
implants, and scaffolds.

Polymers:
Polymers used in artificial bone applications offer flexibility, versatility, and the
ability to customize their properties. Some examples include:
Polycaprolactone (PCL): PCL is a biodegradable polymer with good mechanical

properties. It is often used in bone tissue engineering scaffolds due to its slow
degradation rate, allowing it to provide support during the regeneration process.
Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA): PLGA is a biocompatible and biodegradable

polymer composed of lactic acid and glycolic acid units. It has been extensively
used in various medical applications, including bone tissue engineering. PLGA
scaffolds can be tailored to degrade at a desired rate, enabling synchronized new
tissue formation.
Polyethylene Glycol (PEG): PEG is a hydrophilic polymer that can be modified to

create scaffolds with specific properties. It can be combined with other materials,
such as ceramics, to enhance their mechanical strength and bioactivity. PEG-based
hydrogels and composites have shown promise for bone tissue engineering.
Advantages
Artificial bones can be used to treat a variety of conditions, including osteoporosis,

bone fractures, and congenital conditions that result in missing or malformed bones.
Some of the advantages of artificial bones include:
• Durability: Artificial bones can be made from materials that are more durable
than natural bone, making them more resistant to fractures and other forms of
damage.

• Customization: Artificial bones can be designed and manufactured to fit a

specific patient's needs, taking into account factors such as size, shape, and bone
quality.
• Reduced risk of rejection: Unlike natural bone, which can be rejected by the
body, artificial bones are made from biocompatible materials that are less likely
to cause an immune response.
• Faster recovery: Artificial bones can often be implanted more quickly than
natural bone grafts, which can lead to faster healing and rehabilitation.
However, there are also some potential drawbacks to artificial bones, such as the risk
of implant failure, long-term stability issues, and the need for additional surgeries in
the case of implant wear or damage. Overall, artificial bones are a promising
technology that can provide a range of benefits to patients with damaged or missing
bones. However, further research is needed to fully understand their safety and
efficacy, and to develop new and improved artificial bone implants.

Continued…..
Module-04
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BBOK407 | BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS | SEARCH CREATORS.

Subject Code: BBOK407

Subject : BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO DESIGNS - 1

Topics Page N0.

• Lungs as purification system 03-15

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HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO-DESIGNS – 2

3.1 Lungs as Purification System:

Figure: Representing the oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange in the alveoli and

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3.1.1 Architecture of Lungs as Purification System

Figure: Representing structure of lung

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3.1.2 Gas Exchange Mechanism of Lung

• Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the

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Spirometry is a diagnostic test that measures the function of the lungs by

Working: Spirometry is performed using a spirometer, a device that consists of a

Figure: Image of a spirometer

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3.1.4 Abnormal Lung Physiology - COPD

Figure: Representing the causes of COPD

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• Asthma: A chronic inflammatory disease that causes the airways to narrow,

• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A progressive lung disease

• Pulmonary fibrosis: A disease in which scar tissue builds up in the lungs,

• Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the pulmonary arteries, usually by

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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a group of progressive lung

The primary cause of COPD is long-term exposure to irritants such as tobacco

Ventilators are medical devices used to assist or control breathing in individuals

respiratory failure, which can occur as a result of a variety of conditions such as

Figure: Representing a ventilator machine

The use of ventilators is carefully monitored and managed by healthcare

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3.1.6 Heart-Lung Machine

A heart-lung machine, also known as a cardiopulmonary bypass machine, is a

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Figure: Representing a heart-lung machine

3.1.7 Artificial Lungs

Membrane Oxygenators: These are devices that use a semipermeable membrane to

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Figure: Representing a membrane oxygenator

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Figure: Representing veno-venous and veno-arterial extracorporeal

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3.2 Kidney as a Filtration System:

Figure: Anatomy of kidney

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3.2.1 Architecture of Kidney

Figure: Representing kidney and nephron

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Figure: Representing the parts ofnephron

• Proximal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs

3.2.2 Mechanism of Filtration – Urine Formation

Figure: Schematic of mechanism of filtration in human kidney

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