Counselors work in various settings-from government to private sectors, to a civil society to a school

setting. Drawing on a wide range of processes, methods, and tools, counselors are trained to use what is
appropriate for the setting and relative to their speciality. There are classical approaches informed by
theories to counseling that scaffold their process and selection of methods and tools.

The late 1950s saw three schools of thought in psychology that became very dominant: psychoanalysis,
behaviorism, and the humanistic perspective.

Represented by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), psychoanalysis draws attention to the darker forces of the
unconscious and the influence that it has on how we feel about ourselves. The field of psychoanalysis
encompasses a vast number of therapeutic models that utilize dreams, fantasies, associations, and the
expression of thoughts both verbally and physically. The assumption is that there are inner battles that
are waged in a client that are directly responsible for the appearance of symptoms and behavioral
problems, causing the person to seek treatment. Psychoanalytic therapy tends to be highly focused on
unearthing the underlying issues to undress the symptoms, which will lead to minimize or eliminate the
symptoms.

Represented by B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), behaviorism focuses on the effects of reinforcement on

observable behavior. The behaviorist approach proposes two main environmentally determined
processes, namely, classical conditioning and operant conditioning. With classical conditioning, one
learns by association, while with operant conditioning, one learns from the consequences of behavior.
All psychological disorders are a result of maladaptive learning that all behavior is learned from our
environment and symptoms are acquired through classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

B. F. Skinner investigated operant conditioning of voluntary and involuntary behavior and concluded that
some behavior could be explained by the person's motive. This means that behavior occurs for a reason.
The three main behavior compelling techniques are: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and
punishment. Operant conditioning involves learning by reinforcement (e.g., rewards and punishment).
The therapeutic techniques used in this type of treatment are action- based and rooted in the theories
of classical conditioning and operant conditioning and utilize the same learning strategies that led to the
formation of unwanted behaviors. Behavioral therapy tends to be highly focused on teaching clients new
behaviors to minimize or eliminate the issue.

Russian psychologist, Ivan Pavlov, was a proponent of classical conditioning. He studied natural reflexes
and neutral stimuli and managed to condition dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell through repeated
association with the sound of the bell and food. These principles have been applied in many therapies.
Classical conditioning involves learning by association.

Represented by Carl Rogers (1902-1987), Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), and George Kelly (1905-1966),
the humanistic perspective attempts to understand the conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and the
capacity for self-reflection and growth. These humanists argued that the person is not hostage to the
contingence and historical circumstances of his/her past. The human potential for change requires only
exercise of the distinctively human capacities for choice, creativity, and drive toward self-actualization.
Humanistic therapeutic models are rooted in insight and focus on self-development, growth, and
responsibilities. They seek to help individuals gain self-empowerment by recognizing their strengths,
creativity, and choice in their given circumstances,
The following are among the basic counseling approaches commonly used today that provide processes,
methods, and tools for counselors to draw from: psychoanalytic therapy. Adlerian therapy, existential
therapy, person-centered therapy, gestalt therapy, transactional analysis, behavior therapy, rational
emotive therapy, and reality therapy

Psychoanalytic Therapy is an approach developed by Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis is based on Freud's

explanation that human beings are basically determined by psychic energy and early experiences. These
unconscious energy and experiences drive people's behavior in the form of unconscious motives and
conflicts. The goal of a therapist is to help a client become conscious of this energy and early experiences
and thereby become empowered and harness both positively.

Adlerian Therapy is an approach similar to the Freudian. It was developed by Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
who believed that the first six years of life influence an individual. But ensuing behavior depended on
how one interprets his/her past and its continuing influence on him/her. For Adler, humans are
motivated primarily by social urges including by power.

Existential Therapy has no single founder, but Viktor Frankl (1905-1997), Abraham Maslow (1908-1970),
and Rollo May (1909-1994) are considered key figures. Existential therapy focuses on the human capacity
to define and shape his/her own life, give meaning to personal circumstance through reflection,
decision-making. and self-awareness. It draws heavily on existentialist philosophy that emphasizes
human freedom to define oneself, and that our lives are not predetermined; we have a responsibility to
live and to see in life what we chose to. The only things we cannot control is being born and the fact of
dying. Logotherapy, a psychotherapeutic approach was developed by Viktor Frankl, a concentration camp
survivor. This approach is based on the idea that human beings are most motivated by a search for
meaning or "will to meaning" which is the minds and psyches' biggest stressor. We constantly seek
meaning to our lives and once a lack of meaning occurs it can lead to emptiness, hopelessness, or
despair. So, the Logotherapists' goal is to try to help people find meaning through 'creative values',
'experiential values', and 'attitudinal values'.

Person-centered Therapy originated from Carl Rogers (1902-1987). For Rogers, people get, share, or
surrender power and control over themselves and others, and so empowerment depended on the self
and such required non-directive process. Non- directive counselors focus on the client's self-discovery
rather than their input. The main stay in this non-directive counseling is counselor-client reflecting and
clarifying the verbal and non-verbal communications of clients. The process includes the counselor use
of active listening, reflection of feelings, clarification, and just "being there" for the counselee in a non-
interventionist way.

Gestalt Therapy was developed and introduced by Frederick S. Perls (1893- 1970). "Gestalt," is
commonly translated as "pattern" or "form" and the Gestalt psychology states that the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts. In other words, in order to understand the various components of a particular
issue or event, one must understand the event itself and put the components in perspective. One of the
key elements of Gestalt therapy is its focus on the "here and now" which has made it reputed as the
"feel-good" therapeutic techniques. It is an existential approach, stressing that people must find their
own way in life and accept personal responsibility for maturity. They must develop an awareness of their
unfinished business from the past, traumatic experiences in life, and what they are doing in order for
them to bring about change in their lives. Gestalt therapy techniques include confrontation, dialog with
parties, role-playing, reliving, and re-experiencing unfinished business in the forms of resentment and
guilt. Counselors push for doing and experiencing rather than just talking about one's feelings as a client.
It involves recognizing and letting go, accompanied by actions like breaking a glass or hitting something
hard.

Transactional Analysis was developed by Eric Berne (1910-1970). Its main uniqueness is its emphasis on
decisions and contracts that must be made by the client. Like other existentialist philosophies, which are
based on the understanding of human nature, this approach believes that the client has the potential for
choice and so, the contract made by the client clearly states the directions and goals of the therapeutic
process. This method involves the identification of the ego states behind each and every transaction. Ego
state was a consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a corresponding consistent
pattern of behavior. The Three Ego States are: Parent, Adult, and Child. Each of our personalities is made
up of various parts or ego states.

The Parent Ego State ("exteropsyche") include a set of feelings, thinking, and behaviour that we have
copied from our parents and significant others. The Adult Ego State ("neopsyche") is about our direct
responses to the here and now. We deal with things that are going on today in ways that are influenced
by our past in a healthy manner. Adult ego state is about being spontaneous and aware with the capacity
for intimacy. The Child Ego State ("archaeopsyche") is a set of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings which
are replayed from our own childhood.

These three states are fundamentally different than Freud's Ego, Id, and Superego. The parent represents
a massive collection of recordings in the brain of external events experienced or perceived in
approximately the first five years of life. The Child in contrast to the Parent represents the recordings in
the brain of internal events associated with external events the child perceives. The Adult is the last ego
state.
Adult data grows out of the child's ability to see what is different than what he or she observed (Parent)
or felt (Child). The Adult allows the young person to evaluate and validate Child and Parental data. Berne
describes the Adult as being "principally concerned with transforming stimuli into pieces of information,
and processing and niling that information on the basis of previous experience". One of the key functions
of the Adult is to validate data in the parent. In summary, the Parent reflects taught concept, the Child
reflects the felt concept, and the Adult reflects the learned concept,

Behavior Therapy, also referred to as behavior modification, is associated with many theorists and
among them are Arnold Lazarus, Albert Bandura, B.F. Skinner, MI. Mahoney, David L. Watson, and A.E.
Kazdin. Behavior therapy uses many action-onented methods to help people take steps to change what
they are doing and thinking. This approach focuses on overt behavior, precision in specifying the goals of
treatment, and the development of specific treatment plans. In this approach, the counselor is active
and directive, and functions as a teacher or trainer in helping clients work on improving behavior.

Rational-Emotive Therapy was developed by Albert Ellis (1913-2007). It is a form of cognitively-oriented

behavioral therapy and is based on the assumption that human beings are born with a potential for both
rational or straight thinking, and irrational or crooked thinking. Because people are fallible, this approach
focuses on helping clients accept themselves as people who would continue to make mistakes, yet at the
same time learn to live with themselves and be at peace with themselves. Ellis stressed that through
thinking, judging, deciding, and doing, people can change their cognitive, emotive, and behavioral
processes and react differently from their usual patterns. They can train to master themselves and
control themselves like choosing not to be upset.

Reality Therapy, based on Choice Theory, was founded and promoted by William Glasser (1925-2013).
This therapy is a short-term approach that focuses on the present and highlights a client's strength. The
therapy is based on the principle that humans choose to behave in certain ways and that these choices
can help or hamper your success. It stresses that a client can learn more realistic behavior and achieve
success. For Glasser, people choose their behavior and are therefore responsible for what they do and
how they think and feel. What a client needs from a counselor is encouragement to assess the current
style of living then leave them to employ a process of honest self-examination, leading and resulting to
improvement of one's quality of life.