Counselors work in various settings-from government to private

sectors, to a civil society to a school setting. Drawing on a wide

range of processes, methods, and tools, counselors are trained to use
what is appropriate for the setting and relative to their speciality.
There are classical approaches informed by theories to counseling
that scaffold their process and selection of methods and tools.

The late 1950s saw three schools of thought in psychology that

became very dominant: psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and the
humanistic perspective.
Represented by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), psychoanalysis draws
attention to the darker forces of the unconscious and the influence that it
has on how we feel about ourselves. The field of psychoanalysis
encompasses a vast number of therapeutic models that utilize dreams,
fantasies, associations, and the expression of thoughts both verbally and
physically. The assumption is that there are inner battles that are waged
in a client that are directly responsible for the appearance of symptoms
and behavioral problems, causing the person to seek treatment.
Psychoanalytic therapy tends to be highly focused on unearthing the
underlying issues to undress the symptoms, which will lead to minimize
or eliminate the symptoms.
Represented by B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), behaviorism focuses on
the effects of reinforcement on observable behavior. The behaviorist
approach proposes two main environmentally determined processes,
namely, classical conditioning and operant conditioning. With
classical conditioning, one learns by association, while with operant
conditioning, one learns from the consequences of behavior. All
psychological disorders are a result of maladaptive learning that all
behavior is learned from our environment and symptoms are
acquired through classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
B. F. Skinner investigated operant conditioning of voluntary and
involuntary behavior and concluded that some behavior could be
explained by the person's motive. This means that behavior occurs for
a reason. The three main behavior compelling techniques are: positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. Operant
conditioning involves learning by reinforcement (e.g., rewards and
punishment). The therapeutic techniques used in this type of treatment
are action- based and rooted in the theories of classical conditioning
and operant conditioning and utilize the same learning strategies that
led to the formation of unwanted behaviors. Behavioral therapy tends
to be highly focused on teaching clients new behaviors to minimize or
eliminate the issue.
Russian psychologist, Ivan Pavlov, was
a proponent of classical conditioning.
He studied natural reflexes and neutral
stimuli and managed to condition dogs
to salivate to the sound of a bell through
repeated association with the sound of
the bell and food. These principles have
been applied in many therapies.
Classical conditioning involves learning
by association.
Represented by Carl Rogers (1902-1987), Abraham Maslow (1908-
1970), and George Kelly (1905-1966), the humanistic perspective
attempts to understand the conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and
the capacity for self-reflection and growth. These humanists argued that
the person is not hostage to the contingence and historical circumstances
of his/her past. The human potential for change requires only exercise of
the distinctively human capacities for choice, creativity, and drive toward
self-actualization. Humanistic therapeutic models are rooted in insight
and focus on self-development, growth, and responsibilities. They seek to
help individuals gain self-empowerment by recognizing their strengths,
creativity, and choice in their given circumstances.
The following are among the basic counseling
approaches commonly used today that provide
processes, methods, and tools for counselors to
draw from: psychoanalytic therapy. Adlerian
therapy, existential therapy, person-centered
therapy, gestalt therapy, transactional analysis,
behavior therapy, rational emotive therapy, and
reality therapy
Psychoanalytic Therapy is an approach developed by Sigmund Freud.
Psychoanalysis is based on Freud's explanation that human beings are
basically determined by psychic energy and early experiences. These
unconscious energy and experiences drive people's behavior in the form of
unconscious motives and conflicts. The goal of a therapist is to help a client
become conscious of this energy and early experiences and thereby become
empowered and harness both positively.

Adlerian Therapy is an approach similar to the Freudian. It was developed

by Alfred Adler (1870-1937) who believed that the first six years of life
influence an individual. But ensuing behavior depended on how one
interprets his/her past and its continuing influence on him/her. For Adler,
humans are motivated primarily by social urges including by power.
Existential Therapy has no single founder, but Viktor Frankl (1905-1997),
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), and Rollo May (1909-1994) are considered key
figures. Existential therapy focuses on the human capacity to define and shape
his/her own life, give meaning to personal circumstance through reflection,
decision-making. and self-awareness. It draws heavily on existentialist
philosophy that emphasizes human freedom to define oneself, and that our lives
are not predetermined; we have a responsibility to live and to see in life what we
chose to. The only things we cannot control is being born and the fact of dying.
Logotherapy, a psychotherapeutic approach was developed by Viktor Frankl, a
concentration camp survivor. This approach is based on the idea that human
beings are most motivated by a search for meaning or "will to meaning" which is
the minds and psyches' biggest stressor.
Person-centered Therapy originated from Carl Rogers (1902-1987).
For Rogers, people get, share, or surrender power and control over
themselves and others, and so empowerment depended on the self
and such required non-directive process. Non- directive counselors
focus on the client's self-discovery rather than their input. The main
stay in this non-directive counseling is counselor-client reflecting
and clarifying the verbal and non-verbal communications of clients.
The process includes the counselor use of active listening,
reflection of feelings, clarification, and just "being there" for the
counselee in a non-interventionist way.
Gestalt Therapy was developed and introduced by Frederick S. Perls (1893- 1970).
"Gestalt," is commonly translated as "pattern" or "form" and the Gestalt psychology
states that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In other words, in order to
understand the various components of a particular issue or event, one must
understand the event itself and put the components in perspective. One of the key
elements of Gestalt therapy is its focus on the "here and now" which has made it
reputed as the "feel-good" therapeutic techniques. It is an existential approach,
stressing that people must find their own way in life and accept personal
responsibility for maturity. They must develop an awareness of their unfinished
business from the past, traumatic experiences in life, and what they are doing in order
for them to bring about change in their lives. Gestalt therapy techniques include
confrontation, dialog with parties, role-playing, reliving, and re-experiencing
unfinished business in the forms of resentment and guilt.
Transactional Analysis was developed by Eric Berne (1910-1970). Its
main uniqueness is its emphasis on decisions and contracts that must
be made by the client. Like other existentialist philosophies, which
are based on the understanding of human nature, this approach
believes that the client has the potential for choice and so, the contract
made by the client clearly states the directions and goals of the
therapeutic process. This method involves the identification of the
ego states behind each and every transaction. Ego state was a
consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a
corresponding consistent pattern of behavior. The Three Ego States
are: Parent, Adult, and Child. Each of our personalities is made up of
various parts or ego states.
The Parent Ego State ("exteropsyche") include a set of feelings,
thinking, and behaviour that we have copied from our parents
and significant others. The Adult Ego State ("neopsyche") is
about our direct responses to the here and now. We deal with
things that are going on today in ways that are influenced by our
past in a healthy manner. Adult ego state is about being
spontaneous and aware with the capacity for intimacy. The Child
Ego State ("archaeopsyche") is a set of behaviors, thoughts, and
feelings which are replayed from our own childhood.
These three states are fundamentally different than
Freud's Ego, Id, and Superego. The parent represents
a massive collection of recordings in the brain of
external events experienced or perceived in
approximately the first five years of life. The Child in
contrast to the Parent represents the recordings in the
brain of internal events associated with external
events the child perceives. The Adult is the last ego
state.
Adult data grows out of the child's ability to see what is
different than what he or she observed (Parent) or felt (Child).
The Adult allows the young person to evaluate and validate
Child and Parental data. Berne describes the Adult as being
"principally concerned with transforming stimuli into pieces of
information, and processing and filing that information on the
basis of previous experience". One of the key functions of the
Adult is to validate data in the parent. In summary, the Parent
reflects taught concept, the Child reflects the felt concept, and
the Adult reflects the learned concept.
Behavior Therapy, also referred to as behavior modification, is
associated with many theorists and among them are Arnold
Lazarus, Albert Bandura, B.F. Skinner, MI. Mahoney, David L.
Watson, and A.E. Kazdin. Behavior therapy uses many action-
oriented methods to help people take steps to change what they
are doing and thinking. This approach focuses on overt
behavior, precision in specifying the goals of treatment, and the
development of specific treatment plans. In this approach, the
counselor is active and directive, and functions as a teacher or
trainer in helping clients work on improving behavior.
Rational-Emotive Therapy was developed by Albert Ellis (1913-
2007). It is a form of cognitively-oriented behavioral therapy and is
based on the assumption that human beings are born with a potential
for both rational or straight thinking, and irrational or crooked
thinking. Because people are fallible, this approach focuses on
helping clients accept themselves as people who would continue to
make mistakes, yet at the same time learn to live with themselves
and be at peace with themselves. Ellis stressed that through thinking,
judging, deciding, and doing, people can change their cognitive,
emotive, and behavioral processes and react differently from their
usual patterns. They can train to master themselves and control
themselves like choosing not to be upset.
Reality Therapy, based on Choice Theory, was founded and promoted
by William Glasser (1925-2013). This therapy is a short-term approach
that focuses on the present and highlights a client's strength. The
therapy is based on the principle that humans choose to behave in
certain ways and that these choices can help or hamper your success. It
stresses that a client can learn more realistic behavior and achieve
success. For Glasser, people choose their behavior and are therefore
responsible for what they do and how they think and feel. What a client
needs from a counselor is encouragement to assess the current style of
living then leave them to employ a process of honest self-examination,
leading and resulting to improvement of one's quality of life.
5.1 GOVERNMENT SETTING
Counseling settings vary widely but the process, methods, and tools
used by counselors are very similar. Counseling professionals in the
government setting with the various government agencies that have
counseling services such as social welfare, correctional department, the
court system, child and women affairs services, school military, police,
hospital, mental and poster home and rehabilitation centers, sometimes,
other specialized departments also have units of counselors such as
intelligence –gathering departments, military and police departments,
presidential guards, and special advisories.
5.2 PRIVATE SECTOR SETTING
In the private sector counselors range from independents providers of
services or work for NGOs, or specialized for profit centers and
organization the render and variety of counseling services. The
process, methods, and tools used by counselors in the private sectors
remain very much the same us in the government setting.

5.3 CIVIL SOCITY SETTING

The context of civil society is generally charities or non–profit and
issue-based centers or organizations such as abused women,
abandoned children and elderly, veterans, teachers, professionals, or
religious groups. The process, methods, and tools used resemble each
other.
5.4 SCHOOL SETTING
In the school setting, the role of school counselor is more complex since
the needs of the students can vary widely. This gives rise to the more
dynamic and complex role of school counselors, it dependent on a
school 's local circumstances as well as by the dynamism within the
professional itself, as such school counselors assume many different
responsibilities and task bases on the particular needs of students and
the school context. Historically, it was understood that guidance process
occurs in an individual and developmental sequence to the age of
maturity (Coy 1999). Guidance based on this insight, tend to be more
centered on the developments needs of individuals.
Frank Parsons, known as a “Father of Guidance Counseling" developed a
vocational program that matched an individual trait with a vocation (Coy 1999).
This insight, oriented school to counseling vocational guidance. The roles
guidance of here “were similar to modern career counseling with a focus on the
transition from the school to work ,emphasizing an appropriate client–occupational
placement match ”(Lumbie and Williamson 2004).In the united states ,whit the
lunching of sputnik in 1957 and the passing of the National Defense Education Act
(NDEA)in 1958 ,the NDEA poured millions of dollars into school of education to
a train a new generation of counselors who would be expected to identify assist
promising American Youths to enter the sciences and pursue higher education
(Hayes, Dagley, and Horne 1996). School guidance counselors began to encourage
students with high aptitude in the areas of math and science to take more courses
to prepare for college so that they may become future technological innovators.
Changes in the School Counselor Training

Today the training of school counselors has changed. Counselors

are taking on many new task and roles. School counselors are now
educated and experienced in knowledge and skill –based programs
that stress counseling guidance, consultation, coordination, and
referrals (Coy 1999). The role of the school counselor has
progressed from providing guidance and career information to
addressing the developmental needs of students. They can help
students to learn effectively by addressing the diverse areas and
the challenges that may interfere whit their learning .
Common Concerns that May Interfere with Student Learning

Some common concerns that can Interfere with the learning process include, suicide,
violence, divorce, child abuse, unwanted pregnancy, drug addiction, truancy,
increasing dropout rates, decreasing economic resources, peer pressure, poverty, and
decision making–skills. Guidance counselors can provide early intervention for the
prevention of various school- related problems. In this sense ,the school counselors
have to collaborate with their colleagues in the expansion of new models for
interventions. Therefore, the role of the professional school counselor is intricate and
versatile .It is very important that school counselors define their role better by
recognizing that they cannot do their work alone and they need to collaborate with
other stakeholders (Sears and Granello 2002).The role of counselors is hugely
consultative .They are not the center of school facilitators who are highly educated
to effectively collaborate and coordinate direct and indirect services required for
students to be able to succeed in the school environment and their personal lives.
Multiple roles of school counselors

A part from their counseling roles, school counselors are also assigned
non–counseling roles. Non –counseling task can range from part–time
secretarial responsibilities, substituting for teachers when they are not
available, lunch duty, and other responsibilities assigned by
administrator and staff looking for extra assistance. Non–counseling
task can take a considerable amount of time and pull school counselor
away from more appropriate counseling activities. Presence of these
Non-counseling roles often brings confusion and lack of effectivity to
the guidance programs of school (Dahir 2004).
Evidence shows that the efforts to delineate the school counselor's
work have been done in the United States and the Philippines. In
2003, the American school counselors association (ASCA)National
Model was developed and was" preceded by efforts at delineating
the best way to organize and manage professional school counselors
' work" (ASCA 2005) .While professional associations such as
ASCA have strongly encouraged their members to endorse and
utilize their model and the national standards associated with it,
school principals have historically exerted a major influence on the
role of school counselors regardless of recommendations by
professional organizations (Paisley and Borders 1995).
In the Philippines, the roles of school counselors have been prescribed and
the practice has been professionalized (Republic Act No. 9258). However,
due to lack of qualified school counselors, the guidance counseling functions
are rarely fully implemented and provided. Furthermore, school counseling
programs are understaffed and school counselors are faced with an
increasing student to counselor ratio. A ratio of 250 students for every
counselor is recommended by ASCA while the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) for the Philippines recommends 1:500 or in a worse
situation, 1:1000 (CMO 21 s. 2006). Far from providing a full range of
guidance services, schools' guidance programs have tended to provide the
minimum services such as administering psychometric tests, interviewing
new students and transferees, reacting to problems of students, and
counseling the problematic students.
Strengthening School Counseling
Acting proactively implies that school counselors supported by
administrators, "use data gathered on student performance to develop their
school counseling programs and help teachers customize educational practices
to meet students' individual needs" (Sclafani 2005). They can also "collect
data on the effectiveness of their overall program, rather than documenting
random lessons and the number of children they see" (Vail 2005). In any case,
increased accountability requires that measures are undertaken by school
administration to ensure that data are collected on school counseling programs
to prove program, effectiveness in the lives of students. Since school
counselors have a responsibility to serve all students, the main path for school
counselors to reach all students is to put into practice through the use of
comprehensive school guidance counseling programs that include classroom
guidance lessons (Gysbers 2001). All students can benefit from school
guidance programs if they are realistically designed and collaboratively
By all means, guidance and counseling services are indispensable
to the full transformation of a child as they unblock all barriers to
students' individual and holistic development. While everybody
sees the manifestations through the student's behavior and
performance, the serious job of looking beneath the manifestations
and addressing the root causes is indeed a critical role of guidance-
and counseling leadership. As such, the school counselors have to
constantly develop and maintain an effective school counseling
program. The programs must have a distinct focus per cluster of
students from K-12 and collegiate levels while keeping the generic
guidance and counseling services.
The Role of the Elementary School Counselor (K-6)
Developmentally, the social emotional needs of pupils at this stage can be
marked distinctively. However, there are several factors that may be
responsible for behavior differences such as home environment, family size,
economic status, intellectual ability, and so on. Counselors build their
program expectations on common experiences of this age group. The roles of
counselors are that of intervention and prevention in connection with the
common problems that are likely to interfere with the ability of children to
achieve their greatest academic, social, and personal potential (Ward and
Worsham 1998). In this light, Ward and Worsham (1998) see the primary role
of the K-6 or elementary school counselors to include development and
implementation or facilitation of classroom guidance activities, individual and
group counseling, parent education, parent and teacher consultation, referrals
to professionals and public agencies, and crisis intervention and management.
The Role of the Junior High School Counselor (Grades 7-10)

At this developmental stage of life as young adolescents, Grade 7

through 10, the primary role of the junior high school counselor is to
provide guidance and counseling in dealing with peer relationships
and social interactions, and as such, includes work with students,
teachers, and parents in an attempt to help each understand the other
(Ward and Worsham 1998). Outside of this focus are the general
guidance services such as consulting with teachers, parents, and staff
regarding meeting the developmental needs of each student,
interpreting tests, and providing orientation to transferees and new
students.
The Role of the Senior High School Counselor (Grades
11-12)

For Ward and Worsham (1998), the primary role of senior

high school counselors is to provide guidance and
counseling pertaining to educational and career decisions
as well as college placement counseling. In addition, other
common services are also made available to meet the
needs of individuals or groups, and provide orientation
activities for transferees or new students to the school.
THE END!!!