Name: Rajan Putty Roll No.

: 5002
Division: E PRN No.: 22010096
Batch: E1

EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Title: Divergence of a laser beam

Aim: To determine the beam profile and divergence of a laser beam

Theoretical Background:
Ideally, a laser coming out of the optical cavity of a laser is a
perfectly parallel beam. However, the laser beam comes out of an aperture and
diffraction at this aperture leads to beam divergence. The divergence of a laser
beam due to diffraction at the slit or aperture through which laser beam comes out
is called diffraction limited divergence. The angular spread of the far field beam is
given by θ = λ/w (for a rectangular aperture with slit width w) and 1.22λ/d (for a
circular aperture with diameter d). This is demonstrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 A laser beam coming out of an aperture of diameter d diverges due to diffraction. The divergence from
the initial parallel beam is through an angle θ. As a result, the diameter of the beam is d1 and d2 at a
distance of L1 and L2 from the aperture. The Rayleigh length is indicated schematically.

From Fig. 1
Putting θ = λ/d (approximately for an aperture), and rearranging the above
equation, we get

(d2 - d1)/2 represents the linear divergence of the beam. When the linear
divergence is equal to d, we get Rayleigh range

The beam is considered to be a parallel beam upto a distance of Rayleigh range.

Beyond the Rayleigh range, the beam spread is considered to be significant.
We now define the diameter of the beam. Assuming that the cross-section for a
laser beam is circular, the profile of intensity of light across the beam is often
supposed to be zero beyond the diameter and non-zero but constant inside the
diameter, i.e. a rectangular profile as shown by blue line in Fig. 2. However, more
often than not the beam profile is a Gaussian in shape. The intensity versus
distance across the beam is given by

where, x is the mean position where the intensity is maximum and equal to I0 and
σ is called the standard deviation. This is shown as a red curve in figure 2. The
diameter of the beam can be defined as 2σ. At x x = σ, the intensity is 0.135I0.
This fact can be used to find the diameter of the beam.

Design of the experiment:

An optical Power meter measures the total power incident on the
receiving aperture. Typically, the diameter of this receiving aperture is quite small.
The Power meter is mounted on a micrometer slide arrangement so that the
receiving aperture can be moved across a beam. A laser and the micrometer slide
mounted Power meter are mounted on an Optical bench. When the power meter is
moved across the beam in small steps, intensities I1, I2, I3, ..., In can be measured
at x1, x2, x3, ..., xn as shown in Fig. 2. The positions at which I=0.135I0 can then be
used to find the diameter d1 and a distance L1 from the laser output. Similarly, d2 is
found out at L2. This can be used to find the divergence and the Rayleigh’s length.
 Fig. 2: Hypothetical Rectangular and Real Gaussian beam profiles of a laser. I0 is the maximum
intensity of the Gaussian beam profile. The intensity at x = x σ is 0.135I0

Apparatus: Laser, optical bench with holders, laser power meter with an aperture,
micrometer slide.

Procedure for conducting the experiment

1. Arrange the laser power meter such that the detector surface is perpendicular to
the laser beam.
2. Measure the distance L1 of the detector from the laser.
3. Measure the power of laser as the detector is moved across the laser beam using
a micrometer.
Note that the diameter of the aperture through which the light goes into
the detector is fixed (1mm) and hence intensity is proportional to the
measured power.
4. Move the detector to a new position L2
5. Repeat step no. 3 at L2
6. Draw graphs and find the beam diameter d1 and d2 at L1 and L2, respectively.
7. Calculate divergence, aperture of laser and Rayleigh range.

Observation Table:
Wavelength of the laser: 6328 Å
LC = 0.5mm/100 = 0.005 mm/div
Total reading TR = MSR+(LC×CSR)

L1=58cm L2=80cm
CSR TSR Power CSR TSR Power
MSR
Sr. Sr. MSR
(mm)
No. No. ( mm )

1 28.5 0 28.5 0.01 1 0 0 0 0.001

2 28.5 10 28.55 0.015 2 0 10 0.05 0.001

3 28.5 20 28.6 0.024 3 0 20 0.1 0.001

4 28.5 30 28.65 0.03 4 0 30 0.15 0.001

5 28.5 40 28.7 0.039 5 0 40 0.2 0.002

6 28.5 50 28.75 0.06 6 0 50 0.25 0.0055

7 28.5 60 28.8 0.075 7 0 60 0.3 0.01

8 28.5 70 28.85 0.09 8 0 70 0.35 0.011

9 28.5 80 28.9 0.1 9 0 80 0.4 0.015

10 28.5 90 28.95 0.125 10 0 90 0.45 0.025

11 29 0 29 0.144 11 0.5 0 0.5 0.0315

12 29 10 29.05 0.169 12 0.5 10 0.55 0.038

13 29 20 29.1 0.208 13 0.5 20 0.6 0.046

14 29 30 29.15 0.215 14 0.5 30 0.65 0.059
15 29 40 29.2 0.24 15 0.5 40 0.7 0.078
16 29 50 29.25 0.275 16 0.5 50 0.75 0.1125
17 29 60 29.3 0.291 17 0.5 60 0.8 0.1525

18 29 70 29.35 0.307 18 0.5 70 0.85 0.175

19 29 80 29.4 0.351 19 0.5 80 0.9 0.1975
20 29 90 29.45 0.384 20 0.5 90 0.95 0.224
21 29.5 0 29.5 0.393 21 1 0 1.0 0.2495
22 29.5 10 29.55 0.4 22 1 10 1.05 0.262
23 29.5 20 29.6 0.44 23 1 20 1.1 0.282
24 29.5 30 29.65 0.456 24 1 30 1.15 0.3135
25 29.5 40 29.7 0.42 25 1 40 1.2 0.3475
26 29.5 50 29.75 0.43 26 1 50 1.25 0.364
27 29.5 60 29.8 0.4 27 1 60 1.3 0.3755
28 29.5 70 29.85 0.36 28 1 70 1.35 0.375
29 29.5 80 29.9 0.3 29 1 80 1.4 0.3855
30 29.5 90 29.95 0.271 30 1 90 1.45 0.3965
31 30 0 30 0.242 31 1.5 0 1.5 0.3725
32 30 10 30.05 0.2 32 1.5 10 1.55 0.327
33 30 20 30.1 0.16 33 1.5 20 1.6 0.309
34 30 30 30.15 0.136 34 1.5 30 1.65 0.296
35 30 40 30.2 0.1 35 1.5 40 1.7 0.265
36 30 50 30.25 0.06 36 1.5 50 1.75 0.2465
37 30 60 30.3 0.042 37 1.5 60 1.8 0.2115
38 30 70 30.35 0.03 38 1.5 70 1.85 0.1705
39 30 80 30.4 0.023 39 1.5 80 1.9 0.145
40 30 90 30.45 0.02 40 1.5 90 1.95 0.115
41 30.5 0 30.5 0.011 41 2 0 2.0 0.108
42 30.5 10 30.55 0.01 42 2 10 2.05 0.0925
43 30.5 20 30.6 0.004 43 2 20 2.1 0.075
44 2 30 2.15 0.06
45 2 40 2.2 0.0455
46 2 50 2.25 0.031
47 2 60 2.3 0.021
48 2 70 2.35 0.015
49 2 80 2.4 0.011
50 2 90 2.45 0.007
51 2.5 0 2.5 0.006
52 2.5 10 2.55 0.004
53 2.5 20 2.6 0.001

Graph: Plot using EXCEL, Power (intensity is proportional to power) of laser

light as a function of micrometer reading (Total reading TR) and find out the beam
diameter d1 and d2 at L1 and L2, respectively.
 TR VS Power
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
TR VS
0.2 Power
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
28 28.5 29 29.5 30 30.5 31
.

Given above is the graph for L1=58 cm,

Intensity at x = 29.65 is 0.135 ×0.456
= 0.06156 W/mm2
Now, 𝑥 x =𝜎
𝜎 = 30.15 – 29.65 = 0.5 mm d1 = 2 𝜎 = 1mm
Given above is the graph for L2=80 cm,
Intensity at x = 1.45mm is 0.135 × 0.3965
= 0.0535 W/mm2
Now, 𝑥 x = 𝜎
𝜎 =2 – 1.45 = 0.55 mm d2

= 2 𝜎 =1.1 mm

Therefore, d1 = 1 mm and d2 = 1.1 mm

Calculations:

1. Divergence

ϴ = 0.07-0.06 = 0.01 = 0.01

2(80-58) 2(22) 44
ϴ = 2.272 * 10-4 rad
Divergence = 2.272 * 10-4 rad
 2. Diameter of the aperture of the laser output is

d = 1 - 2×580×2.272 × 10-4
= 0.736448 mm

3. Rayleigh range

LR = (0.7364)2
6328 * 10-4
LR = 0.857027 m
Results:
1. Divergence = 0.000227 rad
2. Rayleigh range = 0.857027 m

Conclusion:
1. Rayleigh range and divergence is calculated.
2. The graphs were effectively plotted.
3. The form of both graphs is identical.
4. The profile of a beam was obtained.

Questions:
1. Derive the condition for first minimum in the Fraunhofer diffraction
pattern of a single slit. How does it get modified for a circular aperture?
Refer “A Textbook of Optics – N. Subrahmanyam and Brij Lal, S.
Chand Publications”.
 We now consider the intensity at point P1 above O on the screen
where another set of rays diffracted at a angle θ have been bought to focus by
the lens and contributions from different elements of the slits do not arise in
phase at P1. If we drop a perpendicular from point A to the diffracted ray
from B, then AE as shown in figure constitutes the diffracted wavefront and
BE is the path difference between the rays from the two edges A and B of the
slit. Let us imagine this path difference to be equal to one wavelength. The
wavelets from different parts of the slit do not reach point P1 in the phase
because they cover unequal distance in reaching P1.Thus they would interfere
and cancel out each other effect. For this to occur

BE=λ
Since BE=ABsinθ asinθ=λ
or sinθ=λ/a
or θ=λ/a ---(1)
As angle of diffraction is usually very small so that sinθ=θ

Such a point on screen as given by the equation (1) would be point of

secondary minimum. It is because we have assume the slit to be divided into
two parts, then wavelets from the corresponding points of the two halves of
the slit will have path difference and wavelets from two halves will reach
point P1 on the screen in a opposite phase to produce minima.

Again consider the point P2 in the figure 1 and if for this point path
difference BE=2λ, then we can imagine slit to be divided into four equal
parts. The wavelets from the corresponding points of the two adjacent parts
 of the slit will have a path difference of λ/2 and will mutually interfere to
cancel out each other
Thus a second minimum occurs at P2 in direction of θ given by θ=2θ/a
Similarly nth minimum at point Pn occurs in direction of θ given by θn=nθ/a
--- (2)

Diffraction by a circular aperture:

The diffraction pattern given by a circular aperture is shown in the
figure on the right .This is known as the Airy diffraction pattern. It can be
seen that most of the light is in the central disk. The angle subtended by
this disk, known as the Airy disk, is 1.22Å x W where W is the
diameter of the aperture. The Airy disk can be an important parameter in
limiting the ability of an imaging system to resolve closely located objects.

2. Explain how the application of ranging (i.e. finding distances of faraway

objects) depends on low divergence of the laser beam.

The beam divergence of a laser beam is a measure for how

fast the beam expands far from the beam waist, i.e., in the so-called far field.
A low beam divergence can be important for applications such as pointing or
free-space optical communications. Beams with very small divergence, i.e.,
with approximately constant beam radius over significant propagation
distances, are called collimated beams; they can be generated from strongly
divergence beams with beam collimators. The low divergence, single-
wavelength radiation and vast range of available laser power ranges make
them one of the most valuable tools for material processing in industry and
research. Laser beam divergence is one important parameter to know for
laser manufacturers and users alike who need to take control of their laser
spot size. From laser welding applications to wafer dicing or eye surgery,
knowing your beam divergence is a must for building a functional setup and
to direct the energy precisely where it is needed for a given process.
 3. How does the application of free space communication depend upon low
divergence of a laser? What are pros and cons of free space
communication vis-à-vis optical fiber communication?

Free-space optical communication (FSO) is an optical communication

technology that uses light propagating in free space to wirelessly transmit data for
telecommunications or computer networking. "Free space" means air, outer space,
vacuum, or something similar. This contrasts with using solids such as optical fiber
cable.
Laser communication in space is the use of free-space optical
communication in outer space. Communication may be fully in space (an
intersatellite laser link) or in a ground-to-satellite or satellite-to-ground application.
The main advantage of using laser communication over radio waves is increased
bandwidth, enabling the transfer of more data in less time. Technical advantages:

• Ease of deployment
• Can be used to power devices
• License-free long-range operation (in contrast with radio communication)
• High bit rates
• Low bit error rates
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Full duplex operation
• Protocol transparency
• Increased security when working with narrow beams
• No Fresnel zone necessary
• Reference open source implementation

Disadvantages free space communication:

• Mounting - lasers require a very firm mounting location making them

unsuitable for tower and mast mounting.

• Can be effected by atmospheric conditions - rain, fog etc - although this is

becoming less of an issue with modern links. Snow can build up on incorrectly
installed units.

• Limited life - the laser diodes using in FSO links have a limited life before
they fail, typically about 7-8 years in comparison radio links can last much longer.
4. What is the role of low divergence of a laser beam in applications like welding,
cutting, drilling, engraving, etc.?

The ability of high-power lasers to vaporize and remove material The

ability of high-power lasers to deliver high values of irradiance (power per
unit area) to absorbing surfaces leads to many applications that involve
vaporization of material. Lasers can drill holes and cut materials. All these
applications involve removal of material by vaporization. The laser beam
can produce intense localized heating and vaporization because of its
capability to deliver very high power per unit area to small areas on the
workpiece. A conventional thermal source, like a welding torch, delivers
much lower power per unit area and cannot be localized as well. The output
power of the laser is not necessarily as important as the ability to focus the
beam to a small spot, producing high power per unit area. One important
laser property is its small divergence. Because of this property, the laser is a
source of energy that can be concentrated by a lens to achieve extremely
high power density (irradiance) at a focal spot.
Material removal can be performed with relatively small pulsed lasers
that can deliver extremely high values of power density in a short pulse. For
example, a small Nd:YAG laser can deliver one-millisecond pulses with a
power density of 109 watts/cm2 to a target. No other source (except perhaps
an electron beam) can produce such high values of power density. Such
lasers are well suited for hole drilling. For cutting, continuous-wave (cw)
lasers, such as C02 or NdYAG, are often used.