INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY

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Lesson 4.

C. POSTMODERNISM: On Cultures

Postmodernism has come into vogue as the name for a rather diffused family of ideas and trends
that in significant respect rejects, challenges, or aims to supersede “modernity”; convictions,
aspirations, and pretensions of modern Western thought and culture since the Enlightenment.
Postmodernism is not philosophy.
Postmodernism is more of an attitude and reaction to modernism which is a worldview of order,
logic, and authority based on knowledge.
Value our existence in the world and in relation to it.

D. Analytic Tradition

Can language objectively describe truth? For the philosopher of this tradition, language cannot objectively
describe truth.
Ludwig Wittgenstein, an analytic philosopher, language is socially conditioned which means the meaning of
words is created by what people have agreed upon.
Alfred Tarski (Mathematician and logician) He believe that to define truth in a simple way from that of
another semantic notion, namely, of the notion of satisfaction. The notion of truth is not only formally
correct but materially adequate as well. Material adequacy is an extension of the term “true”.
Analytic philosophy is the conviction that to some significant degree, philosophical problems, puzzles, and
errors are rooted in language and can be solved or avoided by a sound understanding of language and
careful attention to its workings. (e.g., Which came first: is it the chicken or is it the egg?)
There is great emphasis on the role of language in the truth and logic because truth and logic can only
manifest through words and sentences.

E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in reasoning

Logic is centered on the analysis and construction of arguments. In the first lesson, logic was discussed as
one of the branches of philosophy.
Logic and critical thinking serve as paths to freedom from half-truths and deceptions.
Critical thinking is distinguish facts (objective) and opinions or personal feelings (subjective).
In making rational choices, first, we suspend beliefs and judgements until all facts have been gathered and
considered.
Ex. a. “a dark tan may seem attractive though recent studies have shown that too much sun expose may lead to
skin cancer.” (The statements that claim to evidence are the premises.)
b. “Human cloning is evil.” (To prove something. The statement that the evidence claimed to support or imply is
the conclusion.) “Human cloning should never be allowed.” (Is the conclusion.)
Two basic types of reasoning; DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING.
a. Inductive reasoning is based on observations in order to make generalizations. This reasoning is often
applied, forecasting, or behavior.
[(e.g., many people are holding their umbrellas, the ground is wet, and the wind is strong so probably it is
raining.)]
b. deductive reasoning draws conclusion from usually one broad judgement or definition and one more
specific assertion, often in inference.
[(e.g., All philosophers are wise. (Major premise), Confucius is philosopher. (Minor premise), Therefore,
Confucius is wise. (Conclusion.)]

Another reasoning:
1. Validity and soundness of an argument -Validity comes from a logical conclusion based on logically-
constructed premises (Reed, 2010)
2. Strength of an Argument -an example of inductive reasoning are surveys. Surveys try to get many
specific examples to arrive at a general and educated guess. INDUCTIVE arguments cannot prove if the
premises are true which will also determine the truth of the conclusion.
f. Fallacies

Fallacy is a defect in argument other than it is having false premises. To detect fallacies, it is required to
examine the argument’s content.
Here are some of the usually committed errors in reasoning and thus, result to false conclusion and worse,
distort the truth.
1. Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad misericordiam) – a specific kind of appeal to emotion in which someone
tries win support for an argument or ideas
2. Appeal to ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam) -whatever has not been proven false must be true,
and vice versa.
3. Equivocation – this is a logical chain of reasoning of a term or a word several times but giving the word a
different meaning each time. (e.g., Human beings have hands; the clock has hands.)
4. Composition -this infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of
the whole. (division)
5. Division -One reasons logically that something true of a thing must also be true of all or some of its parts.
6. Against the person (argumentum ad hominem) -attempts to link the validity of a premise to a
characteristic or belief of the person advocating the premise. However, questions of personal conduct,
character, and motives, among the others, are legitimate if relevant to the issue.
7. Appeal to force (argumentum ad baculum) -an argument where force, coercion, or the threat of force is
given as a justification for a conclusion.
8. Appeal to people (argumentum ad populum) -an argument that appeals or exploits people’s vanities,
desire for esteem and anchors on popularity. (e.g., B1: I will pray online. B2: Why not go to church. B1; Who
will “tag” my prayer there?”)
9. False cause (post hoc) -that event must have been caused by this one. This fallacy is also referred to as
coincidental correlation or correlation not causation. (e.g., B: Tumaas na namn ang presyo ng mga bilihin.
G: siguro, kaya konti lang ang nakakain. B: dahil sa presyo. G: Hindi, dahil mataas ang CHOLESTEROL!)
10. Hasty generalization -commonly based on a broad conclusion upon the statistics of a survey of a small
group that fails to sufficiently represent the whole population.
11. Begging the question (petition principii) -type of fallacy in which the proposition to be proven is assumed
implicitly or explicitly in the premise.

ACTIVITY

DIRECTION: A. Determine the premise and the conclusion in the following. 15/15

1.All known planets travel about the sun in elliptical orbits. Therefore, all planets travel about the sun
elliptical orbits.
Answer: Therefore, all planets travel about the sun elliptical orbits. (Inductive Reasoning)

2. You have a very good circle of friends. Therefore, you are very good.

Answer: (Inductive reasoning). Therefore, you are very good.

3. If I am rich, I must worry about losing my wealth; if I am poor, I must worry about making a living. But I
must be either rich or poor. Hence, I must always worry.
Answer: (deductive reasoning) Major premise- If I am rich…..
Minor premise- But…..
Conclusion: Hence, I must always worry.
4. Socrates is a man. All men are mortal. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Answer: (Deductive) major: all men are mortal.

Minor; Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
5. The world is an organized system. Every organized system must have a creator. Hence, the creator of the
world is God.
Answer. (Deductive) Major: The world is an organized system.
Minor: Every organized…..
Conclusion: Hence, the creator of the world is God.
B. Choose one fallacy from 1 to 11, then, connect it to your life/experiences. At least 4 sentences. (5 points).

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