1. What is research? What are the keywords of research?

Explain the criteria for good

research.
2. Describe the exploratory research and descriptive research. Based on your research
topic, describe which research problems should be examined by exploratory research.
3. What are the differences between positivism and interpretivism? What are the research
methodologies associated with positivism?

Positivism is a sociological approach that states that one should study human behavior and
society using scientific methodology, as in natural sciences.

Interpretivism, on the other hand, is a sociological approach that states it is important to

understand or interpret the beliefs, motives, and actions of individuals in order to understand
social reality.

While positivists try to treat sociology as a science dealing in numbers and experiments,
interpretivists criticize this approach and say that sociology is not a science and human behavior
cannot be explained through quantification. Therefore, this is the key difference between
positivism and interpretivism.

Positivism uses quantitative methods such as statistics, surveys and questionnaires whereas
interpretivism uses qualitative methods such as participant observations and unstructured
interviews.

Methodology:

Positivism: Positivists rely on quantitative research methods to test hypotheses and establish
causal relationships. They prefer structured data collection techniques such as surveys,
experiments, and statistical analysis to identify patterns and trends in the data.

Interpretivism: Interpretivists primarily use qualitative research methods to delve into the
complexities of human behavior and interactions. They utilize techniques like interviews, focus
groups, participant observation, and content analysis to gain a deeper understanding of the social
context and individual perspectives.

4. Explain the difference between research methodology and research method.

Research methodology is a systematic and theoretical approach to collect and evaluate data
throughout the research process.

Research method consists of all techniques, strategies, and tools employed by a researcher to
complete the experiment and find solution to a research problem. Research methods are practical
applications of the methodology, and they can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed.

5. What are the four types of data? What are their characteristics? Provide an example
for each type of data.
Qualitative or Categorical Data

Qualitative or Categorical Data is data that can’t be measured or counted in the form of numbers.
These types of data are sorted by category, not by number. That’s why it is also known as
Categorical Data. These data consist of audio, images, symbols, or text. The gender of a person,
i.e., male, female, or others, is qualitative This data helps market researchers understand the
customers’ tastes and then design their ideas and strategies accordingly.data.

Qualitative data tells about the perception of people.

the other examples of qualitative data are :

 What language do you speak

 Favorite holiday destination
 Opinion on something (agree, disagree, or neutral)
 Colors
The Qualitative data are further classified into two parts :

Nominal Data

Nominal Data is used to label variables without any order or quantitative value. The color of hair
can be considered nominal data, as one color can’t be compared with another color.

The name “nominal” comes from the Latin name “nomen,” which means “name.” With the help
of nominal data, we can’t do any numerical tasks or can’t give any order to sort the data. These
data don’t have any meaningful order; their values are distributed into distinct categories.

Examples of Nominal Data :

 Colour of hair (Blonde, red, Brown, Black, etc.)

 Marital status (Single, Widowed, Married)
 Nationality (Indian, German, American)
 Gender (Male, Female, Others)
 Eye Color (Black, Brown, etc.)
Ordinal Data

Ordinal data have natural ordering where a number is present in some kind of order by their
position on the scale. These data are used for observation like customer satisfaction, happiness,
etc., but we can’t do any arithmetical tasks on them.

Ordinal data is qualitative data for which their values have some kind of relative position. These
kinds of data can be considered “in-between” qualitative and quantitative data. The ordinal data
only shows the sequences and cannot use for statistical analysis. Compared to nominal data,
ordinal data have some kind of order that is not present in nominal data.
Examples of Ordinal Data :

 When companies ask for feedback, experience, or satisfaction on a scale of 1 to

10
 Letter grades in the exam (A, B, C, D, etc.)
 Ranking of people in a competition (First, Second, Third, etc.)
 Economic Status (High, Medium, and Low)
 Education Level (Higher, Secondary, Primary)

Quantitative Data

Quantitative data can be expressed in numerical values, making it countable and including
statistical data analysis. These kinds of data are also known as Numerical data. It answers the
questions like “how much,” “how many,” and “how often.” For example, the price of a phone,
the computer’s ram, the height or weight of a person, etc., falls under quantitative data.

Quantitative data can be used for statistical manipulation. These data can be represented on a
wide variety of graphs and charts, such as bar graphs, histograms, scatter plots, boxplots, pie
charts, line graphs, etc.

Examples of Quantitative Data :

 Height or weight of a person or object

 Room Temperature
 Scores and Marks (Ex: 59, 80, 60, etc.)
  Time
The Quantitative data are further classified into two parts :

Discrete Data

The term discrete means distinct or separate. The discrete data contain the values that fall under
integers or whole numbers. The total number of students in a class is an example of discrete data.
These data can’t be broken into decimal or fraction values.

The discrete data are countable and have finite values; their subdivision is not possible. These
data are represented mainly by a bar graph, number line, or frequency table.

Examples of Discrete Data :

Total numbers of students present in a class

Cost of a cell phone
Numbers of employees in a company
The total number of players who participated in a competition
Days in a week
Continuous Data

Continuous data are in the form of fractional numbers. It can be the version of an android phone,
the height of a person, the length of an object, etc. Continuous data represents information that
can be divided into smaller levels. The continuous variable can take any value within a range.

The key difference between discrete and continuous data is that discrete data contains the integer
or whole number. Still, continuous data stores the fractional numbers to record different types of
data such as temperature, height, width, time, speed, etc.

Examples of Continuous Data :

 Height of a person
 Speed of a vehicle
 “Time-taken” to finish the work
 Wi-Fi Frequency
 Market share price
6. What information should be included in the reference list and the in-text citation, according
to popular reference style (APA or Harvard)?
7. What is a semi-structural interview?
8. Explain the criteria for a good literature review.

A good literature review shows signs of synthesis and understanding of the topic. There should
be strong evidence of analytical thinking shown through the connection make between literature
being reviewed.

A good review does not just summarize the literature, but discusses it critically, identifies
methodological problems, and points out research gaps

9. Explain the difference between cross-sectional research and longitudinal research.

10. Describe and provide examples of four types of scales.

11. Nominal Scale:

a. Description: The nominal scale is the simplest level of measurement, where
data is categorized into distinct categories or names without any inherent
order or numerical value. It deals with qualitative distinctions only.
b. Example: Colors of cars (e.g., red, blue, green). Each color is a separate
category, and there is no inherent order or numerical relationship between
them.
12. Ordinal Scale:
 a. Description: The ordinal scale involves data that is categorized and ranked in a
specific order, but the differences between the categories may not be uniform
or measurable.
b. Example: Customer satisfaction levels (e.g., very dissatisfied, dissatisfied,
neutral, satisfied, very satisfied). While the levels are ranked from least to most
satisfied, the difference in satisfaction between each level may not be
quantitatively defined.
13. Interval Scale:
a. Description: The interval scale measures data with meaningful intervals
between values, but it lacks a true zero point. The absence of a zero point
means that ratios between values are not meaningful.
b. Example: Temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit. The difference between 20°C
and 30°C is the same as the difference between 30°C and 40°C, but there is no
absolute zero temperature where there is no heat.
14. Ratio Scale:
a. Description: The ratio scale is the most comprehensive level of measurement.
It possesses all the characteristics of the other three scales: categories,
ranking, meaningful intervals, and a true zero point, making ratios meaningful.
b. Example: Weight in kilograms or height in centimeters. A person who weighs
60 kg is twice as heavy as someone who weighs 30 kg, and a height of 180 cm
is twice as tall as someone who is 90 cm.

15. Define validity and reliability in research. Provide examples of validity and reliability in
survey and/or interview research.
16. Provide examples of probability and nonprobability sampling.
17. What is sampling in qualitative and quantitative research? How are they different?

18. What is the nature of the research process?

The research process is a systematic and organized way of gathering information and data to
answer a question or solve a problem. It is a cyclical process that involves the following steps:

Step 1: Identifying the research problem or question. The first step is to identify the problem or
question that you want to research. This can be done by brainstorming, reading, or talking to
experts.

Step 2: Conducting a literature review. Once you have identified your research problem or
question, you need to conduct a literature review. This involves reading and summarizing
previous research on your topic.
Step 3: Developing a research design. The research design is a plan for how you will collect and
analyze your data. It should include the following elements:

a. The research methods you will use

b. The population you will study
c. The data you will collect
d. The data analysis procedures you will use

Step 4: Collecting data. The next step is to collect your data. This can be done through surveys,
interviews, observations, or experiments.

Step 5: Analyzing data. Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves
using statistical software to calculate frequencies, means, and other measures of central
tendency. You may also need to use statistical tests to determine if there are significant
differences between groups or variables.

Step 6: Interpreting data. The final step is to interpret your data. This involves explaining what
your findings mean and how they relate to your research question. You may also need to discuss
the limitations of your study and suggest directions for future research.

19. Distinguish applied research (practical research) and basic research (academic
research)?
Basic research and applied research are two different types of research that have different goals
and objectives.

Basic research is also known as "pure research" or "academic research." It is conducted to

expand the body of knowledge in a particular field, without any specific application in mind.
Basic research is often exploratory and can involve a lot of trial and error. It is typically
conducted by scientists and researchers in academia or government laboratories.

Applied research is also known as "practical research" or "developmental research." It is

conducted to solve a specific problem or to develop a new product or process. Applied research
is typically conducted by businesses, government agencies, or other organizations that have a
need for the results of the research.

Here is a table that summarizes the key differences between basic research and applied research:

Characteristic Basic Research Applied Research

 To expand the body of To solve a specific problem or to
Goal
knowledge develop a new product or process

Approach Exploratory and open-ended More focused and goal-oriented

Timeframe Can be long-term Typically shorter-term

Typically funded by government Typically funded by businesses or

Funding
or academic institutions other organizations

Typically conducted in academia Typically conducted in businesses or

Location
or government laboratories other organizations

Here are some examples of basic research:

 Research on the behavior of cells

 Research on the formation of stars
 Research on the evolution of languages

Here are some examples of applied research:

 Research on new drug treatments

 Research on new energy sources
 Research on new marketing strategies

20. What are common types of studies?

There are many different types of studies, but some of the most common include:
Experimental studies: Experimental studies are the most common type of study. They involve
manipulating one or more variables and then measuring the effects of that manipulation on
another variable. For example, an experimental study might involve giving one group of people a
new drug and giving another group a placebo, and then measuring the effects of the drug on the
participants' health.
Survey studies: Survey studies involve asking people questions about their beliefs, attitudes, or
behaviors. For example, a survey study might ask people about their opinions on a particular
issue or about their experiences with a particular product or service.
Observational studies: Observational studies involve collecting data about people or events
without manipulating any variables. For example, an observational study might involve
observing people's behavior in a public setting or tracking the changes in a population over time.
Case studies: Case studies involve in-depth investigations of a single person, group, or event. For
example, a case study might involve interviewing a person who has experienced a particular
medical condition or studying the history of a particular company.
Meta-analyses: Meta-analyses are statistical reviews of multiple studies on a particular topic.
They are used to summarize the findings of the studies and to draw conclusions about the overall
evidence.
21. How to write good research questions?
Be specific. Your research question should be specific enough that you can answer it with the
available resources. For example, instead of asking "What is the impact of social media?", you
could ask "How does the use of social media affect the self-esteem of teenagers?".
Be focused. Your research question should be focused on a single topic. For example, instead of
asking "What are the effects of social media on teenagers?", you could ask "How does the use of
social media affect the self-esteem of teenagers?".
Be answerable. Your research question should be answerable with the available resources. For
example, instead of asking "What is the future of social media?", you could ask "How will the
use of social media change in the next 10 years?".
Be interesting. Your research question should be interesting to you. If you're not interested in the
topic, it will be difficult to stay motivated to conduct your research.
Be open-ended. Your research question should be open-ended, meaning that there is no one right
answer. For example, instead of asking "What is the best way to use social media?", you could
ask "What are the different ways that people use social media?".
22. Differences between Qualitative research vs quantitative research
Quantitative research is a type of research that collects numerical data and analyzes it using
statistical methods. The goal of quantitative research is to produce objective, empirical data that
can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test
hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.
Qualitative research is a type of research that collects non-numerical data such as words, images,
and sounds. The goal of qualitative research is to understand the meaning of human experiences
and to gain insights into human behavior. Qualitative research is often used to explore subjective
experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.
23. Strengths and weakness of Qualitative research vs quantitative research
Qualitative Research:
Strengths:
1. In-depth understanding: Qualitative research allows for a detailed exploration of complex
phenomena, providing rich insights into participants' perspectives, experiences, and
meanings.
2. Flexibility: Qualitative research is flexible and adaptive, allowing researchers to modify
the research design and data collection methods based on emerging insights or new
research questions.
3. Contextual understanding: Qualitative research emphasizes understanding social and
cultural contexts, providing a deeper understanding of the factors that influence behaviors
and experiences.
4. Emergent findings: Qualitative research can uncover unexpected or unanticipated
findings that may lead to new theories or research questions.
5. Participant engagement: Qualitative research often involves direct interaction with
participants, fostering a collaborative relationship and allowing participants' voices to be
heard.
Weaknesses:
1. Limited generalizability: Due to the small sample sizes and context-specific nature of
qualitative research, findings may not be easily generalizable to larger populations or
different contexts.
2. Potential bias: Researchers' subjectivity and interpretation can introduce bias into data
collection, analysis, and interpretation processes, which may impact the objectivity of the
findings.
3. Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be time-consuming, involving extensive data
collection, transcription, and analysis processes.
4. Reliance on researcher's skills: The quality of qualitative research heavily depends on the
skills, expertise, and reflexivity of the researcher, which can introduce variability in the
findings.
5. Lack of statistical rigor: Qualitative research does not typically employ statistical tests,
making it challenging to quantify and establish the statistical significance of findings.
Quantitative Research:
Strengths:
1. Generalizability: Quantitative research aims for generalizability by using larger sample
sizes and statistical techniques to draw conclusions that can be applied to a larger
population.
2. Objectivity and replicability: Quantitative research uses standardized data collection and
analysis methods, reducing the potential for researcher bias. It also allows for replication
and verification of findings.
3. Statistical analysis: Quantitative research employs statistical tests, enabling researchers to
establish relationships, test hypotheses, and measure the significance of findings.
4. Efficiency: Quantitative research can collect data from a large number of participants
relatively quickly, allowing for efficient analysis and processing of data.
5. Clear and structured reporting: Quantitative research often presents findings in a
structured and concise manner, using tables, graphs, and statistical measures to
communicate results effectively.
Weaknesses:
1. Lack of depth: Quantitative research often provides a less detailed understanding of
phenomena, as it focuses on numerical data and may overlook the context and complexity
of participants' experiences.
 2. Limited exploration of meaning: Quantitative research may not capture the rich and
nuanced meanings attributed to phenomena, as it primarily focuses on objective
measurements and statistical relationships.
3. Reductionist approach: Quantitative research often simplifies complex phenomena into
variables and numerical data, potentially overlooking important aspects that cannot be
easily quantified.
4. Limited flexibility: Quantitative research designs are often predetermined, providing less
flexibility to adapt to emerging insights or modify the research approach during data
collection.
5. Potential for response bias: Participants' responses in quantitative research may be
influenced by social desirability bias or other factors that can impact the accuracy and
reliability of the data.
24. Qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques: what are they and when to use
them?
Qualitative Data Collection Techniques:
1. Interviews: Qualitative interviews involve in-depth, open-ended conversations with
participants to gather rich, detailed information about their experiences, perspectives, and
meanings. Interviews allow for probing, clarification, and exploration of complex topics.
They are suitable when seeking in-depth insights and understanding of individuals'
perspectives and subjective experiences.
2. Focus Groups: Focus groups involve group discussions facilitated by a moderator.
Participants share their views, opinions, and experiences on a specific topic. Focus
groups promote interaction and can reveal shared experiences, group dynamics, and
diverse perspectives. They are useful for exploring group norms, social influences, or
collective experiences.
3. Observations: Qualitative observations involve systematically watching and recording
behaviors, interactions, or phenomena in natural settings. Observations can be
participant-based (the researcher actively participates) or non-participant-based (the
researcher remains an observer). Observations are valuable when studying behaviors,
social interactions, or contextual factors in real-life settings.
4. Document Analysis: Document analysis involves examining various types of written or
recorded materials, such as texts, reports, diaries, or media, to extract insights or
understand the social, cultural, or historical context. Document analysis is helpful for
studying discourse, content analysis, or analyzing existing records and artifacts.
When to use qualitative data collection techniques:
 When seeking in-depth understanding, exploring complex phenomena, or generating rich
descriptions.
  When exploring subjective experiences, perspectives, or meanings.
 When studying social, cultural, or contextual factors.
 When focusing on exploring or generating new theories or hypotheses.
 When employing an interpretive or constructivist research paradigm.
Quantitative Data Collection Techniques:
1. Surveys/Questionnaires: Surveys involve collecting standardized data through structured
questionnaires or surveys. They typically employ closed-ended questions with
predetermined response options. Surveys allow for efficient data collection from a large
sample and enable statistical analysis. They are suitable for collecting data on attitudes,
behaviors, opinions, or demographics.
2. Experiments: Experimental studies involve manipulating variables and measuring their
effects on participants in a controlled environment. They employ random assignment to
treatment and control groups to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Experiments are
useful for testing hypotheses, determining causal relationships, or evaluating
interventions.
3. Psychometric Tests: Psychometric tests are standardized instruments used to measure
psychological constructs, such as personality traits, intelligence, or mental health. These
tests employ established scales, questionnaires, or assessments to quantify participants'
characteristics.
4. Existing Data Analysis: Quantitative researchers may also analyze existing datasets, such
as public surveys, census data, or administrative records. They use statistical techniques
to analyze and interpret the data for research purposes.
When to use quantitative data collection techniques:
 When aiming for generalizability and statistical representativeness.
 When measuring and quantifying variables, relationships, or patterns.
 When testing hypotheses, establishing causal relationships, or evaluating interventions.
 When employing a positivist or post-positivist research paradigm.
 When conducting large-scale studies or surveys.

25. Sampling method (selecting sample size, valid sample, and size for data analysis)
Probability sampling methods
Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected.
It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are representative of
the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other
techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example: Simple random samplingYou want to select a simple random sample of 1000
employees of a social media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in the
company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.

2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: Systematic samplingAll employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order.
From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6
onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with
a sample of 100 people.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the list
that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and
team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over
people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on
the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be
sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample
from each subgroup.
Example: Stratified samplingThe company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees.
You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the
population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group,
selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the
clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one
of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of
error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.

Example: Cluster samplingThe company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with
roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to
every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your
clusters.

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Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every
individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias. That
means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you
should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In
these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to
develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.

1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the
researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample
is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience
samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.

Example: Convenience samplingYou are researching opinions about student support services in
your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete
a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students
taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the
students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access.
Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer
themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently
be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.

Example: Voluntary response samplingYou send out the survey to all students at your university
and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the
topic, but the people who responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about
the student support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all
students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge
about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is
very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for
inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware
of observer bias affecting your arguments.

Example: Purposive samplingYou want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with
different support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student
services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with
more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how
representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead
to sampling bias.

Example: Snowball samplingYou are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since
there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet
one person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other
homeless people that she knows in the area.

5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or proportion of
units. This is called a quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then recruit
sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by
you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who makes up
your sample.

Example: Quota samplingYou want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery service
in Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters,
vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater to
all consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary
preferences are equally represented in your research, and you can easily compare these
groups.You continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each subgroup.

26. How to develop hypotheses or themes?

There are a few steps involved in developing a hypothesis:

1. Identify the research question. The first step is to identify the research question that you
are trying to answer. The research question should be specific, focused, and answerable.
2. Review the literature. The next step is to review the literature on the topic of your
research question. This will help you to understand what is already known about the topic
and to identify any gaps in the literature.
3. Generate a hypothesis. Once you have a good understanding of the topic, you can start to
generate a hypothesis. The hypothesis should be a statement about the relationship
between two or more variables.
4. Test the hypothesis. The final step is to test the hypothesis through research. This can be
done through a variety of methods, such as experiments, surveys, or interviews.
27. What is a research model or a research framework?
A research model or research framework provides a conceptual structure or theoretical
foundation for a research study. It outlines the key concepts, variables, relationships, and
assumptions that guide the research process and help organize the study's design, data collection,
analysis, and interpretation. A research model/framework helps researchers develop a systematic
and structured approach to their study by providing a roadmap for addressing their research
questions or objectives.
A research model/framework typically includes the following components:
Research Question/Objective: The central research question or objective that the study aims to
address. It defines the purpose and focus of the research.
Theoretical Background: The theoretical background provides the theoretical foundation or
existing knowledge on which the research is built. It includes relevant theories, concepts,
frameworks, or models from existing literature that inform the study.
Concepts and Variables: The research model/framework identifies the key concepts or constructs
under investigation and the variables that represent these concepts. Concepts are abstract ideas or
phenomena, while variables are measurable indicators or operationalizations of those concepts.
Relationships and Hypotheses: The research model/framework specifies the relationships
between the variables and formulates hypotheses or expectations about the expected
relationships. It outlines the predicted patterns, associations, or influences among the variables.
Assumptions and Constraints: Assumptions refer to the underlying beliefs or conditions that
researchers make about the phenomena under study or the research process itself. Constraints
may include limitations, practical considerations, or contextual factors that influence the study.
Research Design and Methodology: The research model/framework guides the selection of
research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques that align with the research
questions and objectives. It helps determine how the variables will be measured, how the data
will be collected, and how the analysis will be conducted.
Data Analysis and Interpretation: The research model/framework provides a structure for
analyzing and interpreting the collected data. It may specify the statistical techniques, qualitative
analysis approaches, or thematic analysis methods that will be used to analyze the data and draw
conclusions.
Limitations and Scope: The research model/framework acknowledges the limitations,
delimitations, and scope of the study. It identifies potential challenges, biases, or factors that may
affect the generalizability or applicability of the findings.
28. Validity and reliability
29. What are the essential elements of an abstract? What are structured and unstructured
abstracts?
The essential elements of an abstract typically include the following components:
1. Background or Introduction: Briefly explain the context, problem statement, or research
question that the study addresses.
2. Objectives: State the main objectives or purpose of the study.
3. Methods: Provide a concise description of the research design, methodology, data
collection methods, and analysis techniques employed.
4. Results: Summarize the key findings or outcomes of the study, highlighting the most
important and relevant results.
5. Conclusion: Present the main conclusions or implications of the study, emphasizing the
significance and potential impact of the findings.
6. Keywords: Include a list of relevant keywords or phrases that capture the main topics or
themes of the research.
Structured and unstructured abstracts refer to different formats or styles of presenting the content
within an abstract:
1. Structured Abstract: A structured abstract follows a specific format with predefined
sections, typically including headings for the background, objectives, methods, results,
and conclusion. Each section is brief and organized, allowing readers to quickly locate
and understand the essential information of the study. Structured abstracts are commonly
used in scientific and academic journals.
 2. Unstructured Abstract: An unstructured abstract does not follow a specific format or
headings. Instead, it presents the key information of the study in a narrative or paragraph
form. Unstructured abstracts tend to be more flexible and allow authors to provide a
coherent summary of their research without the constraint of predetermined sections.
They are often used in conference abstracts, dissertations, or reports where specific
formatting requirements may not be imposed.

The main content of an abstract EX1:

1. Purpose
2. Design/ method/ approach
3. Findings
4. Theoretical implications (if having)
5. Practical implications
6. Orginality value.

EX2:
Abstract:
Purpose: This paper aims to explore how knowledge source and knowledge recipient influence
knowledge transfer performance through political skill and partnership quality, and in so doing to
make up for the lack of research on the political skills of knowledge sources in the process of
knowledge transfer.
Design/methodology/approach: The data was collected through questionnaires distributed by
mail. The questionnaire adopted the matching method, and the subordinates and supervisor used
the matching method to complete answers. Statistical software including LISREL 8.7, SPSS 22,
JASP.14.11, and PROCESS 3.3 were used for the data analysis. Structural equation modeling
(SEM) with LISREL 8.7 was used for a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), followed by SPSS
22 for descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. JASP.14.11 was used to perform hierarchical
regression analysis. Finally, PROCESS 3.3 was used to analyze the moderated and moderated
mediation effects.
Findings – The result presents the e the strength of the relationship between variables and
confirms the common variation relationship of each variable. There are significant correlations
between experience and receipt of useful knowledge; Partner protectiveness and receipt of useful
knowledge; Experience and trust; experience and commitment; Trust and receipt of useful
knowledge; Commitment and receipt of useful knowledge. However, partner protection and
commitment did not have a significant correlation.
Practical implications – The results generate three suggestions. Firstly, organizations need to
survive by acquiring resources in the environment. Secondly, the existing literature investigated
the impact of university, industry, government cooperation, and other enterprises on knowledge
creation and knowledge transfer of firms. Finally, individuals can transfer what they have learned
through experience to others, and with a higher degree of knowledge source experience
characteristics, they will usually perform better than those without experience.
Originality/value – This study contributes to the existing knowledge by shedding light on the
factors that influence the effectiveness of knowledge transfer and provides practical implications
for organizations seeking to improve knowledge sharing and performance outcomes.

Example 3: Unstructured abstract:

Form of abstract:
Cau 1 Optional: Có thể giới thiệu sơ lược về chủ đề chính: nó là một xu thế như thế nào trong xã
hội hiện nay
Câu 2 đọc introduction để biết được objectives của toàn bài: (phải có đối tượng: ở đâu)
=> this research aims to ….
Câu 3: Tóm tắt về sample size và giới thiệu về techniques: SEM, platforms were used to analyze
the data.
Câu 4: nói về findings: the findings are as followed: (đọc kết quả ở methodology)
Phan 5: Key words:
E-learning is regarded as a mandatory teaching and learning approach in higher education
worldwide. Despite its importance and popularity, several issues on its use and effectiveness still
remain. Universities are facing problems of low e-learning usage among students and even
academic staffs. This study investigate students’ acceptance of e-learning in university using
modified TAM model consists of six constructs namely instructor characteristics, computer self-
efficacy, course design, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and intention to use. Data
were collected with 95 undergraduate students at Tunku Abdul Rahman University College
(TARUC), Johor. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the data. Results
shown that computer self-efficacy has significantly effects ease of use, while perceived ease of
use significantly affects intention to use e-learning.

These days, modern society witnessed a significant increase in demand for fast money transfer,
with low fees; therefore, it became more popular among individuals to use E-banking services
for financial transactions. The goal of this study investigates the determinants of Internet banking
usage in the Vietnamese market, especially this paper focusing more on customers who are living
in rural areas, with a specific focus on the mediating role of trust in E-banking platforms. Also,
this study primarily aimed to provide a theoretical discussion of Electronic Banking by
integrating the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Theory of Planned Behavior Model
(TPB) and identify the factors affecting the intention to use E-Banking in Vietnam. Survey is
used in this research, and structured questionnaires will be distributed among customers who use
Internet banking provided by Vietnamese Bank. The data will be analyzed using statistical
analysis techniques with Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), employing SPSS and Smart PLS
software to determine the structural correlations among the variables and assess the mediating
effect of trust. The findings as flow:

Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a multivariate statistical analysis technique that is used to
analyze structural relationships. This technique is the combination of factor analysis and multiple
regression analysis, and it is used to analyze the structural relationship between measured
variables and latent constructs.