Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Er. Mahadev Singh Saud

Rainfall and Runoff Runoff coefficient:

• Is the ratio of surface runoff to the total rainfall on the area in the
• Precipitation is caused by external dynamic cooling of air with fixed interval of times.
moisture at higher altitude.
• The run off ;
• All water sources receive their supply of water from the
precipitation. • A)C.A. small, runoff also small.
• It is the primary sources of all water available on the earth and • B) Characteristics of catchment
includes rainfall, snow, hail and sleet. The water of precipitation • C) Intensity of rainfall
further goes off in the following ways. • D) Duration of rainfall
Runoff : The net quantity of water which flows over the surface of • E) Initial state of catchment area w. r. t. wetness.
ground when rainfall occurs.
• F) Season of rainfall.
The run-off in the rivers during storms is called flood runoff while
the run off in the rivers due to snow and seepage of underground Percolation: - A certain portion of water as it reaches on the surface
water during dry weather is known as dry weather runoff. of earth it penetrates in to the ground known as percolation
Sources of Water
• Evaporation:-some portion of precipitated eater gets evaporated from river,
lakes, wet places in the form of vapors due to sunlight.
• Transpiration:-the phenomenon of water evaporating through vegetation is
known as transpiration. The amount of runoff depends on (1) rainfall
characteristics and (2) Drainage (catchment) area characteristics.
• Aquifer: - an aquifer is a saturated bed or geologic formation which yields
water is significant quantity e.g. sand bed
• Aquitard: - is semi pervious geology formation transmitting water at a very
slow rate compared to aquifer.
• Aquiclude:- is a formation that may contain water but is incapable of
transmitting significant qualities e.g. clay bed
• Aquifuge: - is an impervious formation that neither contains nor transmits
water e.g. granite, basalt.
Unconfined aquifer: - is one in which groundwater possesses a free
surface open to the atmosphere.
Artesian aquifer :- (or Confined aquifer):- Ground water is confined
under pressure by overlaying & underlying aquitards or aquiclude
Sources of water
Sub-Surface Sources(Ground Sources)
• As G/W is not exposed to atmosphere it may be free from direct
contamination and pollution from run-off.
• The occurrence of groundwater and its transmission largely
depends on the type of water bearing formation and the geological
characteristics of the region.
• Polluted water from agricultural areas that percolate to the
groundwater can contains herbicides, pesticides and nutrients/
14 February 2022
Sources of water
Sub-Surface Sources(Ground Sources)
• The water which is available below the ground surface is termed
as ground water.
• The ground water reservoir consists of water held in voids with in
a geological stratum.
• The surface of the groundwater exposed to atmospheric pressure
beneath the ground surface is known as water table.
• The quality of groundwater is generally good due to natural
filtration as it percolates then infiltration to deeper strata.
Sources of water
Sub-Major types of geological formation are follows.
1. Aquifer
• An aquifer is a geological formation that contains sufficient
permeable material which permits storage as well as transmission of
water.
• Thus an aquifer contains saturated material which will yield
significant quantities of water to springs and wells
• Unconsolidated sands and gravels are the examples of the
formations which serve as aquifers. There are two types of aquifers
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Sources of water Sources of water

Sub-Major types of geological formation are follows.
A. Unconfined Aquifer
• An unconfined aquifer is one in which water table forms the upper
surface of the zone of saturation.
B. Confined Aquifer
• A confined aquifer is the one which groundwater is confined under
pressure greater than atmospheric pressure by overlaying relatively
Sub-Major types of geological formation are follows.
2. Aquiclude
• Geological formation of relatively impermeable material which
permits storage of water bit is not capable of transmitting water in
sufficient quantity. Clay is an example of such a formation.
3. Aquifuge
• An aquifuge is defined as a geological formation of relatively
impermeable material which neither contains nor transmits water.
Solid granite belongs to this category of formation.

Waste water reclamation

Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Sources of Water
Surface sources Well
Underground sources / sub-surface/ ground sources
a. Open/ dug well
1. Surface sources: - 2. Underground Sources/ sub-surface/
i. Shallow
• Streams ground sources: -
ii. Deep
A. Springs :
• Rivers b. Driven well
a. Gravity spring :
• Lakes c. Tube well
i. Depression spring
• Ponds i. Strainer type
ii. Surface/ contact spring
• Impounded reservoir ii. Cavity type
iii. Artesian spring
• Sea iii. Slotted type
b. Non-gravity spring
• Stored rain water iv. Perforated type
B. Infiltration galleries
d. Infiltration well
• Waste water reclamation C. Porous pipe galleries
e. Artesian well
D. Wells :

Streams
• Streams are formed by surface runoff. Small streams are not suitable for water
supply scheme in large cities. Hence streams are widely used for rural water
supply schemes especially in highly areas. But larger and perennial types of
streams are used for sources of water in small cities by providing storage
reservoirs, barrage etc across them.
• The quality of water from stream is not so good hence need some
sedimentation and chemical treatments (in some extend) are needed.
• Natural channels which carry surface run-off
• found in mountainous region
• quantity of water is variable with season
• quality is generally good at its origin
• quality deteriorates as it flows through the plain areas.(sand, silt, clay, organic
matter etc)
• can be used as a source by storing stream water during high flow period
• necessary to analyze the water quality before use
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Rivers
• Natural channels formed by combining various number of streams
and springs
• they are found in hilly region
• quantity of water is high
• quality of water is good at its origin but deteriorates as it travels
towards the plain
• Rivers water is not pure.
• It contains dissolved, suspended & colloidal impurities including
many pathogens while sewage is discharge into it.
• But river water has self-purification action by which it automatically
becomes clean after traveling certain distance.

River
• Generally river water is contaminated hence need screening,
sedimentation , filtration and chlorination.

There are two types of river:

a. Perennial rivers (snow melt rivers)
• Water available whole seasons
b. Non perennial river/Intermittent rivers
• flow available only during the rainy seasons
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

LAKE

Lakes :
• In mountains and sometimes in plain Terai also natural depressed basins
(large water bodies) are formed. Rain water, stream water and spring
waters are also get collected at these besins.
• Large basins are used for water supply in big cities but in small basins the
quantity of water is inadequate hence can be used only for small cities or
town.
• The quantity of water in lake depends upon the basins capacity, catchment
area porosity of ground annual rainfall etc.
• The quantity of water in lake is comparatively more pure and doesn’t
require treatment when situated at high altitude.
Quantity: Enough quantity is available depends on:
• Size of the Lake Source:-
• Catchments area  Rainfall, melting of snow
• Geological conditions  Ground water seepage
• Annual rainfall  Streams, river flow etc.
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Ponds:
• Lakes are formed in hilly areas; like wise ponds are formed on plain areas
where rainwater is collected in rainy seasons.
• The quantity of water in pond is generally very small and contains large
amount of impurities.
• Hence pond water cannot be used for water supply scheme but used for
washing clothes animal bathing gardening purposes etc

 small depressions
 quantity of water is less
 quality of water is not good
 can be used for washing of cloths, bathing line stocks.
 not suitable as a source of water supply

Impounded reservoirs:
• An artificial and man made storage reservoir or lake created by
constructing dam/bund/weir, barrage that flows in the river during
high low period for use , dry weather or low flow period.
• The quality of water depends upon quality of river and stream.
• There are two types of reservoir
a. Single purpose reservoir:- used as only one purpose
b. Multiple purpose:- used for more than one purposes such
as water supply, irrigation, hydropower

Capacity of impounded Reservoir = Maximum cumulative

surplus
+ Maximum cumulative deficit – Total
inflow + Total
Demand
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

month Inflow Inflow Deman Cumulativ Cumulativ Cumulativ Cumulative

Q1. The city has an average water demand of 6202 million liters per months.
d e inflow e Demand e Surplus Deficit
Calculate the capacity of impounded reservoir. The flow in the river shown
below
month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct No Dec
v

Inflow 2.97 1.99 1.00 0.00 0.51 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.0 5.0 4.0 2.8 m^3/s)
( ML ML ML ML ML ML
(m^3/s) 0 0 0 0
Soln: Jan (31) 2.97 =2.97*24*60*60*31*1000/1 6202 7954.848 6202 7954.848-
Water Demand = 6202 ML/Month 0^6 6202=
= 7954.848 1752.848

7954.848+4814.2
Feb (28) 1.99 1.99*86400*28/1000= 6202 6202+620 365.056
08 =
4814.208 2=12404
12769.056

Mar 1.00 1.00*86400*31/1000=2678.4 6202 15447.456 18606 3158.544

(31) 00

mont Inflow Inflow Deman Cumulative Cumulativ Cumulativ Cumulativ mont Inflow Inflow Deman Cumulative Cumulativ Cumulativ Cumulative
h d inflow e Demand e Surplus e Deficit h d inflow e Demand e Surplus Deficit

m^3/s)
( ML ML ML ML ML ML
Jan 2.97 =2.97*24*60*60*31*1000/10^6=
7954.848
Feb 1.99 =1.99*86400*28/1000=
4814.208 m^3/s)
( ML ML ML ML ML ML
Mar 1.00 =1.00*86400*31/1000=
2678.400
Apr 0.00 0
Jan 2.97 =2.97*24*60*60*31*1000/10^6=7 6202 7954.848 6202 1752.848
May 0.51 =0.51*86400*31/1000= 954.848
1365.984
Jun 1.00 =1.00*86400*30/1000=2592.
000 Feb 1.99 =1.99*86400*28/1000= 6202 4814.208+7954. =6202+62 365.056
4814.208 848=12769.056
Jul 2.00 2.00*86400*31/1000=5356.80 02=12404
0
Aug 3.00 3*86400*31/1000=8035.200
Sep 4.00 4*86400*30/1000=10368.000
Oct 5.00 5*86400*31/1000=13392.000
2678.4+12769.05
Mar 1.00 =1.00*86400*31/1000= 6202 18606 3158.544
Nov 4.00 4*86400*30/1000=10368.000 6= 15447.456
2678.400
Dec
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Capacity of impounded Reservoir = Maximum cumulative surplus Q2.The yield of water from the catchment area during each successive
+ Maximum cumulative deficit – month is given below
Total inflow + Total Demand Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Capacity of impounded Reservoir = 1752.848+ 18651.76-74424.96+74424
= 20403.6 ML Inflow 1.5 2.0 2.5 5.0 6.0 8.2 9.0 7.5 5.0 3.5 3.1 2.0
(Mm3)

Determine analytically the storage capacity required of impounded

reservoir to maintain a constant draft of 4.4 million m3 of water per
month (Ans. 11.8Mm^3)

Stored rain water: Ground Sources : SPRING

• Rain water harvesting can be used in areas where other source
of water is not available.
• The natural outflow of ground water at the earth’s surface
constitutes a spring.
• A spring indicates outcropping of water table.
• Pervious layer sandwitched between two impervious layers give
rise to a natural spring.
• The quantity of water from spring is generally low; hence it
couldn’t provide sufficient quantity of water for big cities.
• Certain springs sometimes discharges hot water due to the
presence of sulphur in them called hot springs.
• Spring may be classified into
a. Those resulting from gravitational forces
b. Those resulting from non-gravitational
forces
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Gravity Spring: Depression, Contact & Artesian a. Depression Spring:

a. Depression Spring:

• Are formed due to overflowing of the water table, where the

ground surface intersect the water table

• when the ground water table rises high it gets exposed to the
surface where the topography falls below the water table.

• Since the level of water table varies from seasons to seasons,

flow through such springs also varies.

Trench

b. Contact Spring or Surface Spring c. Artesian Spring

• Sometimes
impervious • In this type the underground water comes to the surface under
obstructions
supporting the pressure (hydraulic)
underground storage
becomes inclined
causing rises to water • i.e. water flow through some confined aquifer.
table and gets
exposed to the ground • Since water comes out under pressure, they are provide higher
surface.
• Generally the quality yield and able to provide almost uniform quantity of water.
of water through
spring is pure and • The flow may be slightly increased by the removal of
need not any treatment
plant. But sometimes obstruction from the mouth
present iron and
manganese.
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

B. Non- Gravity Spring

• Non gravity springs are formed due to the volcanic eruption
or earth quake
• These are usually thermal spring (more temperature than
normal local ground water)
• Water of thermal springs are usually highly mineralized and
often contain sulphur.
P • In general springs are capable of supplying small quantity of water
I • Spring are used as water sources in the hilly rural water supply of
P Nepal
• Most of spring located in the mountainous region of Nepal have
I very good quality of water which can be supplied for drinking
purpose without any treatment

Well: 1. Open or Dug well (a) Shallow well

2. Tube Well
• Rests on the top water bearing strata and draw their supplies from
Open wells: surrounding material.
• Wells which have comparatively large diameters but low yields
and are not very deep • Yield is not constant, varies with variation in water table
• top of the well is left open • Shallow wells constructed in series along the bank of river to
• diameter of well is large collect the water seeping through the banks of river.
• diameter = 1 to 10m • Quantity: - since water obtained from the uppermost layer, they
provide only limited quantity of water.
• depth = 2 to 20m
• Wall of well has constructed in brick, stone masonry, precast • Quality: - since shallow wells draw water from the topmost water
concrete rings bearing stratum, its water is liable to contaminated by the rain
water.
• Thickness = 0.5-0.75m
Types : a. Shallow open well • Shallow wells sometimes also called gravity wells because the
surface of water surrounding the wells is at atmospheric Pressure.
b. Deep open well
• Up to depth 7m and soil is compacted type no need of lining.
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Well: Shallow and Deep Well

(b) Deep well
• Those which rest on impervious strata and draw their supplies
from the permeable formation lying below the impervious strata
(mota Layer formed by layer of clay, cemented sand, kanker or
other hard material ) through bore holes made in the impervious
strata.
• More than one water bearing layers are tapped in order to get
more reliable supplies of water
• Quantity of water is more
Quality:-Deep water is safe and does not require any treatment
sometimes needed hardness treatment.

Well may also classified as a. Gravity well b. Pressure well Artesian Well
a. Gravity well:
• it is a well one in which the surface of the water in the aquifer outside
and surrounding the well is at atmospheric pressure.
• the water flows under gravity into the well and rises to the height of
saturated material surrounding it.
b. Pressure well / Artesian Well:
• The aquifer is confined between two overlying impermeable strata so
that water flow under pressure into the well.
• Mostly located in the valley of the mountainous region.
• The HGL is normally above the top of well exerting pressure higher than
atmospheric pressure.
• If pressure may be so great that the water rises from the ground surface
and flows from the well. This type of artesian well is known as flowing
well.
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Artesian Well Tube Well

• Major steps involved in the design of tubewells
are:
• (i) selection of suitable size of the well and
casing;
• (ii) length and location of the screen, including
slot size and shape, and percentage of opening;
• (iii) selection of casing and screen material, and
P • (iv) design of gravel pack (if gravel pack is
necessary)
I
P
I
Confining Layers / Aquifuge

a. Strainer Type Tube Well: Strainer Type

• It is the most common and widely used type of tube well in which the
combination of strainer pipes and blind pipes is introduced into the
ground.
• The pipes are so adjusted that the strainer type pipe rest on the water
bearing strata and blind pipe on the impervious strata.
• The strainer consists of a fine wire mess (or screen) wrapped round a
slotted or perforated pipe with a small angular space between the two.
• The water enters the pipe through the wire mess and hence the sand
particles having size less than the mesh openings are prevented from
entering.
• The strainer type tube well is generally unsuitable for very fine sandy
strata due to the chances of chocking of the strainer.
• The diameter of bore hole or casing pipe for a strainer type tube well is
generally kept 50 to 100 mm more than the diameter of tubewell. After
the casing pipe is removed the annular space between the well and
surrounding strata is backfilled with gravel.
Sources of Water
B) Cavity type Tube well:
• It consists of a pipe sunk into the ground and
resting on the bottom of a strong clay layer.
• It does not utilities strainers and hence it
draws its supplies from the bottom and not
from the sides as in the case of strainer type.
• In the initial stage of pumping fine sands
comes out with water and consequently a
cavity is formed at the bottom.
• The water from the aquifer enters into the
well through this cavity. As the pumping is
continued the spherical area of the cavity
increases outward with the result that the
velocity of flow is reduced and consequently
the sand particles stop entering in to the
tube.
D) Perforated type Tube well:
• It is used if water
table is shallow and
for obtaining water
for temporarily.
• Pipes are drilled to
make perforations
and these holes are
covered by jute
ropes or wires which
act as strainer for
preventing the flow
of sand particles.
14 February 2022
C) Slotted type Tube well:
• It consists of a pipe which is slotted for part
of its length at one end and for the rest of
the length it is plain pipe.
• The slotted portion of pipe is normally 5 m
long and it penetrates the confined aquifer.
• These slots are usually 25 to 30 mm and
spacing is around 10 to 12 mm.
• To prevent the entering of sand particles it
is surrounded by a mixture of gravel and
coarse sand (called shrouding).
• Shrouding should done before the
withdrawal of casing pipe and shrouding
must extend upto 3 to 4 m above the top
level of slotted portion of pipe.
• The diameter of casing pipe is kept 200 to
250 mm more than the diameter of well
pipe.
Tube Well Design
a. Diameter of Well
• Design Discharge(Q) = 4.0 to 50 l/sec
i)Critical velocity of entrance of water through the strainer openings
normally 0.5-2m/sec
ii) Effective area of strainer =Length * diameter
iii) Velocity of rise in the pipe =0.6-1.2m/sec
iv) Allowable draw down arrived (v)=1.5 to 4.5 m/sec
• Cross-sectional area of Tubewell (A) = Q/v Where,
S= Drawdown at the well = H-h
• Diameter of Tube Well (d)= = (50-400)mm R= Radious of Influence (300m
Empirical Method: usually)
r = radious of tube well
Using Dupuit Formula (For Unconfined Aquifer)
S H= Height of the initial piezometric
Q=2.73kH surface measured above the impervious
log10( r )
area.
k= coefficient of permeability (m/s)
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Tube Well Design….

• Empirical Method: For confined
Aquifer (Thiem Formula)
. .
• Q= =
log10(r log10(r
w w
Where; k= Darcy’s coefficient of
permeability
r= radious of the well
R= radious of Influence
s= Drawdown at the well = H-h
H= Thickness of the aquifer, measured
from initial water level
h= depth of water in the well
b= thickness of confined aquifer

Tube Well Design…. Tube Well Design….

b. Well depth: • D10<0.25mm and uniformity coefficient (Cu)<3, artificial gravel pack
• Depth of well and number of aquifer can be depends on lithological area • D30 of gravel Pack =4-6 times D10 aquifer material.
and can be determine drilling • Slot Size= D10 of gravel pack and width of Slot = 1.5-4mm
c. Design of Well Screen: • Length of Slot = 5-12.5 cm
• Homogeneous confined aquifer: 70-80% total aquifer thickness.
• Non-homogeneous confined and unconfined aquifer: screen for the most
permeable strata
• homogenous unconfined aquifer: at bottom
• Slot Size for naturally formed well: 40-70% of the size of the formation
material
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Yield Q
• Entrance Velocity (ve)= =
Where, Q= Yield
p= % of open area of the strainer
𝜑 = diameter of strainer
ve = entrance velocity
L= length of strainer
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Q. Design a tube well for the following data:
• Yield required = 0.10 m3/s
• Radius of Circle of influence = 200m
• Coefficient of permeability = 65 m/day
• Drawdown = 6.5 m
• Thickness of Confined aquifer = 25 m
Q. Design a tube well for the following data:
• Yield required = 0.10 m3/s
• Radius of Circle of influence = 200m
• Coefficient of permeability = 65 m/day
• Drawdown = 6.5 m
• Thickness of Confined aquifer = 25 m

Infiltration Gallery
• Are horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnels constructed at shallow depths (3-
5m) along the bank of river through water bearing strata.
• They are also called horizontal wells.
• These tunnels are generally constructed of stone or brick masonry.
• Their shape is generally circular or rectangular and they are covered by graded
sand and gravel.
• Water enters into it through drain porous pipes.
• Constructed near the bank of a perennial river.
• depth 3 to 10m below the ground
• discharge = 1500 to 7000 m3/day per 100m of gallery length
• The galleries are laid at some longitudinal slope so that water collected into the
galleries under force of gravity.
• After coming from galleries it is collected into the sump well, from where it is
pumped, treated and distributed to the consumer
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Infiltration Gallery Infiltration Well

• Worked as same principle as infiltration
gallery
• It are the shallow wells constructed in
series along the bank of river to collect the
water seeping through the banks of the
river.
• The wells are closed at top and open at
bottom as in figure.
• For the purpose of inspection in the top
cover of the well.
• Various infiltration well are connected by
porous pipes to collecting sump well also
known as jack well.
• The water collected in the infiltration
wells flows by gravity into the jack well.

Selection of Water Sources Location

• Which is as near as possible to the locality/city (supply near area). It wills similar
conveying cost.
Factor affecting water source selection: Quality of water
1. Location • water quality should be good (wholesome)
2. Quality of water • should have minimum no of impurities
• Save treatment cost.
3. Quantity of water • Ground water is better than surface water.
4. Cost Quantity of water
• most reliable source which can guarantee adequate supply even in critical period.
5. Purpose to be used • should be to fulfill water demand (current + future)
6. Sustainable and safe Cost
• Cost depends on
7. Reliable
• system of water supply either gravity flow or pumping system
8. Non conflict among water user. • ground levels of city
• Distance between source and supply area.
• over cost should be as economical as possible
• investment on water supply scheme should be recovered within the design period of the
scheme (20 to 30 years)
Sources of Water 14 February 2022

Other issues like water right problem due to current uses:

• Problem created over water between the users is generally
known as water right problem. Sometime consumers fight
with each other for water to make own.

Ground Recharge
Sources of Water 14 February 2022
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Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) Ground Water Recovery

• Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) is a water resources management
technique for actively storing water underground during wet periods for
recovery when needed, usually during dry periods.
• The timeframe can range from months to decades. Intentional aquifer
storage, with the intent of using the water later, has been used for
hundreds of years, but is being further developed and refined as demand
for fresh water threatens to exceed supply in California and many other
parts of the world.
• "Conjunctive use" and "artificial recharge" are closely related water
resource management practices, and the terms are sometimes used
interchangeably.
Sources of Water
Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR)
• Conjunctive use is a combination of management practices intended
to make the best use of surface water during wet periods and ground
water during dry periods, but does not necessarily imply the active
water storage activities used in ASR.
• Artificial recharge (AR) is focused on actively moving water from the
surface into ground water systems.
• AR can be seen at as the storage part of aquifer storage and recovery.
• More than 100 ASR facilities are in operation worldwide.
• Many states have ASR sites ranging from pilot projects to full
operations.
14 February 2022
• Aquifer storage and recovery, artificial recharge, and related water
management practices are evolving rapidly to help meet present and
future demands for high quality water. There is great potential for ASR,
used in conjunction with other water management techniques, to make
more efficient use of existing water resources and to reuse more water
now discarded after a single use.
• To be effective, increasingly intensive management of water resources
requires more a greater knowledge and understanding of the hydrologic
and geologic characteristics of formations used for water storage. Much
of the water used in ASR operations will be used for public water
supply.
• Meeting drinking water standards and the aesthetic expectations of
water users requires that water managers evaluate both the quality of
recharge waters and the contaminant conditions of the receiving
aquifers.