15.1 MEANING AND CONCEPT Variability, in both time and space, is an inherent feature of climate, as the atmosphere is always in the state of turmoil and instability leading to variations in weather and climatic conditions. The climatic change, thus, is defined as variations and shifts in weather conditions over space and time of different scales and magnitude resulting into change of climatic type for example, from warm and moist climate to warm and dry climate, from warm and moist climate to cool and moist climate (as happened during Carboniferous Period in India) etc. Infact, climatic change refers todrastic or secular changes in heat balance of the earth-atmosphere system, moisture, cloudiness and precipitation caused by either external factors such as variations in orbital characteristics of the earth, solar variability (fluctuations in radiation from the photosphere of the sun), tectonic proc- ses (mainly plate tectonics and displacement of continents and ocean basins), vulcanicity, changes in atmospheric composition in terms of concentra- tion of atmospheric aerosols and carbon dioxide contents etc. or by internal factors such as exchanges of energy between the atmosphere, hydrosphere. lithosphere and cryosphere (ice cov- cred surfaces of both lithosphere and hydrosphere) or by both, at local, regional and global levels. The climochronology (history of palaeoclimates) re- veals the fact that climates have changéd in the geological past and hence it is opined that ‘the world’s climates have changed in the past, are changing now, and there is every reason to expect that they will change in future’ (J.E. Hobbs, 1980). Ifthe change is law of nature. the change in climatesisa reality because the climate of a region is not fixed and static rather it goes on changing. Some times, the changes are cyclic and rhythmi such change is called climatic cycle. It may be mentioned that James Hutton (a Scottish geolo- gist) while propounding the concept of uniformitarianism, postulated the concept of cyclic nature of earth's history. The example of occurrences of ice ages during (1) pre-Cambrian period (850-600 million years before present, mbp,- = million years before present), (2) Ordovician period (450-430 mbp), (3) Carboniferous—Permian periods (300 mbp); and (4) Pleistocene period (2-3 mbp) validates the concept of cycle nature of cllmatle changes.wo ‘The climatic changes are supposed 10 be quick and rapid rather than slow and gradual but hic may nok be always tue as climate changes froth gradually ane rapidly par and drastically For example, the climatic change, which oeeuted during Jurassic peri leading 10 mass extinstion ot dinasaurs duc to sudden onset of eld climate, twas rapid and instantaneous. tn fact. the rate of Climatic changes depends on the nature of causal factors. The rapid Jurassic climatic change is ‘elated to sudden collision ofthe earth and a giant rmeieors and consequent release of enormous ‘Amount of dusts in the atmosphere, One cannot inferthe nature of long-period climate on the basis ‘of present-day climatic conditions, It is also an ‘observed fact that the ‘cool periods of carth history are periods of greater than normal climatic instability" (FE. Hobbs, 1980), Thehuman society withpresent-y weather conditions is seized with the problems possible climatic changes in near future, The moss gm «ant global environmental problem faced by the world community is global environmental changes (GEC) leading 10 probable climatic. changes consequent upon global warsning resulting froma host of causal factors, namely ozone depletion, increase in the emission of green house gases at alarming rate, deforesiation et. The probable net result of global warming would be climatic changes at loca, regional, and globe levels, The international communities are scated of eata- strophic adverse elfects of future climatic changes on different spheres of man and nature, e.g deglaciation and sea level changes, submer- sence of island nations and major coastal low. lands, atmospheric dynamics including evapora- tion and precipitation. global radiation balance. photosynthesis and ecological productivity, plant andanimal communities, human health and many sore. Ltsay be sursmarized that limaticchangeis reality, thas changedin the pas, it ischanging at ‘he pestent and itwillcbangedn future. The change ‘ol climate may be slow and gradual, cpid and caasixophic, periadic, semi-periodic or non-peri- 44, shor-term or Long-terta, may bo at local, swiovalaod global scales at may be due to autual tectors or amthropogeaic factors. It ic, thus, seemaney Wo discuss various aspects of climatic 8 ‘cumnrencey changes. namely scales of climatic changes ‘pats ind temporal scales) ntcnors of shanges (je. evidences of climatic chanyest Feconsiuction of palaccoimates (cimectronolegsy aus of climatic changes, theories of cise: ‘hanges. and effects of climatic changes on hoy, ‘ature and biological communities in human beings 15.2 SCALE DIMENSION lading, ‘The climatic variations and changes are viewed in terms of temporal and spatial scales epending on the purpose of studies. The temperal scales of climatic changes range from a very rieto-seale involving 10-day period to macro. temporal sale involving thousands to millions of years. "The variability may be periodic (A), quasi- Periodic (BI, or non-periodic (C). or alternatively it may show a progressive trend’ (Barry and Chorley, 2002). It may be mentioned that spatial and temporal scales of climatic changes are corelaied ¢.g, a5 the temporal scale of change becomes shorter, the areaalso becomes smaller. In ‘ther words, the changes may be more percepliblc 4nd pronounced in localized area during short period of recorded climatic data, but if we Somsider clittatic data at regional level involving lage countries or continents, and at global level, the local level changes are overshadowed. Thus, the climatic changes may be viewed in terms of three tempara) scales, namely (i) macro-terapocal ‘scale (millions of years), i) meso-temporal scale (thousands of years), and (i i) micro-temporal scale (hundreds of years). These three temporal scales ‘cortespond to global, regional, and local spatial Scales. AL regional and local spatial scales the climatic variability can be looked upon at even shorter temporal scales which may range from very micro-temporal scale to increasing time span e.g. (1) 10 days time scale, (e) 10-100 days time scale, (3) 100-1000 days time scale, (4) 1000-10000 days time scale ete. it may the remembered that such changes “may be detected only if the inswwumented Gata are YoY accurate and regular. The climate changes wie? ‘ocourred in the past, say sbefore the indussr! revolution, cannot be viewed ia sch a muro teraporal scales.nttps://telegram.mes Ursu_civnos CUMATIC CANOE ery line cane sca ave trdves, tyamnars agen sat jittreranegs thrvanm dose abt wrStraccensteaton cfc aa {iincofnccariemosnberynen tear cc Seewe ty eet wh ce sical tele tae oe ea sotrcon we Goce ot fon See Stange oe ote hice al cocci e way fo cd oo See by satreyortan fosur. Goh oe Sai, \cagoeet time Saag ous to mallu of poet oat ae Sactany tow. Tho SOR CoG snl es 153 INDICATORS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES. ‘The evidences of climatic changes in the pest.which are utilized in the reconsiructon ot Simoctrosology (history of palaeoclimates) are talled indicators of past climatic changes. The fdsle of reconstraction of palacoclimates is @ fascinating puzzle, the soltion of which basicaly depends on proxy data which include alternative soficer of data as rubstutes for real data) aye Ingcal deductions by the investigator. I may Be pentoned that recorded data of weather and Chinas are available only since industria revole= Ton more precisely forthe last }00yearsorso,and hence proxy data for recorded data are the oy indicntors to decipher the pages of past climatic istry and changes on the basis of Huttonisn theory of uniformitiarianism (postulated By Scot tah geopin, James Huon inthe year 1785)-This theory was based on two concepts of Hutton, sumely () ‘present is key t0 the past’, and (i) ‘99 rete of x beginning, uo prospect of an end.” THe Prncipl of uniformitarinism states that thesame Pnial processes and laws that operate today. ‘sperated hvoughout geological tine, olthough ot ‘ecetsrilyalaye with he rame intent 0:20 ‘Tuton postulaied same intensity of processes: ‘toughout geological time). The indicarncs (clues): of paiseoclimates oe lasted on the basis of basic SOUreEE AE Yotlows o ut (1) Biological Indteatory (A) Plorat ndteators ) fossil remains of plants ii) fossitined pollens Gil) onygen isotopes tree ring growth (Gendrochronology)) {B) Puunal indicators (evidences) (fossilized animal remsins Gi) distribution and dispersels of svi- vals (2) Geological Indicators (A). Terrigeneous ancient deposits () nomsicine deposits (vaeves) "Gi alles and glaciation (ii) ive sheets and ice cores (B) Periglacial evidences (4) Tectonle Indicators (A) Plate tectonics (@) pole wandering. and continental esift (ii) palacornagnetism and sex floor spreading (B) Sentevel changes (5) Geomorphological Indicators (A) Morphotogteat fntures (erates (i) sand donee iy iverteracesMLUps:/ /LeIeg ram. Me / UPL 2 Go) duricrusts ()_pediments Gv) tors (8) Geomorphologicsl processes (6) Historical Records (@) Mood records i), drought records (iil) migration of man and animals 1, Biological indleators ‘The fossilized organic remains of plants and animals (Le. organic residues) providesignifi- cant evidences and proxy data for comtemporary climatic conditions mainly temperatures and moisture. It may be mentioned that the natare and types of organisms and their habitats are deter- mined by a climatic type. After their deaths the plants ang animals are preserves in the forms of fossilized organic remains in the contemporary and subsequent geologicel formations. The analy sis of such organic fossils through the application of proper techniques (e.g. carbon dating, oxygen isotope analysis, pollen analysis, dendrochronology etc.) reveals important clues 1 decipher contem- porary past climates, The biological indicators all under two broad categories e.g. (1) plant floral) indicators, and (2) animal indicators. (faunal indicators) (1) Plant (Nora) Indicators Presently, there is very close correspond ‘ence between the distribution of climate types and vegetation types. Based on the principle of tuniformitarianism, as stated above, and the con- cept of ‘present iskey tothe pust'it may be opined that similar relationships and conditions might have prevailed throughout geological history of the earth. Thus, on the basis of fossilized plant remains, the vegetation type is inferred and such inferred information (proxy dats) provide clue to determine the nature of climate, For example, the existence of coals having remains. of tropical focests, inthe north-westEurope and Great Britain remind us hot and huroid climate of these aces uring Jurassic period. The plaat physiology gives sufficient information about climatic conditions. GIVIDETVICEHOOKS: CLmenroLooy For example, the fossil remains of plant havi Jong roots, thick barks, waxy leaves, thorns, heat aves ele indicate warm and dry climate (vane desert climate), while plants having drip leaves ate indicators of warm and very mots conditoss {tropical rainforest climate). Now question arises why plant physiology indicates a paricalar climate? The answer is simple, the physiological characteristics of plants arc indicative of ther adaptation to particular type of climatic condi. tions, A few more examples may be cited. The ‘vegetation community baving sclerophyllouschar. acteristics (stiff and hard leaves and stems with thick barks) can withstand extreme aridity of summer season, The plant remains of such sclerophyliows vegetation in ‘and sot winter climate (Medi imate). The ctyophyle vegetations are. well ‘adapted (o severe cold conditions as they develop Such unique features which enable them to Wwithstatd extreme cold conditions. Thes, the {fossil remains of cryophyte plants indicate cold ‘climate conditions (tundra climate). “The remains of vegetation in the thick coal seams of Cathoniferous period. worldover are felaied to horseiails and club mosses which devalop in marsh and swamp environment. The fossil remeins of tees in Carboniterous coal Seams do not indicate annul ring growth which evel he Fit that such tees thrived in warm and moist climate with no appreciable seasonal contrasts Pollen Analysis _ The pollen analysis involves the inference atic conditions on the basis of dating of ed pollen grains preserved in the inorganic sedimens layers, t may be mentioned that pollen sof lowering plants are very dursble orgaoic substances which are duly preserved by the nature ‘The pollen grains are distributed by wind in wide areas having similar type of vegetation. The science of palynology, which is the study of polle® grains and spores of plants, helps in identifying the types of vegetation on the basis of pollet ‘rains, and the vegetation types give clues fo deciphering the climate in which that veget00? type might have developed. The pollea saalys*https:/ /teley cumtanec CHANCE involves the identification of layered gequence of nous sediments, the ch layer, determina ‘of eech ayer and finally the Ss rane ‘ee of each type (fig. 15.1). Fig. 1S. depicts Jahon unite celaigse vate Ha RST pollen grains preserved in lacustrine deposits of ower. middle and upper layers denote domidance Presentation of simplified method of pollen Fig. 15.1 (Oliver and J. Hindore, 2003 It may be remembered that pollens of flowers of plants are blown away by winds, they tettle down on land surface as well a5 water surfaces of lakes, ponds etc. Thepollensdeposited on land surfaces may decay after lapse of time but polien grains falling on water surfaces sink down and are deposited in the layers of sediments. The pollens so fossilized in different sedimentary layers are identified and their plant species are ‘etermined, The identification of plant species on the basis of their pollen grains then helps in ‘determining the climatic conditions on the basis of Wesest relationship between plant types and ‘ocinted climatic conditions. ram.me/ UPSLCivilServiceBooks us {bine the lower layer, prevalence of pine an botice inthe mide Iyer nod on beoch Aptie species of ees in the upper ayer under the otdern plat covers. On the Bass of the principle ‘funiforataranisn, the lower and middie layers having pollen grains of pine and spruce indicate ool climate while the upper layer containing \pollengrains ofoak,beechand spruceticeseveals ‘heprevalence of warm and mot climate Ae . — 10. ae Merde ] Insite of wide sae of pollen analysis technique in determining vegetation types and associated climatic conditions this method suffers from te fllowing shortcomings. (i) Tn the cate of mixed yegetation arca having several plant species, the pollen grains are mixed. and in such cltcumstances it becomes 4iffealt to separate pollen grains of dominant and co-dominant plant species and hence this technique fails to give desirable result {i) The windscan carry thepallen gains and depositthem in distant places away fom theareat tation of which the pollens have beennttps://telegr a ‘({id) Not all the pollens of vegetation of a region are deposited, rather they are deposited TRhectvely and randomly, and hence they may not tr eaken as representatives of particular vegetation ‘ype iy) The distribution of vegetation has been tempered and modified by human actions, both fadvertent and inadvertent and hence pollen nalysis would not be useful for the reconstruction ‘ofclimates of recent past mainly since the neolithic (9) "A vegetation cover only attains matu- rity after fairly a lengthy period of time, and itis quite feasible that the vegetation established through pollen analysis represents successional stage that is not totally representative of the prevailing climate’ (Oliver and Hidore, 2003). Dendrochronology Dendrochronology is the science that deals with “the study of the annual rings of trees in determining the dates and chronological orders of past climatic events’. Thering growth ofthe trunk and stcm of a tree provides significant clues for detecting seasonal raythms of climate during the life time of the concerned tree. The thickness and spacing, and colour of growth rings indicate the climatic conditions and rate of annual grow of Luce. The widely spaced thickgroth ringsdenote ‘warm and moist climate ficient rainfall to support luxurious and quick Pipwth of trees, while narrow and closely spaced tree growth rings denote arid climate and poor growth of tres. The colours of growth rings also denote seasonal weather conditions. ‘The abrupt change from ‘coloured ings (growth rings) delineates the annual increments of growth" (Oliver and Hidore, 2003). Kimay be mentioged thatthe study and interpreta- tion of different aspects of tee rings such as, the ‘size (thick or narrow), number, colour shades, symmetry or asymmetry elc. provide information ‘bout climatic and environmental variations sus- (ained by the concerned wee duringits life time and hhonce the climatic events which happened in the recent past, say 3000-4000 yeurs before present may be reconstructed on the basis of endrochronological characteristics. m.me/UPSC_CivilServiceBooks Comat ‘The study of tee ring Erowh, known dendrochronology, was initiated by A.B. tn and bis tm athe University of avizone Cl After the analysis of growth rings of wees southwestern USA he Tound close remme Teween annual amount of rainfall and ps ngs inte adverse climatic condition of he's 'W, United Sates. The sientits have. becase successful in reontiructng the climatic conay ions and environmental changes forthe st 300) Years on te Bais of analysis of growth rng of Fving res and forthe ast S000 yearsom he bas of fosils of dead tees, The sient at Labor tary of Tree Ring Research, University of ‘Atzana, USA, have also derived logical and Fra inferences about the relationship between weather elements e.g temperate ai pressare, thd atmosphere circulation patterns) and wid ted spacing ote igs. Such relationships have tbo been ted t0 demonstrate climatic Noctua tome whightok place during ee fie of res, Detdistnohology also helps in recon ssucting the vances 0d retreats OF glaciers in the reget pat oh he basis of shapes of wee Jzowthingsikecanconriccaymmerrcal grows Fes or taymnetal pgs, Te may be semen ‘bered that growth rings become concentric and ‘yminetot ae lng the ers remain perfectly orect iy 1 the ground surface) bn ‘become asymmetrical when the trees are tilted. It isarguedital eesareceet when the glacial eis ‘ey trom th pion of ees ut they are ied whenicecomesclosetothe eee. Ths, estes 2nd result concentric and syrametical growth figs. ae indicative of withdrawal or reteat of slaciers while asyrametieal rings revel advanc- ing glaciers. 1 may be mentioned that tag of es nd resaltant asymmetrical growth cingem=y othe always ducto glacial advancement ter may also be duc to landslides, gusty winds, stone. storms ete (2) Faunal indicators Identification and analysis of fossitizad invertebrate animal remains embedded se i sedimentary formations provides sigmifeaaecheet about the climatic conditions that exited dust the period of their survivals. 1,this respectMutps://teregramn iological characteristics of fossils of inverte- petal hou beckoned Te Chemistry are of vial significance wherein two fevhnigues are used to determine theirage, namely (i) eadiocerbon dating (C-14 analysis), and (2) rotope analysis ‘The analysis of fossils of bones of inverts trate animals helps in determining the lithological suocessions of sedimentary formations containg, fnimal fossils and thereafter the sequenees of galacoclimates are reconstructed on the basis of dating of animal fossils and sedimentary layers. may be remembered that animal fossils are mosily preserved in the bottoms of oceans, lakes und rivers which provided them suitable habitats for their development and survival, Each species of tiny creature (e:g, foreminifera) survives. im certain temperature and moisture condition. After death such creatures are embedded in the mid layers of water bodies. The mass deaths of certain species of micro-organisms iake place when the temperature and moisture conditions change and tecome unfavourable to them. New spedies of organisms develop in accordance with new temperature and moisture regime. This process continues and fossils of animals are deposited in the successive layers of hottom sedimentary layers of seas, lakes and rivers. After determi (be lithological successions. the animal fossils in cach layer are identified and their dates afe determined on the basis of carbon-14 analysis, On the basis of the principle of ‘wniformitarialsn ‘he comparison of animals of aparticular geolagi- cal period as determined on the basis of C-14 snlysis, with identical animals at present provides the climatic conditions in which they lived on the round that same physical processes and laws hich operate today operated throughout geologi- al periods the climatic conditions ofthat particu ler period is inferred. ‘The radiocarbon dating method or carbon-14 anatyals requires obtaining of cores of mud layers ‘ontaning animal and plant fossils from the floors of oceans, lakes, and river valleys and the dating fhe fossils i accomplished through the analysis of carbon-14 and carbon-12 contained in the ons of the fossilized animals, It may be "ewtioned that skeletons of dead animal ‘contain Ms both ordinary cartion and minute trace of isotope ‘carbon-14. The proportion of carbon 14 to cm- bon-12 remains fixed while the organism is alive. Alter i dies the carbon-14 begins to decay; by knowing the ratio of carbon-12 10 carbon-14, one can determine the age of the shell’ (Oliver and Hidore, 2003), ‘The Isotope analysis of the chemistry of skeletons of fossilized animals also helps in ‘determining palaeoclimates on the basis of tem- perature and moisture conditions which are inferred ftom the body chemistry of dead animals. ‘Onygen bas three noe-radioactive isotopes c.g ‘07,018 and 0" outof which the first wo isotopes ‘are Hol very comimion but the last one is common ‘and notmal isoiope. After the cvaporation of water, these isotopes crystallize a different rates in the 1, OF isotope settles down more ly than the O'* isotope because the latter is lighter han the formier isotope (08%). Ie may be i Fate of rystallization of oxygen ior ‘i controlled by temperature, The number 3 sei Prone '¥ isotope decreases with increase 19 tata hana “neler rence: mae fee ron 3 ie +) sat river ote ma ars determined empecs- te ‘each mud layer is inferred and re ps o vit luni eda "uo ta wi ana li ‘Two important ii ‘projects. namely CLIMMAP (Climate. LangrangeInvesigation, Mapping and Predicton)and COHMAP Coop. .tive Holocene Mapping Project). were concerned wit the study ‘ofelimatic changes which might have occurted in the recent past om the basis of carhon-14 analysis and isolope analysis of skeletons of organisms ‘embedded in the mud layers atthe floors of the oceans, The CLIMAP studies concentrated oa the reconstruction of palaesctimates of about |,000,000 years before present, while COHMAP project Sudied the palacoclimates of the past 10.000 years onlyere pe 6 “The occurrence of large nutnbers of animal fossils in close proximity of a region denotes tbe fact that they might have been killed during catastrophic disasters e.g. advancing ice sheets land frecring. severe droughis. meteoric collision with the earth (as is supposed 10 have happened ‘uring Cretaceous period killing dinasaursenmass) ‘tc, On the basis of such evidences one can infer the climatic and environmental conditions al the time of concemed catastrophic disaster, 2. Geological Indicators Geological indicators (evidences) of palacoclimates include lithological characteris- tics of mainly sedimentary deposits such a5 lacustrine deposits (varves), evaporites, lime- stones and coal seams, marine deposits (sea floor deposits). soil profiles etc. Varves are the alternate, sequences of layers of finesilis and lays deposited atthe floors of lakes and large ponds in such an area which is characterized by alternate freezing and ‘thawing during winter and summer seasons respec- tively. Thus, the lithological sequences of lacustrine depositsin the aforesaid condition denote periglacial climate. The analysis of annual layers of silt and clay provides an idea of seasonal changes in climate. Itmay be mentioned that when the surface freezes during winter season, very fine suspended clay particles are deposited in the lakes and ponds ‘but during summer season, when frozen surface thaws (mels), silts with mel(Water are deposited in the lakes and ponds. Such type of annual banded alternate layers of clay and sill denote periglacial climate. Evaporite deposits, represented by salt deposits, occur when climate is characterized by high temperature and aridity wherein evaporation exceeds precipitation. In such circumstances water is evaporated and salt contents are left behind. It may be mentioned that this happens. ‘only when water on land is saline and thus salt is in solution form, So, the massive salt rocks ‘deposited on land surfaces, such us in South-West USA, Germany, Central Asia, North-West India (mainly Rajasthan and Gujarat), denote hot and and climatic environment, Lmestones (CaCOs) containing calcium carbonates are deposited in topical warm oceanic ned we OMe We VEST VICE DOORS cman water and hence the occurrence of limestonesin the fepions having cold climates denotes the fax serena nthe ease imate atthe time of limestone deposition Durleruss are indurated hardened surfaces ‘of different kinds such as taterites, ice, ‘alee, slretn,fervicretescic. dependiop or ae dominance of constituent minerals. Normally, Iatertic crusts ae supposed to have been formes hot and humid climate of tropical and subtrop. cal nreas and therefore these are indicative of hot ‘and humid climate, Lateriti crusts are predom;. snanly found in Chotansgpar high lands (Patiands ‘of Ranchi end Palamau plateaus of Jharkhand), and over many areas of Deccan plateau (c.g Mahabaleshwar and Panchgani plateaus of Mahacashtra), Tae presence of laertic crusts in ‘certain parts of Europe (e.g. U.K. and Germany) Clearly demonstrates the fact that these are not the resull of the present temperate climate. ‘Such crusts are often interpreted as of Tertiary age, oras Saying em ndereontinous formation since the of th ple robe pee ealetetes similarly are often related to past rather than present climatic conditions’ (D. R. Stoddart, 1989), Pedogeole entera used vo decipher past limes, inelude the analysis of palacosots and fossils of jad animals therein, The alluvial soils flood plains give indication of feist glimate and the dominance of fluvial processes. The older loessic soils indicate dry climate and the dominance of seolian process, Even the materials involved in the deposition of loess also give clues for climatic conditions. The extensive loess deposits of China having arcal coverage of 774,000 km? and thickness of 90 mo 300 m consist of materials blown from the deserts of central Asia while the European loess is example Of glacial loess. The Americen loess, extensively found in Illinois, lows, Nebraska etc. is partly slacial and partly desert loess. The datermination ‘of palueoctimateson the basis of fossil remains i= the soils is sccomplished through radioesrboe ating and isotope analysis, which have steady bbeen explained in the previous subsection on florat dicators and faunalmapas peeve yea ‘CUMATIC CHANGE 8. Cryogente Indicators Cryogenic indicators are related tothe proxy ata from the evidences of glaciation, glaciers and icesheets. The science dealing with glaciation and glaciers is known as glaclology, The processes of sleciation and deglaciation provide significant proxy data for climatic changes and Metuation, The period of widespread glaciation of larger areas ofthe globe is called greatice age which comprises several glacial and interglacial periods. The glacial Period denotes onset of cold climate and advence of ice sheets while interglacial periods indicate relatively warmer periods when ice sheets retreat, The geologists, glaciologists and climalologists have identified a few great ice ages (e.g. pre- Cambrian ice age, Carboniferous ice age, and Pleistocene ice age) when major portions of the globe were glaciated and covered with thick ice Sheets which are definite indicators of major climaticchanges. Credit goes to European school of zeomorphologists and glaciologisi foridentificn- ion and recognition of ice ages. Louis Agastic (1807-1873 A.D.)is given credit for an early start inthis precarious field and for the recognition and identification of the presence of ice age during Pleistocene period as he prosented his ideas inthe year 1840. A hostof geoscientists, namely Jeande Charpentier, Jon Playfair (1815), Venetz of Switzerland’ (1821, 1829), Esmark of Norway (1824), Bernhardi of Germany (1832)etc. studied different aspects of Pleistocene ice age. The Scottish geologist James Geikie postulated the concept of “great ice age’ in 1894 which is comprised of several glacial periods which are Separated by warm interglacial periods. A. Penck tnd Bruckner identified four glacial periods during Pleistocene ice age e.g. Gunz, Mindel, Riss, and Worm which were separated by three warm imerglacial periods. Similary, four glacial periods (eg Nebraskan, Kansan, lilinoin,and Wisconsin) and three interglacial periods (e.g. Aftonian, Yarmouth, and Sangman) were identified during Pleistocene glaciation of North America. Most of Gondwanaland was glaciated during Carbonifer- ous ice age ‘The shapes of glaciated valleys, glacial ifs, erratcs (glacial boulders) striations ete Pronide important clues for climatic changes. Mey UPL LIVUDETVICe KOOKS ar The flaciers and ice layers provide evi- ences for temperature and precipitaion condi- ions during different phases of ice ages. Advanc ip glaciers and ice sheets ndicate cold phase and lowering of temperature much below freezing Doin, while retreat of icesheets heralds increase in Température and subsequent ablation of glaciers demonstrates onset of warnerclimate. The glaiologists have demogstrated the retreat of Alpine glaciers and tesufiant shrinking in their tength and width about 3000 B.C. (i.e. sbovt $000 ybp. years before present), followed by re-advance of glaciers about 500 B.C. (ie. 2500 yop) and again retreat of slaciers. The Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers registered resurgence inthe |7:hand 19th centuries tells they ngain Sarid to retreat in the 20th century, All these indicate climatic Mlectuations characterized by cooling (advance of glaciers) and ‘warming: (reteat of glaciers) periods during the 1st 5000 years in European continent ‘ee shea si lee cores are most significant eryoeeni i (tipalecoclimates. may be ered hat the ice sheets are formed by the deposition of ser eee eecccemtnet 00% from heannualsnow/alliscompressed and is pi yl el ahr eee Peretti ‘thea, every yeara loyal es deposiedupon anderiying ice layer I isevident tl jeccat icocaps of Greenland end Antarctica arg comprised of nemerous ice layers ‘wherein the then climatic conditions have been preserved. Thus, the study of each ice layer Provides ample evidence of the weather and precipitation analysis of annual ice layers > temperature (iii) air bubbles tapped in the annual ice layers ~> atmospheric composition Gi) chemiMLSs / eres r oy ix) dest contents rapped in the annual fee tayer -> a dnd sorminess {seid content im he annual ice layer volcanic events ‘A few studies of ice cores froin Greening sce shen (namely, Greenland fe Sheet Projét | sn/2.GISP-1 and2) aad Aptarcticnice sheets have arvcaled sequences of climatic variations ft ihe Tas 110,000 yearsand 160,000 years respectively. ‘The analysis of ice cores to obtain climatic records is based on isotopes of oxygen (wo very common isotopes are '60 and 140) wherein the ratio of #0. 1 "0 provides information about the existing environmental temperatures at the time of the formation of annval ie layers. Theisotope analysis of ice cores also reveals relationship between slobal warming and concentration of greenhouse sgases(e.g. carbon dioxide, methaneete).andevel of atmospheric polation caused by anthropogenic Sources since the period of industriel revolution, Besides, the concentation of radioactive clememy inthe atmosphere and ther fallow. emived during ‘velear plant disasters (for example, Chernobyl nuclear disaster) and testings of atomic € canbe measured through the analysis of anual layers. The ice core analysis also reveals informa: sion about te levels of sulphate content in the sir emitied from the voleanie eruption. With the improvements in the technologies of obtaining ie cores, studies are earried out to reconstruct the atmosphericconditions mainly temperature varia- tions and climatic fluctuations for the past 200 years oro on the basis ofthe analysis of ie cores erived from mountain ice sheets in the wopical and subtropical areas. The evidences of periglacial features and deposits found in such areas which a present donot have periglacial environment, indicate earlier periglacial climate of those. areas, The term perielaclal literally means around the lee or peripheral tothe margins ofthe glaciers but now {his term is used for both ‘periglacial landseape’ and ‘periglacial climate. Periglacial areas ore {hose which are in permanently frozen condition ‘but without permanent ice cover on the ground surtace. The periglacial climate ischaracterized by M.ME/UPSL_LIVIISErVICEBOOKS CUMATOMOOY mea annual temperature ranging between “18C and -15°C and mean annual precipitation of 120mm to 1400 mm (mostly in solid form). Many paris af Europe and South-West USA presently do, foot have periglacial climate but have relict petiglacial features which demonsteate that such ‘areas were under periglacial climate in the past ‘4 Tectonic Indicators ‘The tectonic movements involving plate movements. pole wandering, continental drifts, ‘oogenesis, palacomagnetism. topographic fea. tures ete, and seailoor spreading and sea level changes ae significant indicators of palaeoclimatic changes,/A. Wegener, a German meteorologist, ‘vas primarily concerned with the problem of past climatic ehanges, I may be pointed out that there are ample evidences, as discussed above, which indicate ii ‘liiatie changes throughout the)past history oftheearth. Infact, the continental it theory of Wegener “grew out of the need of | Rotailte He jr nections of elimate in the ‘climatic changes which have taken fe a flo nay Hatelained in wo ways lowe | NTT AVE edie sbned atic paces IAP Blea ices of ic ca a THIEN Hoveshfed for onc region i Hon dad thosa particularregion might i ff enced vaeying elimatic conditions from Hi (2) If the'etimatic zones remained station- arya landmass migthavebeendluplaced sad deed Wagener opted forthe second ahernative and postulted the concept of continental ditt or “displacemeat hypothesis’ to explain the global climate changes on the bass of 4 number af geographical, geological, palacontological ec. évidenees. The plate tectonic theory aan outcome of pos Second World War advanctmem (mainly in the 1960s) in geotectonics, the evidences of Palaeomagnetism and seaflor spreading, have validated the concept of polew andring (shiting o! the position of the poles) which help in the reconsruction of climochronology mainly global limaticchanges during Carboniferous and Pleistovene Ice Ages and widespread gtahttps://telegram.me/UPSE_Civi anaric CHANGE cas been demonstrated that plate move- eat during Cenozoic era displaced major ontinental blocks inthe middle and high latitudes jn the nocthern hemisphere and thus such goth ward displaced continental masses were subjected to the dominance of cold climate resulting into widespread glaciation (such as major patts of North America and Burasia) during Pleistogene period (known as Pleistocene Ice Age and Pleistocene glaciation). On the other hand, mnoun- tain ranges of Tertiary period, formed due 4 collision of convergent plates” and consequent subduction of heavier plate and lateral eomypres- sion, and high plateaus, became effective barriers in controlling the global atmospheric circelation and generating a few new climatie types such as monsoon climate of South Asia (due to relief barriers of the Himalayas and Tibetan plateau. ‘The investigations regarding the impacts of tectonic movements on climatic conditions have revealed strong relationship between horizontal plate movements leading (0 seafloor spreading along divergent plate boundaries and orogenesis aloag the convergent plate boundaries, vertical movement (tectonism) leading to uplifiment and subsidence and climate change. The changes in slobal pattern in plate motions cause changes in Climates at global scale. 5. Geomorphological indicators The geomorphological processes and) landforms resulting therefrom have been directly related to particular climatic type on the concept that each climatic type produces its own charactez- istic assemblage of landforms and set of ‘eomorphological processes which shape themon the basis of the following themes (1) Landforms differ significantly in differ- cntclimatic regions. (2) Spatial variations of landforms in 4ifferent climatic regions are because of spatial ‘atiations in climatic parameters (c.g. temperature, humidity, precipitation etc.) and their influences ‘on weathering. procestes, erosion dynamics and surtace ruff (3) Quaternary climatic changes could not ceucure relationships between landforms and mates, ervicelooks eo In other words, there are certain dingnostic landforms which clearly demonsirate climate- landforms relationships. ‘Thus, on the basis of diagnostic landforms, the inference of climatic conditions a the time of, the formation of such landform. is drawn which helps in the reconstruction of palaeoclimates “The climatogenetic or climatically control- led Tandforms are identified and differentiated in toro ways, eg. (i) general observation and Acquaintance of whole landscape of each region, and i iemtication of ypical or. tive landforms which represent the controls of particular climate, The typical landforms are, in fact, stain (cols of climatic geomorphologists ‘which helpthem in determining climate-landforms relationships in different climatic regions. Such sistinctive landforms are designated as diagnostic landforms which include ducicrusts, inselbergs. edness, glactd valleys, lai! bout er} ofettties, sand dunes ete is are indurated hardened surfaces im Kinds such us Jaterites, alleretes, letelesferleretes etc. and are normally have been formed in hot and humid ical and subtropical areasand hence cativeot warmand moistclimate. The Of lateitic crusts in certain parts of . UK. Germany ete.) clearly demon- sinites the fact that these are not the result of present climate, "Such crusts are often interpreted as of Tertiary age, or as having been ‘und: continuous formation since theend of the Mesozoic. Esxponues of iets and caleretes ate often related (0 past rather than present climatic Conditone (0.8 Sinan 1909) ‘nselberes representing steep sided residual hills ate considered 10 be the representative landforms of hot and arid and semi-atid climates Wis argued that inselbergs are stractu controlled rather than climatically controlled and most ofthe present inselbergs were formed before Quaternary period, ‘hence present climatesare not necessarily those in which inselbergs were formed! (Stoddart, 1965). Itmay be possible that inselbergs might have been formed when the climate wes ‘warm and arid of semi-arid which might have ‘changed eter their formation. a‘Wups: //Telegram.me/ UPS oe cone nae ek soci Ao poor Sel ae ee tel Sa cpamenlcntes nel ae Ee ee crater ht eee ee ee ane ceiee areas sia es ter tea marr So ncer eee ce eee ee eels LivilserviceBooks nae sma ae ene the climate conditions In whch ent es clas Teco ae ee eer tet ce u Aa erie ee arose Si be pee soe 6. Sea Level Fluctuations Fivctuations in sea levels are considered significant indicators of pastclimaticchanges. Sea level changes are of two types. namely positive ‘change mazked by rise in sea level above datum line, and negative change denoting fallin sea level below datum tine. Changes in sealevelareeffected by @) tectonic movements. and (ii) climatic changes. Me tectonic movementscause rise in sea level when there is upward movement of sea floor (ocean bottoms) or down warping of coastal areas ‘whereas fal in sea evel iscaused by downwarping Jeading to subsidence of seafloor or upwarping of coastal lands, l may be mentioned that tectonically induced changes in sea levels are very stow. The limatically induced changes in sea levels are rapid and areefMected by glacial age and advancementof sluciors and ice sheets (fall in sea levels) and ‘deglaciation leading to retreat of glaciers and ice ‘sheets rise in sou levels), The sequences of rise and fallin yeu levels during Pleistocene Ice Age have rvvaled several phases of glacial periods (Gunz Mindel, Rissand Wurm in Eucope, and Nebceska® Kansan, Ilingin and Wisconsin glacial pecious 8oo —_—s tts: //tele a. hetps://telegram.me/UPSE Givisenns 338i CCUMATIC CHANOE 2 os ‘50.000 joo000 Ags Before Preset aid coral teroces and core axrnen 18 "208 Fig, 15.2: Flucaions in sea tevel dering last 150000 sears based eens stent defosts Source afer: KA Tarekian, 1996, in Oliver and Hidore, i I -2 3 Mean Sea Level in Meters Se LY i 1 oo “Thousands of years ago rence presen seater preset tn line tater Source. s Fe 153. Fluctuations in sa level with rhe Fairbrdge, tn HJ. Crtcfield, 2002 amupasy reg as North America and interglacial periods relatively warm periods) separating (wo glacial cold) peri ods. Figures 15.2 and 15.3 denote Muctuations of ‘sea level (rise and fall) withreferencetto present sea level (ie. present datum line at o meter) about 150,000 ybp and 20,000 yop (years before present). 7. Indicators of Historical Records: ‘The recorded eventsduring the existence of human species provide valuable data for recon- structing the palacoclimatic history (palacochlimo- chronology) for the past 6000 years. It may be ‘mentioned thatthe recorded past events ate related mostly 10 extreme events of weather conditions ther than regular weather conditions, Such extreme weather events include freezing of rivets and lzkes, unprecedented floods and droughts leading to famines, mass exodus of human migra- tion deserting theit settlements ete. A few exam- ples will be sufficient to demonstrate the signifi- cance of such indicators of climatic changes. The records of temperatures ofthe Thames(U.K,) fom Sth century A.D. to 18th century A.D. denote increasing trend of frequencies of freezing of the ‘Thames river per 100 years ¢.g. the Thames was frozen only once or twice per 100 years from 80010 1500 years ago, 4 times during 16th century, times during 17th century. and 6times during 18th ‘century. This denotes cooling of U-K.and environs from 800 10 1800 years before present (YBP). The recorded data from Iceland from 90010 1900 YBP also demonstrate cooling of North Adlantic Ocean between 900 and 1900 YBP. The records of high floods in the Nile Valley since 640 A.D, reveal increase in rainfall inthe source regions ofthe Nile river, The records of droughtsin he south-western arid and semiarid United States of America and Sahel region or Sub-Sahara region denote acute deficiency in normal rainfall and resultant extreme aridity. 15.4 RECONSTRUCTION OF CLIMOCHRONOLOGY Climochronology may be defined as system- ‘mic description of climatic conditions and climatic changes in erms of geological history of the earth ive. pest climates of each period of the earth's history. The reconstruction of palscoclimates ic. nane/ UPL L DerviCebOoks a fbbltalaciogy esa mnie of saeccereni comm mamatis of lowe ee teen pean enh errors mums Ta de Meceicasaceaeese Fiicinic chara aries potegea vii Piste chases ering Qeanreny eal FEL coer rom pn sapiens se 1. Climatic Changes Through Geological Perlods. ‘The weological history of the earth oF the ‘geological clock’ refers to the reconsiruction of evolutionary sequences ofthe geological events involving the information of various zones (erst, mmanile and core) of the earth, formation and evolution of geomaterials (rocks), formation and ddeyelopmentof mountainsand fauts. evolution of diferent lives ete, The whole geological history right rom the origin ofthe earth ots present form has been divide into major and miner periods on the basis of forms of life (organic’ remains), ‘characteristicrock deposits, places of rock forma tion, majoriectoniceventsetc. The whole geologi- eal history ofthe earth has been divided into five eras (the largest time division ofthe earth's history hasbeen termed Era) based on five majorgroupsof deposits a follows: Major Groups of Eras Deposits (from youngest to oldest) Cenozoic Cenozoic group (era of recent life) Mesozoic group Mesozoic (cra of medieval life) Proterozoic Proterozoic (eraof earlier life) Archeozoie “Archaeozoic (era of primeval life) numbered in sequence a ir (primary), second (secondary), third (tertiary) > Fourth (quaternary) epoch. Further. cach epochDUUps:/ /TelegrAM.Me/ UPL LIVIIDEFVICESOOKS CUBA TIC CHANGE Fig, 154 before present. Aivided imo several periods, The names of periogs have beer assigned on various grounds e.g. names ofthe places of characteristic systems of deposits the names of tribes, the charactenstics of deposits. Keraaacoot ori ‘elements and minerals etc, a5 oe (Geren) Palaeozoic palaeo (ancient), life Meroxoic cao (German) means middle Cemcric ——-Kainos (German) means new ‘Cambrian Ordovician Silurian Devonian Carboniferous Permian ry ‘Te geological cock (modified afer P, Pres ond Saver. 1974 Wome drole sere lions ‘Cambria or Wales (place) in UK. ‘Ordovices (a British tribe in N. Wales) Silurs (a British tribe in S. Wales ‘Devonshire (place and region it UK) dominance of carbon (coal) perm (a province in erstwhile USSRups: / were 384 Triassic three-fold division of deposits in Germany, tias' means triple Jurassic after Jura mountains in Switzer land Cretaceous _ereta (Latin) moans chalk domin- “ince of abundant deposits of white writing chai Eocene _Eosmeans day break Oligocene Oligos (German) means litle Miocene Meton (German) meanssmaller Pliocene _Pleion (German) means greater Pleistocene Pleistos means most Holocene __Holomeans complete ‘Table 15.1 5 Geological Time Table (rom youngest to okat} WATE] UU GAVISETVICE BOOKS: cumATONoay Some scientists have put together all the ‘geological events ofthe past history ofthe ears the form of a clock. Thus. the spiral system ‘epresenting the whole geological and ic history together is called as ‘geolopieal ects ‘wherein one billlion years represent each revel tion of the clock’s arm. Each revolution is farther subdivided into ‘hours’ where each divi sion (hour) corzesponds to 100 million years ang “minutes” represent the time petiod of 10 miftion years. Fig. 15.4 represents the geological clock Suggested by Frank Press and Raymond Siever 1974), - Epochs Periods ‘Duration Kee, Starting time (elon year) Ave before present és Waa (million years) Neomaie ‘Qustemary 2. Holocene or Post-glacial Pleistoccene |. Pleistocene §— 0.990" ice age 4 1.000 Cenozoic ‘Tertiary 4. Pliocene 10.000 11.000, 3. Miocene 14.000 25.000 2. Oligocene 15.000 40,000 1.Bocone 30,000 70.000 Mesozoic Secondary 3.Cretaceous 65.000 135.000 2Jurassic 45.000 180,000 1. Triassic 45.000 3 225.000 Palaeozoic Primary 6.Permian 45.000 ‘Carboniferous 270.000 5.Carboniferous 80,000 ice age 350,000 4.Devonian $0,000 age 400,000 3. Silurian 0.000 2 440,000 2.Ordovician 60,000 Iooage 500.000 1. Cambrian 100.000, (430-430 m ybp) 600.000 Pre-Palaoroie Pre-Cambrian Pre-Cambrian 700.000 orAlgonican ice age (850. ‘Azoic of Archacan Archean 600 m yop) 800.080https: //telegram.me/UPSC_CivilserviceBooks CUMATIC CHANGE: Pre-Palneozoic Era Very few geological evidences are available to reconstruct the climatic history of early pre- Palscoroic cra. Inferences have been drawn on the basis of lithological evolution and evidences thereof, numerical models and deductions. The earth changed from gaseous state ¢o liquid state after its origin. The solid crust was formed due to cooling and solidification of liquid materials. This phase was followed by the formation of dense simosphere surrounding the earth ‘Due to gradual but continued cooling and contraction of the earth and resultant condensation of water vapour there began the precipitation process which ultimately resulted into the development of rivers and seas. ft is assumed that the earliest climatic phase of the earth's atmosphere was warm with average (as- sumed) atmospheric temperature of 379C about 4250 MYBP (million years before present) which is. supposed to have dropped to 255C about 2500 MYBP. Such assumptionsandcalculationsare based on the estimate that the concentration of carbon, dioxide (CO3) might have been much higher inthe earliest atmosphere than at present and thus the pre Palaeozoic climate mighthave been very warmdueto_ green house effect of the carly atmosphere. ‘The sequence of warming was broken by many glacial periods as indicated by glacial deposits, a few glacial features, striated surfaces, sedimemary deta ete, found from Gowgenda, Ramsey lakes, Bruce formations etc. jn the Ontario province of Canada. These indicators reveal the existence of probably the first ice age, known as Huronisa Glaciation (on the basis of Lake Huron of Canada and USA) which is supposed to have occurred about 2700 MYBP and might have continued upto 1800 MY BP. The earth tain experienced warm climatic phase. which continued upto 950 MYBP. “Thelate pre-Cambrian period is supposed (0 ‘have been again under cold climatic phase wherein lee glacial periods might have occurred when ‘mow! of the earth's surface was glaciated. Precambrian Period ‘The yeolozical characteristics of rocks of ¥eCambrian period which started about 700 ian period whic! | MYBP (mitlion years before present) denote (hat : een enn 455 dense atmosphere was formed around the eart Dye to gradual but continued cooling nd contrat tion of the earth and resultant condensation of waler vapour there began the process of precipita tion. which ultimately resulted into the develop- ‘ment of rivers and seas. The sequence of warm climate was broken by many glacial periods ‘esulting intothe beginning of peshapse the firs age known as pre-Cambrian ice age having atime span from 850 MYBP to 600 MYBP, Among the plant kingdom only marine grasses were evolved ‘The thece pre-Cambrian glacial periods known as ‘Goejso, Siurtian. and Varangian glacial periods, continued from 950 0 650 MYBP. Palaeozoic Era (950-600 to 250 MYBP) “The early Cembrian period hhave been ineold climatic phase lead uring which the glaciation was more widespread than pre-Cambrian ice age. This:connctationris ‘yalidated'on the basis of the presence of ancient ‘arly Cambrian morainic deposits in Greenland, ‘Scotland, Scandinavia, China, South America _scuthern parts of Africa, Austaliaet. representing. both the hemispheres, This cold phase was followed by warm climatic phase which became responsible forthe evolution of tie mainly plants in water bodies i. seas. Most of the vertebrate animals including 1000 species were evolved in ‘the seas but these ere not found at present. These animals depended on marine grasses for their food. Though evidences from ancient organisms and sedimentary deposits suggest wart climatic phase during Cambrian and early Ordovician periods but some evidences from Sahara indicate Tite ice phase, if not ice age, during tate Ordovician period. The Silurian’ period again became warm and this phase continued into Devonian petiod. The evidences denote warm ropicalclimateof mostof the northera hemisphere jnelvding North America, Europe and Chins Characterized by warm and semi-arid climate. The Devonian period was also chardcterized by the volution of green land plants anda large number GF species of fish, Amphibians were “evolved Towards the end of Devonian period. Tere was iapersel of vertebrate animals From $648 (0 lan Mteus due to such floca on land arcas whieh could, provide them food. . wer CivilGerviceMooks356 “The Carboniferous periogexperiented cot: trasting climatic conditionsinthe northeet andthe southern hemispheres, Most ofthe coals of Nort America and Europe were deposites duting this period. The nocthern hemisphere waseharacterized ‘by warm tropical climate having both warn dry and warn wet climates which became responsi dense vegetation cover inthe northerm hemisphere, (On the other band, most of the southern hemt- sphere, say Gondwanaland, was under cool cli- tmatic phase leading to widespread glaciation Known as Carboniferous toe Age which if sup: posed to have continued from middle and late Carboniferous period to early Permian period, The climatic hazard of such widespread glaciation became responsible for extinction of numerous plantand animal species. With increasing seasonal Variations in the elimatic conditions the ratio evergreen trees continued to decrease. Conse- ‘quently, the deciduous trees which could resist eet from were eveived Tresumbera species of land animals further increased and ‘namerous species of mammal-like reptiles were ‘volved but these soon perished. By tie end of Permian period the southern hemisphere recovered from Carboniferous glaciation due to retreat and ablation of ice sheets. Mesozoic Era (225-70 MYBP) ‘The climatic condition during Triassic period was warm and dry but it became wet by the Pad ofthis period. Consequently, coniferous tees tad feras were developed in the northern hemi- Sphere. For the first time, mammals evolved from Fepileson land areas. The Jurassic climate became ftubtropical. The rainfall was such that dense Vegetation could be evolved and developed in Imany areas, For the first time, flowering plants (angiosperms) were evolved during this period. Land areas were dominated by forestsand swampy plains having lakes and meandering rivers. Creta- Ceous period was marked by warming of high lauiides which made the growth of vegetation possible upto Greenland. Deciduous trees flour- ‘hed because of seasonal regime of climate. The ‘oxygen isotope analysis of deep sea cores having benthic and plankion fossils (300 planktons) provide ample data for inferring temperatures of ‘oceans in both low and high latitudes. The later hall = a ATPSi/ / PHEBAML INE WEP LAVISET VICE BOOKS: cumarorone Wt Chetaceous period witnessed cooling o MBP ive fs northward dtsptacemenn or NES buat of Anguraland. “Th aw the world in ils preenboose mode, whey PAAR mete mode, win flotexisten, and seu level high. The change fom Thi to un eventual fe honte mode may not have tren smooth, but rather episodic” (Oliver ang Higore, 2003) ‘Cenozoic Era ‘the early Tertiary witnessed drop in toraperateres bu stil de climate remained warm, Inthe Eocene pecied (70 10 40 MYBP) or carly ‘Fevtiary epoch England was characterized by ‘ropical Vegetation sietilar 10 present Malaysia. ‘Wlomelimatecxtendsdupt Creznland nen: tropical palm trees grew upto Greenland. During ‘Oligocene period (40 to 25 MYBP) most of the areas ‘dominated by warm and temperate edi iiecpeteat cold climate als started in al the dee of ext circ cased disappearance of forests io some areas mainly in ‘igh lectuesbucthere ws expansion in grasslands Sitech became responstle for the evolution of nay |spesies|of prass eater mammals. During Miocene period (25-11 MYBP) the earth's surface ‘vas characterized by varying climatie conditions fas these varied from éry and desert cis conditions to wet and cal climate. Homi climate became responsible for the growth and develop- ‘ment of desidious forestshaving species of maple, ‘oak and poplarin North America and Europe while Godar grew in highlands. The plains of North ‘America were covered by prairie grasses. The Pliocene period (1-1 MYBP) witnessed wise range of fluctuations in temperatures ic. cepetivon ‘of warm and cold phases. The glaciers began to form ver Antartica, Thecontinued lowering of rnp, ture culminated into the formation of cost {glaciation and onset of ce age in Pleistocene Pes’ St Quaternary epoch. Ths is being discussed im ™ following heading 2. Quaternary Climate Changes “The Quaternary epoch of Comores suarted about one millon years Bene ee satfpuerarpresent Ths epocbconnpecs PARTS corneas post gsi pee) pads so / APSAhtips://teleg CAMATIC CHANGE Pheistocene witnessed most pronounced clinatie Ghenges for which much authentic data derived ‘prough different techniques such as pollen analy si. isotope andlysis, carbon dating, potassarge arzan dating et. are availableand thesequencet of Evens are well documented. Majer pars of North America and Europe were extensively suring Pleistocene ice age which comprised af four slacial and four interglacial periods, ‘The Plestocone glaciation of North America (Fig, 15.5) witnessed four periods of cooling and resultant formation of glaciers and ice sheets ‘herr equatorward advancement, The glacial pei, ods have been identified and named as Nebraska (300,000-260,000 VBP), Kansan 20,000-67,000 Mess sand Utara” ie sheet (Glaciation of North America during Pleatacene le Age: m.ane/UPSE.CivilServiceHooks wT YEP), Ilinoin (133,000 -100,000 YEP) and Wikeesnsin (70,000:10,000 YBP). These four \Hlasial periods were separated by warmer perio. filled as interglacial periods, namely Ationian interulaci period between Nebraskan and Kansan lacial periods (260,000 to 205,000 YBP), Yar, ‘mouth interglacial period between Kansan and lilinoin glacial periods (167,000-135.000 YBP), Sangamon interglacial period between inoin and Wiaotein gical pets (100 000-70.000 8") tnd recent Holocene interglacial period. The ice peti i Smabe wns ex cas) 8 (1) Labrador ice sheet, (2) Hudson Bay or Keewatinice sheets, and (3) Cordillarcanor Rocky loesheets, Two ice sheetsof Labrador ice caps andhittps://telegram.ne/| 388 Keewatin ice cape after their inital southiard vance combined together and became, ets srrder and extensive ice sheets Which moved 88 fat oth as upto the province of Nebraska, The Combined ice sheets Were calle as Lautenlide lee Sheet. The St Lastence Valleyandceniral fowand weve completely covered by Laurentid ie sheet Ieseastward movementeoveret the Appalielians, Beades, Alaska, westera Canada. Washington, Iiaho, Monanacte. were alsocovered by thick ics shects measuring 1000 meters to 1500 meters in thickness, The withdrawal or retteut oF ee sheets during interglacial periods left behind numerous terminal moraines. Several lakes mainly the Great. Lakes (comprising Superior, Michigia, Huron, Eric and Ontario) re the legary of Plestacence es Age and consequent glaciation. Table 152: Plelstocene Glaelation of North Arratica Gtaciat and Duration Interglaciat (yearsbeforepresent) Periods i Nebraskan *300,000-260,000 1. Aftonian 260,000-205,000 Gter glacial) 2. Kansan 205,000 - 167.000 2. Yarmouth 167,000-135,000 (Gnter glacial) 3.Hinoin 135,000- 100,000 3. Sangamon 100,000-70,000 *70,000-10,000 10,000 (interglacial) Europe was glaciated during Pleistocene ee ‘age by the advancing ice sheets from three major sources of snow fields (.e. caps), namely Scotland, Scandinavia, and the Alps. The advancing. ice sheets from Scotland and Scandinavia covered Great Britsin, Scandinavian countries, Denmark, Belgium, Luxemberg, Netherlands, Germany while Switzerland, Austria, ftaly, France, southern Ger- ‘many etc, were glaciated by ice sheets advancing northward from the ice caps of the Alps. Like slacial and interglacial periods in North Amerie ‘our glacial periods have also been identified and ‘UPSL_Civilservice Books ~ cuatenecy awed In Europe, e.g. Gunz. Minde, Rive», ‘Worm glacial poriods wherein wo glacial porta, woreneparied by warmer interglacie period ses Aropieal and subiopical regions othe shone romaine warm. ‘The last BUC most recent early Wisconin lacll period stared about 70,000 ¥BP bur man ‘Winconcin lcil period i Noch America Supposed tohaye started shout 30,000 YBP years Ufo prosint) and retested about 12.000 YP ‘The them iemperature was about 4°C Lae han the presont temperate. 3, Climate in the Post-Gtacial Period Dsante 18,000 YBP and continued ‘were withdrawn fromthe USA, On the other hand, i is ve ding ice sheets in Scendinavi rope) stared to expand and (Exo va oe ere thus there was Sein period glocial phase involv ited penie This little short-period ‘laciay phase is known 25 Younger Dryas but this. ore gle! phatesooncame toanend asthe icesheets melted and finally withdrew. The period ranging from 18,000 10 5.500 YBP is considered as od of deglaciation denoting rapid changes in climate and rise in temperature, ‘may be mentioned thatthe Pleistocene Ice ‘Age caused lowering of sea level atleast by 100 ‘meters about 18,000 YBP and the deglaciation during Holocene period resultedin the recovery of sea level tots present level about 3000-6000 YBP (fig. 15.3). As mentioned above after Younger Dryas the warming of previously glaciated areas resulted incomplete withdrawal of ice sheets fom North America and Eutope by 5,500 YBP. Green- end and Antarctica still remained under thick we shoets, ‘All evidence points to this being a time when the mean atmospheric temperature of the ntitudes was 2.5°C (4.5°F) above that of the prosent. This time has been described as the Clmatie Optizum a term originally applied © Scundinavia when temperatures were warm enous to favour more varied flora and fauna’ (Oliver and Hidore, 2003).ApS s / Cee CUMATIC CHANGE Fig. 156: Trend of changes tn surface temperance Yor DEAT Coe! Soe Ons a a 0 wT rer cane rom Present aerate gloal emoeratre.Afer LE. Olver and Hier 4. Climatic Changes in the Recent Past {Christian Era) \ ‘The proxy data rom geological ai biology | | cal sources and indicators, insteumental records, storial records, documentation etc. provide | ample authentic information toreconsiract yearly climatic Huctuations since Ist century A.D. The records show thatthe emperature and precipitation || conditions of European continent and Meciterra~ sean regions were similar to presentday climatic ‘conditions inthe Istcentury of Christianera. These teas experienced farther more humid conditions characterized by increased precipitation and ameleorating temperature upto mid sth century ‘AD. ve. by 350 A.D.) Barope endNorth America experienced dry phase resulting into semi-drought condition in the Sth century A.D. The mereabed xiity caused drying of several lakes in the westem USA. The climate in the norther hemisphere became frther harsh dring 600-700 A.D, when climate became warmer and drier. The inereased eidity cesulted in melting of valley glaciers in the ‘Alps of Europe and opening of frozen passes allowing free movement of people across the ‘Aine mountains, Itmay be mentioned that these asses are gain in frozen condition at present time ‘ee reestablishment of valley glaciers. The mois ‘endiion returned again in the Sih cemury A.D. sea TH peiod fom 950101250 A.D 300 eM period is called 1s Phase of Lite Citmatie nthe Climatic history of the earth when ‘Opti ‘climate varm andrelatively dry as average Tenmeaote ened P02 from the ‘resentey globel vereue tomporauue. The ci- erent land Iceland became mild and ‘attracted the Vikings from Iceland to settle in ‘Greenland. I may be mentioned that Vikings from Burope osettein Iceland in the Sth A.D, fecause of favourable conditions. Gaeta Oy Harner cme. The climatic stories 8 rhetn Greenland allowed the ‘rowah Of stunted vegetation, pasture and agricul- Ire to supper newly Sered human population. [perio Row 1250 A.D. to 1450 A.D. was characterized by the teversal of mild climate ‘of 10th to 13th cemtsies A.D. asteferred to above fasteniperature began 0 drop causing accumatation fimore ice over Greenland, drifting of ee sheets and merous icebergs in the Nosh Atlantic ‘Ocean, The drifting leebergs discupted human physical connetiion af Greenland with Iceland and Europe. The 13th centary saw very storey weather in\the Atlantic Ocean and the north Sea while ‘extreme atid condition leading to severe drought prevailed i the western USA ‘The trend of worsening climatic conditions in the middle and high latinndes of the nocthern tremmsphere continved and the climate became farther hersh for another period of around 400 years ies from 1450 A.D. to 1880 A.D.) as theUps: /TelegraM.me/ UPL LivilyeryiceBooks “= remperature fell below freezing point giving birth terarcer glaciat period Know inthe cla history of the earth as Lidle ce Axe, The elimaté of ‘Greenland became so cold that the eal se fe perished and their settlements and other {fremtrocures were buried under thick eover of ice sheets, The Alpine glaciers became more active, all the glacial valleys were covered with thick ice sheets. the advancing glaciers engulfed several villages at the foothills of the Alps ‘mountain chains, several lakes and vers were frozen, which are presently unfrozen etc. for example, the Thames river of England was frozen “times i the 16th century, 8 times in the Vth century. and 6 times in the 18th century. The historicel records and Icelandic sagas very much indicate the severity of climate inleeland, Extreme cold condition led to human deaths due to severe famines. It may be mentioned that glacial period (ie Little ee Age) from 145010 1880 A.D. was not always characterized by continuous extreme cold condition and advancing. glaciers rather it was, punctuated by several old and warm intervals Itis believed that each cold period continued atleast for 30 years in exch century (between 15th and 19th centuries) and two cold periods were separated by relatively warm period. The coldest period culmi- natedin the year]816 when major pars of northern Europe and the USA did not experience summer season, The year’ 1816"is known as ‘the year without summer" in te climatic history, when the glaciers became most active after Pleistocene lee Age. thereafter climate began to improve dueto rise in temperature and by the end of 19th century the ice age was terminated, ‘The records of global temperatures since inéustsial Revolution (1860) denote slow but iregaular trend of rise of temperature ie. ran between 0.3°C and 0.69, Following R.G. Barty and R.J. Chorley (2002) the phases of rise in tempera ures after '860 have been identified as follows: (Highly regular trend of rise in temperature ranging between 0.2°C 10 0.4°C between 1860-1920 A.D, (i) Consistent wend of rise of temperature of mean valuc of 0.45 between 1921 and 194s. Cunanteneny (ii) Oscillating trend of rise of temperanne between 1946.nd 1975 A.D. around. ‘The northern hemisphere was warmeg while the temperature in the scuthery hemisphere remained more or less constan i.e. neither increase nor decrease. (iv) Overall warming trend continued betveen 1976 and 1989 A.D. when temperature registered an upward rise by 0.2°C, (¥) The global rise of temperature reached peakiin the last decade of 20th century (ie. 19903) Six out of seven warmest years on recoré occurred since 1980, “Temay be summarised that overall increase {nthe serface ai termpecature inthe 20th cemtary ee res pe gaint an verge i Nc years at gl Joel ACcne Wander ew oe average at Ml erat yern hemisphere increased by 0 180 and 1940 because of rapid ratcof eisduringthisperiod ‘but the dre dropped after1940 inspite of ‘continued rapid rate of combustion of fossil Fuels due to fast industrial growth but soon after 1940air temperature in the southern hemisphere showed rising trend which registered an overall increase of 0.68C between 1940 and 1960. “Anothersource has indicated an increase in sir temperature by 15°C upto 1995 while other sources have shown general air eemperature rise ranging between 0.3°C and 0.69C. It may be mentioned that «rise of 29C temperature from the ftormal temperature was recorded in the Indian Ocean during 1997-88 which caused catastrophic coral bleaching leading 10 70 per cent death of corals in the Andian Nicobar and Lakshwadecp inlands. Various motels have been developed 1 predict global rise in uir temperature. S.H, Sete (1980) pointed out thatthe temperature could nse ‘upto 1.5°C to 3°C if the concentration of atmos pheric carbon dioxide could be doubled trom ihe 400 ppm (by volume) level © 600 ppm. The General Circulation Model (GCM) developetty S ‘Manabe and R.T. Wetherahd (1975) presucistail ihe present amount of carbon dioaide (1975 leve)naps, /teregram.mey' amare CHAN cof the semophere is doubled, the temperature of tee earth's surface wil increase by 2.98, The maior sources and processes of global warming for example. “crene depaion and ercenhouse gases, will be discussed inthe secceeding chaprer, 15.5 CAUSES AND THEORIES OF CUMATIC CHANGES: As nenincl Glia HELL stench angen imeracons among fv on}panents ofthe cai atmosphere system, namely atmos ty saat ices ae em hae. Loreen setae chal site ae aaae SL eacctcnnme enn ate soirececnen aaa ee Peppa elie 2 ee eee ee ‘saul clint Chanset Ge Unicneas sel it eae i eertormtislancontesti ic Fetal ps Thrcmamedanrtsersinist aia a= viens soar alse of en SS Eevee Paper sear sae Plessis ya = eres Soot ae arene pean pabi a eee Tne ee seers manner ofemateehnsss Since the Industrial Revolution (1860 A.D.) the man’s increased economic activities and the pebomhspeprsdoyynisyiyt “ng significant modifications and changes in Fareed luaiotl ‘of # new dimension in climatic changes and an ‘sddiional source thereof, Thus, the sources of ‘climatic changes may be grouped in the following. 3 broad categories Cteuds or rena ee (3) Antropogenic sources LU _LIVIDErVICeBOOKS 368 ‘The significant causes and related tomorien ‘offelimatic changes may be stated a8 follows: (1) Solar irradiance (variation in soler radiation). (2) Suospor eycles, () Astronomical theories (eccentricity of censth's orbit, obliquity ofthe ecliptic, precession of ‘the equinoxes,carth-sun relationship) etc, (4) Atmospheric dust hypothesis (mainly options and dusts thereo?), {5)Carbon dioxide hypothesis, (© Continental erift and pole wandering. {()Teconieandiopographiccontol teary, (&) Oceanic vataion hypothesis, 0) Exiaterrestial bodies collision theory. voleat oad LCA EroyAmun sources (changesin the re Sb scp jstaninganen ea Solar lradlande Theory |. Solar radiative forcing is considered to be & significant factor of climatic changes. 1 is Tecstelt atic oad eresrcfiactnations in the energy radiated rom the sun's outer surface (photosphere). Tt may also be mentioned that the amount of solar energy reccived at the earth's surface detzrmines the nature and pattern of energy exchanges and atmospheric ciculations ‘which ia turn determine temperatures and preci tation. Theamount of solar raiantenergy teceived atthe earth's surface is also subject tochanges due {o(i}changesin the composition f the atmosphere interms of is transparancy t0 incoming shortwave solarelecicomageetic radiation waves, (2) changes in the relative distances between the sun and the carth, (3) the amount of tic energy radiated from the earth's surface. (4) changes in the surface covers ofthe earth's surface et. The variations in Solar ittadiance are viewed as (i)1ong-termchange, and (ii) as short-term or periodic change (i. sinspoiscycles). 1 is « common belief that increase in slat radiation for tanger duration will cause warming of the atmosphere leading to onset of warm climate sind melting of ice sheets and glaciers. It may be Jrontioned that regular measurement of tomers dnuups: x2 tures ofthe sun's surface started atthe Kilt Peak ‘National Observatory in Arizona, USA. from 1975, Tris believed thateven 0.1 per eat dectease inthe tverage annual solar radiation for a decade in Sondinuation may introduce measurable climate Changes in terms of changes in temperature and precipitation. The recorded data of sun's surface temperature revealed a drop of remperature by 1 in January, 1977. Ifthe solar raciation drops by even one to two per cen, the temperature athe carth'ssurface isthe middle and high latitudes may come down and may causeclimaticchanges similar {Little Tce Age which occurred from 14500 1880 A.D. The year 1816 was knownas the yese without summer in the USA, The computer model his further revealed that the drop in solar radiation by 2-3 percent for 50 yearsincontinuation may cause regeneration of glaciation and may reacivatc older slaciers, and ifthe solar radiation decreases by 5 Percentormore,theearth may experience new ie age and widespread glaciation, ‘Theexpansion anécontrectionofthecoreof the sun has been accepted by a few scientists as basic cause of changes in the amount of energy radiated from the outer surface of the sun, ‘According toE.J.Opik the core ofthe sun expands after long intervals. The sun consumes a portion of its energy to expand ils ovter surface 1 cope with the expansion of its core. Insuch circumstance the radiant solar energy decreases because of con- sumption of substantial portion of solar energy by the sun itself, The decrease in solar radiation results in lowering of atmospheric temperature of the arth and consequently cool phase ofclimatcis introduced, which causes ice age. Conversoly, ‘hen the core of the sum contracts, the internal consumption of solar energy is remarkably re- duced. Consequently, the solarradistion increases, which result in the increase of temperatare ofthe earth's surface, termination of glacial period and beginning of interglacial period ‘Simpeon Theory ‘Coatrary tothe general view of the warming of the earth's surface and itsatmosphere during the pened of increased solar radiation, Si George Sim sou presented an entisely different concept ‘related wo variations in sola radiation and climatic /AeIeRFAM ANZ UNL LaviinervicentooKs, cumnrouser hanges in 1938 A.D, According to Sim ding tke period of moderate irene So inradiance, the riddle and high latrudes eat fexpetienere extension in glaciers and thet ao. vrnces while decrease in solar radiation and resultant decrease in air temperatue would couse melting oficesheets and glaciers and thee retreat, resulting into ansetof interglacial period. Simeon propounded the concept of cyclic patern of iwion. According ietomperatute increases wih on. The increase in atmos: ‘heric temperature causes increase in evaporation znd cloudiness, trong, meridional it circulation andinereased precipitation in higher latitudes, The ‘recitation in higher Iaitudes is in the form of ‘snowfall which allows more accumelation of ice andexiension of cesheetsand glaciers, The greater ‘foudlegss during sutoter season prohibits melt ing of acey saw and ice rather protects the other hand, during the phase of ar raiation. the atmospheric tem- berate decries, meson wit circulation ix ‘weakened, evaporation and precipitation remark: ably decreases in-high Initudes, melting of ice sheets causes their retreat. "Thus, paradoxically a lowering of mean atmospheric temperature might cause a feeession of ice sheets whereas tempers: lureinerease wouldlead to their advance. Although the Simpson theory appears not to inscumental evidence, it is a wa ‘oversimplified explanations of complex processes" (HI, Critchfsld, 2002). ‘Sunspot Theory ‘The sunspot tctivity bas been related to variations in solar irradiance. The increased sua- spot activity (increase in the number of suaspots) causes warming of the earth's surface and it laimosphere whereas decreased sunspot activity (decrease in the number of sunspots) causes Towering of atmospheric temperature, Sunspots arker and cooler areas in the photosphere of the sun. The increased sunspot activity means mcreae the number of sunspots while decreased sumspe activity is related (0 decrease in the number of sunspots. The study of sunspot activity (or Uh best 200 years has revealed cyclic pattern of rcreaee and decrease in sunspot wctivity. Oa aa arermgs. It tohim theatmosphe increase in solar radiDUtps://telegram.me/UPSL CivilServiceliooks, UMATIC CHANGE searscyele has been accepted whereas the period rh cieiee Cai uheeese of eto ionger period have also been postulated eg. 94 years cycle, 80 years cycle otc. It has ‘heen stated that the output of uliraviolet radiation fom the sun's erfce atthe Gime of maxim sunspot activity (maximom numberof i aencaminn ron a sunspot activity. The prolonged periad of mi ‘mom sunspot activity, called as Maunder Mini. rmum, is Supposed t0 introduce cooling of the carth’s surface and its atmosphere, whereas the qrotonged period of maximum sunspot activity may cause warming. It may be memioned. the, perfect correlation between sunspot activity and atmospheric temperature has not been suhstantie ed. ILmay be that periodic fluctuations in sunspot cycles may introduce some sortof weutherchanges atshorter temporal scale. ‘Repeated studies trying {ocorrelate rainfall withthe Nuctuation in sunspot cycles have not yet produced statistically sig cant results’ (Oliver and Hidore, 2003), ‘Atmospheric Dust Hypothesis: ‘The atmospheric solid particulate matters include dust particles, salt particles. pollen. smoke and soot, voloanie dusts and ashes etc. Most ofthe solid particles are Kept in suspension in the atmosphere. Itisanestablished fact that these solid paniculate matters (SPM) present in the atmos- phere reduce the amount of solar radiant entrey ‘eaching the earth's surface by scattering. reflee- tion and absorption of incoming shortwave cleclro- magnetic solar radiation. About 23 per cent of incoming solar radiation is scattered by dust anicles and haze, of which 6 per cent energy is sent back to the space while 17 per cent enerey teaches the earth's surface as diffuse day light, of course much later, The scattering of incoming solar radiation waves by dust particles when the Giamerer of such particles is longer than the wavelengths of incoming solar radiation waves: is ‘ale aifunreflection which sends some porion of nconung solar energy buck o space while Some Porton remain in the tower siempre cis also an established fact that sudden Increase in dust paricies caused by violeal 363 Powerful volcanic eruptions reduc ture of the ex's surface mh ler sempre Femarkaby sndintroducesMuctuatonsin wenor And climati conditions leat at shone emporat allt bremenbcred at estore ure increases at the time of greater ‘oleanie activity because most of the scattered teflecied and absorbed energy remain there, bat the temperature of the lower troposphere and the ‘arth’ssucface drops significanly. ad itis the Aemperature ofthe lower atmosphere that controls \weuther and climate atthe earth's surface. This corollary may be substantiated with a few examples of volcanic eruptions and resultant ‘cooling ofthe earth's surface and its atmosphere. (1) There was annihilating violent explo- sive eruption of ¢ voleano on 27 August, 1883 in Krakotoa island located in the Sunda Strait berween Java and Sumatra inthe East indies. The powerful _yoleanic blast was STINT equivalent of about 100 nillidn (ons (2. 10" pounds). Nearly 20 cubic rcesputit S3eubic kilometers) of fragmental materials, ashes and dusts were throws in the #it plo 32 kilometers in the mosphere (upto middle of steatosphere), which werelaterondistriboted. due otheic fall, onan area (6 700,000 square kilometers, The fine dusts were jected upto 32 kilometersin theatmosphere which produced global decrease in solar radiation re- ceived atthe earth's surface by 10-20 percent. there \was total darkness inthe sky because the dusts and shes bloted ou thesun for several days, heeft of otal darkness was observed upto thedistance of 150 kilometers from the center of eruption. The ejection af fine dusts and ashes inthe stratosphere and thir circulation and drifting around the earth by upper air lmospheric circulation produces Ponatered suns fr several srs. The reduced solar rudiation received on the earth's surtace and fesultant drop in eemperature matches with cols ‘years from 1884 to 1886. (2) The violent eruption of Mt, Asoma in an is correlated with severe col! yeas nd 1786. The exceptionally cold D,, known as a year without wie history of the worl ve eruption of Mt 1813, The 1783 ind of 1784, 1785 year of 1816 A. fummer 19 the etic followed the famous explosi ‘Tamboro in Dutch Bast lads inthe yearIttps://1 64 volume of dusts ejected from the violent eruption bhi volcano was se enormous that thick dus Vil ‘covered the sn resulting into complate darkness for $ days in continuation, which extended upto-a distance of 500 kilometers from the center of exuption (3) The explosive eruption of Mt. Katmai in 1912 in Alaska (USA) ejented about 21 cubic Aslometers of voleanic materials and dusts in the simosphere resulting into 20 pr cent reduction in the amount of solar radiation received atthe earth's surface. About 2 percent drop in solar radia was noted at the Mauna: Loa Observatory in Hiawaii atthe time of the eruption of Mt Agung in Bali in the year 1963. Contrary tothe general belief of correlation between major volcanic eruptions and lowering of temperatures, the empirical studies ofa few recent volcanic eruptions such as Bl Chichon eruption of 1982 in Mexico, Mt St Helens eruption of 1980 (USA) 2 few earlier explosive eruptions such as Mount Cosequina eruption of 1835 in Nicaragua show noaueh correlation Itmay be mentioned hat the impact of voleanie eruptions in lowering the temperature depends on a variety of factors, numely the penetration of the stratosphere by jected volcanic dusts and gases, the volume of sulphur dioxide, the amount of dusts etc. IT the eruption is very explosive and powerful, the volume of ejected sulphur dioxideis very large, and the amounts of dustsare very high definitely these materials will reach the stratosphere and will reduce the temperaure tthe earths surface and its simosphere. The ejected sulphur dioxide gas after combining with atmospherie water vapour forms \iny droplets of sulpluric acids, These tiny sulphu- ric acid droplets zemain in the atmosphere for longer period and reflect sizeable portion of incoming solar radiation and thus the amount of solar radiation received at the earth's surface is remarkably reduced resulting into the lowering of carih’s surface temperature Kecently.two indices. relatedto voleanic ‘eruption and its impact on climate changy, namely (1) Volcanic Kxplosive index (VEL) and (2) Dust Veil Index (DVI), have been prepared. Its argued that high VEL would indicate powerful and elegram.me/UPSC CivilServiceBooks om cuamarocriny ‘fective penetration of the stratosphere by sige rnin ft sac yo, lowering of temperature. Similarly. high try; ‘would be indicative of reduction in soiarradiange ‘received at the earth’ ssurface and consequent geop Hetatiperatare It my be mentioned ther reese, period of volcanic dusts and. gates is. very ‘important factor for glacial climate. if heresident period of volcanic materials is for longer duration ive. if the volcanic materials remain in the mosphere for longer period, the resultant lower. ‘ng of temperature may initiate glacial period. On {he other Band, short-term resident period woutd cause only local effects on weather and climate Carbon Dioxide Theory ‘tis important to note that it isthe receiptof solarenergy atthe earth's surface and absorption of incoming jon and outgoing terrestrial radiation bythe atmosphere which has significant ‘control on weather and-climate, and the amount of ‘energy received atthe earth's surface depends on ‘yet WIRSL Glelcvotthewtwossber, (@)ehanges in the transparency ofthe atmosphere. G) odificaion of exergy in the transit (ie. flowing through the atmosphere) etc. The changes in he gaseous composition of the atmosphere are effected by both natural and anthropogenic sources. “The increase of relative proportion of greenhéuse gases (e.g. carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogea ‘oxides etc.) in general and carbon dioxide ia particular causes global warming and initiates warm climate while decrease in their relative percentage causes global cooling and helps in initiating cold climate if other factors remain constant, Thus, the carbon dioxide theory states that increase and decrease in temperatures ofthe earth's surface and its atmosphere is effected by increase and decrease of its(CO,) relative perce aye in the gaseous composition of the atmaspher® respectively It may be remembered that the increase of ‘arth’s temperature by absorbing outgoing terre trial. infrared ration by certain gases (asad carbon dioxide) is called greenhouse phase of De aimosphere. whereas Icehouse phase rfers © lowering of earth's temperature leading Wo Desi hing of glacial period, The greenhouse tetnuips: means ‘progressive warmingup of the earth's Corfnce due tothe blanketing effect of manmade Carbon sioxide in the atmosphere’ (Oxford Dictionary). "In a green house visible tonight passes through the glass and heats up the sol ‘arming the plants. The werm sols emitradintion in longer wavelengths particulaely inthe infrared band. Because the glass is opaque 10 these wavelengths (long wavelengths of infrared radia. ton waves). itabsorbsandeflets(ceraiats back ‘othe sols) the infrared (eagiaion) (D.B. Borin andE.A. Keller, 1982). Mis mechanism keepsthe frnhouss warmer thn he ous enviconmeal. nutshell itmay besummatized hate greenhouse acelin tamed banter solar radiation to come in but does aot allow the Jongwave outgoing teeesral infrared radiation to ‘scape. Carbon dioxide and water vapour act greenhouse in that these allow visible sunlight to reach thesurface ofthe earth bu absorb aadrefleet back (reradiate) the longwave outgoing terestral radiation mainly infrared radiation (oack to ihe farth's surface) and thashelpin Keepingtheeanh's serlace warmer ‘The most significant greenhouse gos is carbon dioxide whichis released othe amosphere by burning of fossil fuets (coal, mineral oil and sural gas) fr efferent purposes in varios ways, buming of frewoodsete. Deforestation alsolelps in increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The pre-industil level of tlmospheric content ofcarbon dtoxide was fixed at 280-200 ppmy (part pet million by volume) or (0.028 percent 100.029 percent (the bass year ofthe teginning of indusvil revoltuon in 1860.0.) It JF aso important to note that there are ceiain ‘satual processes ané sources which regulate the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, amely vegetation covers and oceans ate major sinks absorbers and users) of atmospheric carbon ‘ivnide, Deforestation and burning of forests for Shuluing cul vation remarkably reduces te use of carton dioside by vegetation covers and hence ‘eps sn increasing the concentration of carbon hone in the smouphere ‘Tuc atnwospheric contest of carbon dioxide acted rom he pre-industrial level of 280-290 YI 10380-360 ppmy during 1998, reystering TelegraNLNe/ UPL LiVHservicelsoo ws eral increase by 25 per cent from the pee industrial level. Is etieved thatthe rte of increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide theowgh fntropogenic sources willbe accelerated due to Aticheked induvil development aad increasing urbanization worldovet. Ditferent modes have been developed to ‘veal the telatinshis beeen the nerease nthe ‘orcenrai ofatmasphere carbon donde trough ntropogesi sourees and elimatechanges but the sredietionsof hess modes ae very auch confus- Ingandecontadtior. Ifthe isuncerainy nthe Prediction of carbon dioxide tends, then the Predictions of the resoling climatic effects are Even mote unetat(E Hobbs, 980) () Sen 10950); SR Sehnedae whl he eu of vars _climatie mo fictions inh eat Bt Ske simcrphere tingirom be ncresed th eh ene oy 10 600 i ere eeae ig lig meal loudiness Whiel Wile teduce incoming. solar ‘aiaies teal eeeatesotS aoe Honeeiditiel etysamantesoctas penn vb rustle Sicvemeepee tesa necs of be eis ies I shoe at Dok inalbeaited yes ielnpeet pax foes HUN Wetted eerie aos ta dct lenoaons o's hag tealog ote owm tings bd te se en eee CLWn tienes Ancor estinetiage elegant coarse ee te womens oxten Socee {2h Gra Clon Motel (GCM) The ened pcanion weliy Sons nd Seger tata han fren tment Rei Cemcisectisamcsyben Sea inmaeyatiavounsmrecs rit SRC tad tel e 7 orcs Se Oe naity at rooney ta acta arbany odha on tu telnttps: ae note either increase or decrease i the amount of Touslinessas predicted by SH. Shneider. Th other seonds, the increas in surface temperature caused fy increase in the atmospheric carbon dlokige will now te negated by feedback mechanism and hence ‘increased greenhouse effet would certainly intro- doce climate change (warming of the earth's surface and its lower atmosphere), (3) Atmespherte-Oceanie General Circus: tion Model (AOGCM) : As per the report of the Inte-governmentalPenelonClimate Change (IPCC, 2001) if the concentration of atmospheric CO; increases to $40.970 ppmy by the end ofthe 2ist century, the average surface ait temperature at global level would register an increase between 1°C to 5.8C. This increase in average ait temperature has been estimated in relation to average ar temperature during 1990-2000 aD. ‘The wends of probable future climatic change due to increase in average surface ait temperature at global level have been estimated on the basis of increase in the concentration of _Ereenhouse gates inthe atmosphere i fue. 4c has been estimated that the overall increase in surface temperature over the past one hundred years (upto 2000 A.D.) has been tbout 0.58C to 0.79C. According to another view the average sr temperature in the northern hemisphere increased by 0.4°C between 1880and 1940 because of rapid rate of combustion of fossil fuels during that long period but the temperature dropped after 1950 inspite of continued rapid rate of combustion of fossil fuels due to fast industrial development ther 1960, The ais temperature inthe southern hemisphere showed rising tend which registered an overall increase of 0.0°C between 1940 and 1960. 1s evident that though there is maximum consumption of fossil feels in the northern ttemisphere and consequent increasein the concen tration of atmospheric carbon dioxide but the air temperature dropped whereas there is minimum consumption of fossil fuels in the southern hemisphere but air temperature increased. {t does ‘not mean that theres no direct impacto increxsing Carbon dioxide on air temperature rather some ‘thes factors might have dominated over the factor of greenhouse effect. Itisopined that large amount /telegram. mes UPS Livilservie Books camry blanc dus oem nt te we through iw toptionsofHocts cima et Muspur (alos, USA) int953 ae oe 1963, Mote Tai (Philp in sdFeeuninaln 968 mio buncrahes peel ectera ecve toet ‘pe and 1970, Ite of conreig opinions abou te Isla Hiopoinessataconctaoneoret SR a rrtimesotet ok Meese Lap ccetmatts onaet a, thes [a ati tive noun ‘greenhouse effect due (oincreased concentration of tarot doniointbestwonphre, The nro a ecineracnace ore arose ckaace Seow ia oe el es aia. 1 to. A.B. Pittock (1972) the Mean lemperature by afew ‘caused by greenhouse effec change slime. . {ore due to increased fecal woldeasedeseaseinpreip {aion an sell moisture coment {G)tocaseof global warming oceans would be reauredasbrorb more nd more carbondioxice ‘his willbe normal evel of city of the ceeans Which would decrease biological nctivity in the ceans and oceanie plant cover, which ultimately would alter the albedo of ocean surface. (4) maybe posible atthe carbon dioxide concentration ine atmosphere may increase to Such an extent that the foal atmospheric pressure ‘would increase, Such increase in atmosphers pressure would broaden the absorption bands ad increase the opacity of the atmosphere to the ujgoing eresvial radiation which Would in we increase the surface temperature to such an exe that all the slmospherie processes may come arindinghalt (5) Recently, atmoapherie bck owls (ABC), asn resultof concentration of pollutant 2 the atmosphere ductoburmingof fossil fuels. Me been related to unprecedented snowrall in Debs heavy snowfall the lower aladnal seas of aed Kash Minha seen sd