1on1zat1on

Chambers

Overview
An ionization chamber consists of a gas filled
cavity surrounded by two electrodes of
opposite polarity and an electrometer. The
electric field established between the
electrodes accelerates the radiation produced
ions to be collected by the electrodes. This
charge is read out by the electrometer and
may be converted to absorbed dose.

Three common types of ionization chambers

are used in medical physics for reference
dosimetry: cylindrical, plane parallel and free
air chambers.

Cylindrical Chambers
Cylindrical chambers are most commonly
used in reference dosimetry applications of
MV photons and electrons above about
6MeV. Cylindrical chambers, especially
farmer chambers, are well characterized and
are considered the gold standard of clinical
reference dosimetry. Because the of their
axial design, the effective point of
measurement is
9:27 AM r:lll .,I., ,cm
chambers, are well characterized and are
considered the gold standard of clinical
reference dosimetry. Because the of their
axial design, the effective point of
measurement is upstream of the central axis
of the chamber by 0.6rcav for photons and
0.5rcav for electrons.

Cylindrical
Ionization Chamber

Thimble Aluminum
Cap Stem ulator

Sensitive entral Guard Ring

Volume Electrode aNcaLaGvMeo,cJl.L?Hvs,cs.caM

Plane Parallel Chambers

Plane parallel, sometimes called parallel plate,
ionization chambers are commonly used in
low energy (<6MeV) electron dosimetry as
well as in applications where precise
measurement location is valued such as
measurement of electron percent depth dose
distributions. The key advantage of plane
parallel ionization chambers is the effective
point of measurement is the front (most
upstream) plane of the chamber.

0 0 T
upstream of the central axis of the chamber
by 0.6rcav for photons and 0. Srcav for
electrons.

Cylindrical
Ionization Chamber

Thimble Aluminum
Cap Stem ulator

• ------
-
Sensitive entral Guard Ring
Volume Electrode aNcoLoGvMeo,c.1.1.L;::>Hvs,cs.coM

Plane Parallel Chambers

Plane parallel, sometimes called parallel plate,
ionization chambers are commonly used in
low energy (<6MeV) electron dosimetry as
well as in applications where precise
measurement location is valued such as
measurement of electron percent depth dose
distributions. The key advantage of plane
parallel ionization chambers is the effective
point of measurement is the front (most
upstream) plane of the chamber.
 Parallel Plate
Ionization Chamber
Radiation
....._,,... 'Incidence L...-

Entrance
Window

Voltage
Electrode

Guard Collector Sensitive

Ring Electrode Volume
ONCOLOGVMEOIC.6L?HVSICS.COM

Free Air Chambers

Free air ionization chambers are the
instrument of definition for the unit of the
Roentgen and, as such, are tied
fundamentally to absorbed dose. This makes
free air ionization chambers the reference
dosimeter of choice for Accredited Dosimetry
Calibration Laboratories (ADCLs) but their
large size makes them unsuitable for clinical
applications.
Free Rir Ionization Chamber
. .

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Source
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Farmer Chambers
Key Point: Farmer chambers are
thimble ionization chambers widely used
in reference dosimetry. Questions
regarding farmer chamber design and
operation are common on board exams.

• Typical Sensitive Volume: 0.6cc

(approximately cylindrical, 0.3cm
radius, 2cm length)
• Typical Response: 20nC/Gy
• Effective Point of Measurement:
o Photons: 0.6rcav ( ~0.18cm)
upstream of central axis
o Electrons: 0.Srcav (
~0.1Scm) upstream of
central axis
Gas Amplification Curve
The response of an ionization chamber is
heavily dependent on the voltage applied
between the outer electrode and the central
electrode. The gas amplification curve
describes the behavior of an ionization
chamber as a function of applied voltage.

Region I: Recombination

Response in this region is voltage

dependent as well as energy dependent
because a large number of ions
recombine prior to collection.

Region II: Ionization region

Sufficient voltage to prevent

recombination but insufficient voltage to
produce secondary ionizations. This is
the region used in clinical ionization
chambers because the measured signal
is directly proportional to the number of
ionizations produced by incident
radiation.

Region Ill: Proportional region

Response is proportional to energy

collected and to the applied voltage.
Proportional counters operate in this
voltage range.
9:28 AM r:lll ., I., 11 62:ll

11.eg1on 1v; L1mnea propor11ona111y region

Response to collected energy diminishes

while response to applied voltage
increases. This voltage region is not
used.

Region V: Geiger-Muller region

Townsend avalanche creates a large

number of secondary avalanches. Like
an explosion burns until the fuel source
runs out, a Townsend avalanche
produces secondary electrons until the
electrons neutralize the local electric
field preventing further ion production.

Region VI: Continuous discharge region

The chamber continually arcs due to

excessive applied voltage.

Gas Rmplificatian Curve

Recombination Limited
Region Proportionality
5 Region:

I
'
10•
: Gelger-Muller
12 Ionization ' Region
'510 Region
u I-,:

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Region
Continuous
Discharge

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V VI

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Applied Voltage (V) ONCOLOGVMEOIC.o!I.L;:>HVSICS.COM

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Region IV: Limited proportionality region

Response to collected energy diminishes

while response to applied voltage
increases. This voltage region is not
used.

Region V: Geiger-Muller region

Townsend avalanche creates a large

number of secondary avalanches. Like
an explosion burns until the fuel source
runs out, a Townsend avalanche
produces secondary electrons until the
electrons neutralize the local electric
field preventing further ion production.

Region VI: Continuous discharge region

The chamber continually arcs due to

excessive applied voltage.

Gas Rmplificatian curve

Recombination Limited
Region Proportionality
5 Region

I10'
o-
Ionization
Region
Geiger-Muller:
Region :

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 Comparison of Common
Dosimeters
Device Common Advantages
-Accuracy Uses

O Ion -Reference -Best

Chambers Dosimetry understood
+1% -Percent Depth -Sub 1%
Dose accuracy
Distributions possible
-Low energy
dependence

O Diode -Small field -Small volume

Detectors dosimetry -Rapid readout
+2-3% -Array devices -No external
-Electron POD bias

0 Film -Planar dose -Best spatial

+2-5% distributions resolution (µm)
-Electron POD -Large area
measurement
-Persistent
dose record
-Tissue
equivalent
(radiochromic
only)
{I) Luminescent -In Vivo -Small size
Dosimeters Dosimetry -Low MV
+3% -Personnel energy
dosimeters dependence
-End-to-end
testing (IROC)

{I) MOSFET -In vivo -Extremely

Detectors dosimetry small effective
-Small Field volume
Dosimetry -Permanent
-Surf ace dose dose record
-Instant
readout

{I) Plastic -Small Field -Small volume

Scintillators Dosimetry -Near water
-Array equivalent
Measurements -Dose and rate
-Electron independent
measurements
 Film Dosimeters

Overview
Film may be used in radiation measurement,
especially for measurement of relative dose
distributions. The dosimetric accuracy of film
is, however, limited to 2-5% because film
measurement is subject to many
compounding sources of error (measurement
conditions, development, readout, etc).

There are two distinct types of film:

radiographic film and radiochoromic film.
Radiographic film is similar to that used in
older radiography applications and requires
chemical development. Chemical development
adds cost and introduces significant variability
in dose measurement.

Radiochromic film is self-developing via a

polymerization reaction. This self
development feature has cause radiochromic
film to largely supersede radiographic film for
dosimetry purposes.
Dose Measurement
1. Film is oriented with appropriate
side facing beam and irradiated.
o Film may also be oriented parallel
to the field for percent depth dose
measurements.
2. If radiographic, film is chemically
processed. If radiochromic, time
delay after exposure as image
producing reactions occur.
3. Film is read out on calibrated scanner.
o This will measure optical density.
4. Optical density is converted to
absorbed dose via calibration.

Optical Density
Optical Density (OD), the log base 10 of the
fraction of light transmitted through an
unexposed film to the light transmitted after
exposure.

OD= log10(1f) = -log1o(T)

• /0 is the light collected without film.
• I is the light collected after passing
through film.
 • Tis the transmittance; the ratio of the
light transmitted through film to the
light transmitted without film.

Hurter and Driff1eld

(H&D) Curves
H&D curves are used to relate the exposure
or dose to optical density. Most H&D curves
used for dosimetry purposes report optical
density as a function of log base 10 of dose.

Film Speed: Fast film will have a greater

increase in optical density with dose but will
also have a more limited range of optical
densities. Slower film provides better range
and dose resolution. Faster film is more
appropriate for dose reduction in imaging
purposes.

Gradient: The slope of the curve in the linear

region. Fast films have a higher gradient.

Latitude: The range of exposures in the linear

region. This is also referred to as the range.

Linear Region: This is the useful region in

which optical density is proportional to log of
exposure.
Toe, Shoulder: These regions are not clinically
useful as the relationship between exposure
and optical density is non-linear.

Fog: Darkening of the film due to background

radiation or light exposure (for radiographic
film).

Base: The natural attenuation of the film

without exposure or fog.

High Speed Film Low Speed

Film Shoulder

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Log Exposure (mR)/ Log Dose (Gy)

9:36 AM r:lll .,I., ,cm

Types of Film
Dose Advantages
Accuracy

Radiographic 3-5% • Highest

spatial
resolution
(µm)
• Energy
independent
in MV
region only
• Lower dose
threshold

Radiochromic 2-3% • Tissue

equivalent
(Z = 6-6.5)
• Energy
independent
• No
chemical
processing
• Very high
spatial
resolution
,

0 0 :J
T
•
Types of Film
Dose Advantages
Accuracy

Radiographic 3-5% • Highest

spatial
resolution
(µm)
• Energy
independent
in MV
region only
• Lower
dose
threshold
Radiochromic 2-3% • Tissue
equivalent
(Z = 6-6.5)
• Energy
independent
• No
chemical
processing
• Very high
spatial
resolution
(sub-mm)

Radiographic Film
Radiation
Measurement Process
1. When radiation hits the film,
loosely bound electrons are freed.
2. These electrons aggregate around
impurities and form a negative
charge.
3. This negative charge attracts the Ag+
ions leaving behind neutral (metallic)
silver. This is the latent image.
o Latent image will be magnified a
billion fold (~1 o9)
4. The film is developed in a 4-step
process
1. The developer is applied to the
emulsion. This greatly amplifies
the amount of metallic silver and
the latent image.
2. Acetic acid (referred to as the stop
bath) is applied which stops
further development.
3. The fixer (Sodium
Thiosulphate) dissolves all
undeveloped grains thereby
fixing the image.
4. The image is washed to
remove chemicals and dried.
5. Finally, the film is read out on
a calibrated optical digitizer.
 -,

Key Point: The latent image consists of

metallic silver atoms and is not visible
without development. Latent images can
be formed by as few as 10 silver atoms.
There are more commonly many
thousands of metallic silver atoms in the
latent image because a single X-ray
quanta is able to
..

Radiographic Film Cantrsuctian

t '--,------------------------------',- Protective layer
(gelatin)
3-5 : - Emulsion (silver halide)
µm): : '
t
==============·- !
Adhesive
I- Plastic base
'
·-Adhesive
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:- Emulsion (silver halide)
'
' -Protective layer
(gelatin)
ONCOLOGVMEi:>ICJl.Li?HVSICS.COM

Radiographic Film
Construction
Plastic Base: provides the structure of the
film.
Silver Bromide Emulsion: is the active layer
of the film consisting of Ag+ and Br- ions.

• Grains are 0.1 - 3 µm in diameter

• 1o9 to 1010 grains per square centimeter

Gelatin Protective Layer: serves to keep the

silver bromide grains well dispersed and to
protect unexposed grains during development.

Radiochromic Film
Radiochromic, sometimes referred to as
GafChromic, film used a radiation induced
polymerization action to produce darkening of
the film proportional to absorbed dose.

Radiation Measurement
Process
1. Radiation incident on the active
layer induces a polymerization
reaction.
2. As the active layer polymerizes, it
becomes partially opaque in proportion
to the incident dose. This process
9:38 AM r:lll ., •., 1[m]

continues for several hours and the time

between measurement and readout
must be controlled.
3. After 1-24 hours, the ftlm is read out
on a calibrated optical digitizer. Near
immediate readout is possible but
results in decreased measurement
precision.

Polymer grains in Radiochromic film under electron

microscope.

Radiochromic Film
Construction
Base Layer: Polyester (Mylar) base provides
structure to the film.

Active Layer: Consists of radio-sensitive

chemicals which polymerize into optically
opaque polymers upon irradiation. This is a
chemical reaction which takes approximately
24 hours to complete, although most of the
development occurs in the first hour.

0 0 T
Symmetrical and Non-Symmetrical
Designs: Although most current films are
constructed symmetrically, older films have
been constructed asymmetrically.
Asymmetrical construction requires attention
to orientation during measurement and
readout to avoid introduction of systematic
error.

EBT 2 is a common example of

asymmetrical construction. Although it
was later shown that this had little
influence on measured dose distribution,
EBT 3 was introduced with a
symmetrical design.

Radiochromic Film Construction

Clear polyester - 50 µm
Adhesive layer - 25 Matte polyester - 125 µm
µm Active layer - 28
µm
Active layer - 28
µm
Clear polyester - 175 µm
Matte polyester - 125 µm

Non-Symmetrical Film Symmetrical Film

Example: EBT-2 Example: EBT-3
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 Luminescent
Dosimeters

Overview
Luminescent dosimeters are crystal
structures which are able to trap and store
energy when irradiated. This energy is later
released via luminescence in the form of
visible light. Measurement of emitted light
may be used to determine the dose
delivered to the dosimeter.

TLDs vs OSLDs
Accuracy Chemical
Compositior

Thermoluminescent ~3% LiF:Mg, Tl

Dosimeters (TLD)
Optically Stimulated ~3%
Luminescent
Dosimeters
(OSLD)

Dose Measurement
1. Incident ionizing radiation creates
an electron-hole pair in the crystal
structure.
2. The liberated electron is promoted to
the conduction band and migrates to
the electron trap. At the same time the
hole migrates along the valence band
to a hole trap.
3. Energy (in the form of heat for a TLD
or light for an OSLD) is imparted to the
electron and hole allowing them to
escape their traps. This causes the
electron-hole pair to recombine at a
luminescent center and release light.
9:46 AM r:lll .I I. I 11 6'llll

i Luminescent Dosimeters I One...

X oncologymedicalphysics.com •
ZJ. EmInea 11gn1 Is measorea oy-a
photomultiplier tube or camera (CCD or
CMOS). This light is used to determine
absorbed dose.

Crystal Structure
Energy Bands: The crystalline structure of
luminescent dosimeters gives rise to
delocalized electronic states referred to as
energy bands.

Valence Band is the band of electron

orbitals that can donate an electron to
the conduction band when excited. This
is simply the outermost electron orbital
that is occupied by electrons.

Conduction Band is the energy band

that excited electrons can enter when
leaving the valence band. Electrons in
the conduction band are able to move
freely producing electric current. Simply
put, the conduction band is able to
conduct current.

Band Gag_s are the difference in energy

between the valence and conduction
bands. The size of the band gap
determines the minimum energy

0 0 T
 Band GaQ.s are the difference in
energy between the valence and
conduction bands. The size of the band
gap determines the minimum energy
required for an excited valence electron
to enter the conduction band. Band gap
size determines whether the material is
a conductor (no band gap), a
semiconductor, or an insulator (large
band gap).

Luminescent Dosimeter
Theory of Operation
Irradiation I Readout
- Conduction band

Heat/Light

t- t-
>, Electron trap Electron trap
...
Cl
C1> Impurity level '
,::
w --.. r Impurity level 1
Visible light
Hole trap

Hole trap/
recombination center
X-ray - IValence bandl
ONCOLOGVMEOIC.-..L?HVSICS.COM

Crystal Lattice Imperfections: Imperfections

in the crystal lattice create occupiable energy
levels withinthe band gap. These energy
levels are known as traps because electrons
can remain trapped in these energy levels
until freed. There are three important types of
imperfections:
 TraQ. Centers: are meta-stable energy
states for charge carriers (electrons and
holes) elevated out of the valence band.
Trap centers allow the detector to hold
some of the absorbed dose energy until
readout.

o Depth of the trap relates to the

amount of energy required to escape
the trap. (i.e. shallow traps may be
escaped under ambient conditions
but deep traps require a great deal
of heat/light energy for the charge
carrier to escape).
o F-center (the most common trap) is
characterized by an anion vacancy
in the crystal.
o M angesium dopants add
trap centers.

F-Center Electron Trap

+ - +- + 8 8
- +- + -
+ - + [fil + (t)
- +- + -
+ - +- + 8 (ff 8
F-center trap lredl Electron in trap is
with electron distributed among
filling the anionic surrounding cations.
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9:48 AM r:lll • I I. 11 6'llll

Luminescent (Recombination) Centers:

are imperfections that allow
electron/hole pairs to recombine and, in
the process, emit the light used to
determine absorbed dose. Trapped
electrons must be excited by light or
heat to enter a luminescent center.

o Titanium dopants add luminescence

centers

ComQ.etitive Centers: also trap charge

carriers but do not contribute to
luminescence other than removing the
charge from being able to recombine.
Filling of competitive centers is
responsible for the increase in sensitivity
of TLDs at high doses (supralinear
response).

Doping: Imperfections can be intentionally

added to a crystal through a process called
doping. Doping allows control over the
properties of a luminescent dosimeter by
modifying the content of trap, luminescent
and competitive centers. Common dopants
include Mg, Ti and C.

Key Point: Luminescent detectors exploit

crystalline imperfections to trap radiation
energy within the crystal. This energy
can
0 0 T
 Luminescent (Recombination) centers:
are imperfections that allow
electron/hole pairs to recombine and, in
the process, emit the light used to
determine absorbed dose. Trapped
electrons must be excited by light or
heat to enter a luminescent center.

o Titanium dopants add luminescence

centers

ComP-,etitive Centers: also trap charge

carriers but do not contribute to
luminescence other than removing the
charge from being able to recombine.
Filling of competitive centers is
responsible for the increase in sensitivity
of TLDs at high doses (supralinear
response).

Doping: Imperfections can be intentionally

added to a crystal through a process called
doping. Doping allows control over the
properties of a luminescent dosimeter by
modifying the content of trap, luminescent
and competitive centers. Common dopants
include Mg, Ti and C.
 Key Point: Luminescent detectors exploit
crystalline imperfections to trap radiation
energy within the crystal. This energy can
then be released as light and used to
determine absorbed dose.

Thermoluminescent
Dosimeters (TLD)
Optical Readout
Heating causes the TLD to emit photons
which are measured in real time using a
photomultiplier tube (PMT) or optical camera
(CCD or CMOS). Heaters may either use an
ohmically heated plate or heated nitrogen gas.

(3.2 x 3.2 x 0.9) mm

micro-cubes
clisk (I x I x I) mm
powder (Ix6)mm

threadlike (4.5 X 0.9) mm

chip
 TL□
DC
amplifier
Reader
Recorder
PM
tube
TL light

Power
Supply
ONCOLOGVMEDIC L?HV51C5.COM

Glow Curve

A glow curve is a graph of luminescence as a

function of TLD temperature.

The probability of escaping a trap center

increases with temperature and decreases
with trap depth. Cumulative probability of
escaping a center is then proportional to both
temperature and time under the temperature.
This results in distinct glow peaks on the glow
curve. Use of a consistent heating protocol
(rate of temperature increase) is also
important for this reason.
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Reusing TLDs

Annealing (Preparation for

Reuse)
Annealing is a heating process by which trap
centers are emptied and redistributed through
out the crystal lattice. As with readout,
consistent heating protocol during annealing
is important to assure consistent TLD
response.

Below is one common annealing protocol:

1. Heat to 400°C for 1 hour to

reset lattice/impurity structure.
 2. Reduce heat to 80°C for 24 hours to
rearrange the traps that result in peak 2
(glow curve image).

Supralinearity
The response of TLDs increases (i.e. TLDs
become more sensitive) with repeated use.
This increases sensitivity, known as
supralinearity, is caused by a decrease in the
availability and efficiency of competitive
centers. There are two reasons for this
decrease:

1. As competitive centers become

increasingly populated, the odds of a
charge carrier encountering an available
competitive center decreases.
2. Energy distance between neighboring
trap and luminescence centers
decreases. This decreases probability of
the charge carrier encountering a
competitive center once freed from a
trap.
Optically Stimulated
Luminescent
Dosimeters (OSLO)

Optical Readout
Light emission is stimulated by illuminating
the crystal. Illumination may be supplied by
lasers, LEDs or fluorescent lamps.
Luminescent photons may be measured with
a photomultiplier tube or camera {CCD or
CMOS).

The entire illumination process takes only

about 1 second and releases only about 0.05%
of the stored luminescence. This allows
multiple readouts of the same measurement.

Light Source Rejection

The wavelength of illumination light

source is different than that of the
luminescent photons. This allows the
photometer to reject photons emitting
from the light source by means of a
filter. Light source photons may also be
rejected from measurement using
temporal filtering in which the light
source is flashed rapidly and
 measurements are made when the light
is off.

o-
n -
3 =--

---
- --
-- -
-
---
--=

-- -
-
w--=-
-----
-
Reusing OSLDs
Bleaching
Bleaching is the optical treatment of an OSLO
with light from a halogen lamp, fluorescent
lamp, or green LED (fitted w/yellow filter).
Bleaching empties most trap centers and
prepares the device for reuse.

Importantly, deep trap centers will not be

emptied during bleaching. This causes a
change in OSLO sensitivity over time. To avoid
this, an OSLO may be annealed at 900°C to
empty deep traps.