Electrical Machine- I (3rd Semester)

Unit 4: Single Phase Transformer

A transformer is a static device, i.e., it has no moving parts, that transforms electrical energy from one
electrical circuit at one voltage level to another electrical circuit at another voltage level through the
medium of magnetic field, without the change in frequency. It consists of two electrical coils called as a
primary winding and secondary winding. The primary winding of a transformer receives electrical energy
from supply mains, while the secondary winding delivers electrical energy to the load.

4.1: Principle of operation

A transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction between two or
more electrical circuit or coils which are coupled together or linked by a magnetic (iron) core. According
to this principle, an e.m.f. is induced in a coil if it links a changing flux. Typically, mutual induction
between primary and secondary windings is responsible for the operation in an electrical transformer.

Fig. 1: A two winding single phase transformer.

As shown in Fig. 1, the primary winding is connected to an AC supply or an alternating voltage source. So
an alternating current I starts flowing through the primary winding. This creates an alternating m.m.f.
(No. of turns of primary winding x Alternating current flowing through primary winding, I) which sets up
an alternating or pulsating flux ϕ and the flux remains confined to the magnetic (iron) core because of its
high permeability. This alternating or pulsating flux when links and cuts the secondary winding through
the magnetic core, induces a voltage in the secondary winding. When the secondary winding is

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connected to load, current flows to the load and power is delivered to load. The same alternating flux
also links and cuts the primary winding and induces a voltage in the primary winding also.

Beside the secondary winding there can be third winding called tertiary winding linked through the
same magnetic core. The voltage induced in the secondary and tertiary winding is basically because of
the transformer action. Thus the transformer action requires an alternating or pulsating flux linking all
the windings through a common magnetic core.

The direction of the magnetic flux in magnetic core after the primary winding is provided the AC supply,
can be found by the Right Hand Grip Rule, which states that if the fingers of right hand other than the
thumb represents the direction of current in a coil, then the thumb of right hand if extended as shown in
fig. 2, represents the direction of magnetic flux. The direction of emf or voltage induced in secondary
winding connected to load is such that when the current flows to load the flux generated by the
secondary winding is opposite to the direction of flux generated by primary winding, connected to AC
supply. It means the flux generated by secondary winding opposes the flux which caused an induced
emf in secondary winding feeding the load and the current due to this induced emf in secondary winding
is causing the opposing flux to be generated and it satisfies the Lenz’s Law in secondary winding.

Let us connect a supply voltage V to primary winding of transformer. Lets assume the terminal of supply
voltage V to be positive in upward direction and negative in downward direction. The direction of
induced emf VP in the primary winding is such that it opposes the supply voltage V and so opposes the
primary current IP which produces the flux producing the induced emf VP. So the Lenz’s Law is satisfied in
primary winding also.

[Note: Lenz’s Law states that an induced electric current flows in a direction such that the current
opposes the change or the cause that induced it.]

Fig. 2: Right Hand Grip Rule

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Fig. 3: A single phase transformer showing direction of induced emf, current in primary and secondary
windings.

4.2: E.m.f. equation, Transformation ratio, KVA rating

E.m.f. equation of Primary winding:

With respect to Fig. 3, let supply voltage V applied to the primary of a tansformer be sinusoidal. The
primary current IP due to supply voltage V will also be sine. The m.m.f., Number of turns in primary
𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑃
winding NP x IP and Flux ϕ [ϕ = ] will also vary in the way IP will vary, i.e., flux will be sine.
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Φ = ϕm sin ωt

ϕm is the maximum value of magnetic flux in Webers. ω = 2πf is the angular frequency in rad/sec and f is
the supply frequency in Hertz.

E.m.f. induced in primary winding VP by pulsating flux ϕ having NP number of turns:

𝑑𝜙
VP = - NP 𝑑𝑡

𝑑(ϕm sin ωt)

VP = - NP
𝑑𝑡

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VP = - NP ω ϕm cos ωt
𝜋
VP = NP ω ϕm sin (ωt - )
2

Maximum value of VP, VP max = NP ω ϕm

𝜋
VP = VP max sin (ωt - 2 )

𝑉𝑃 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁𝑃 𝜔 𝜙𝑚 𝑁𝑃 2𝜋𝑓 𝜙𝑚
Rms value of emf induced in primary winding: VP rms = = = = √2𝜋𝑓𝑁𝑃 𝜙𝑚
√2 √2 √2

VP rms = √𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑵𝑷 𝝓𝒎
𝑉𝑃 𝑟𝑚𝑠
= √2πfϕm…………….(1)
𝑁𝑃

E.m.f. equation of Secondary winding:

𝑑𝜙
VS = - NS 𝑑𝑡
[Same flux links or couples both the primary and secondary winding]

𝑑(ϕm sin ωt)

VS = - NS 𝑑𝑡

VS = - NS ω ϕm cos ωt
𝜋
VS = NS ω ϕm sin (ωt - 2 )

Maximum value of VS, VS max = NS ω ϕm

𝜋
VS = VS max sin (ωt - )
2

𝑉𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁𝑆 𝜔 𝜙𝑚 𝑁𝑆 2𝜋𝑓 𝜙𝑚
Rms value of emf induced in primary winding: VS rms = = = = √2𝜋𝑓𝑁𝑆 𝜙𝑚
√2 √2 √2

VS rms = √𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑵𝑺𝝓𝒎
𝑉𝑆 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑁𝑆
= √2πfϕm…………….(2)

𝑉𝑃 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑆 𝑟𝑚𝑠
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get: 𝑁𝑃
= 𝑁𝑆
= √2πfϕm

𝑉𝑃 𝑉𝑆
 𝑁𝑃
= 𝑁𝑆
……………….(3)

Induced emf per turn in primary winding = Induced emf per turn in secondary winding
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃
 𝑉𝑆
= 𝑁𝑆
……………(4) [Obtained from equation (3)]

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We have already seen that same flux links or couples both the primary and secondary winding and Flux
ϕ is directly proportional to Ampere-turns, so primary winding ampere turns = secondary winding
ampere turns

 IPNP = ISNS
𝑁𝑃 𝐼
 𝑁𝑆
= 𝐼𝑆 ……………(5)
𝑃

𝑉 𝑁𝑃 𝐼
Comparing equations (4) and (5), we get: 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑁𝑆
= 𝐼𝑆 …………..(6)
𝑆 𝑃

Supply voltage V is directly proportional to primary induced emf VP and secondary induced emf VS is
directly proportional to load voltage. Let the load voltage be VL. Under no load condition, VS = VL and VP
≈V
𝑉 𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝐼
So, we can write: = = = 𝑆 ………………(7)
𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝐼𝑃

From equation (7), we get: VPIP = VSIS OR VIP = VLIS , i.e., Primary Volt- ampere = Secondary Volt- ampere

Transformation Ratio:

Transformation ratio, also called the turns ratio of transformer is the ratio of number of turns in high
voltage winding to number of turns in low voltage winding.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Transformation ratio or Turns ratio = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

For a step up transformer, whose secondary side voltage is higher than primary side voltage, i.e., V S >VP
𝑉 𝑁𝑆 𝐼
Turns ratio of a step up transformer = 𝑉 𝑆 = 𝑁𝑃
= 𝐼𝑃
𝑃 𝑆

For a step down transformer, whose secondary side voltage is lower than primary side voltage, i.e., V P
>VS
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑆
Turns ratio of a step down transformer = = =
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝐼𝑃

KVA Rating:

The manufacturer of transformer fixes a name plate of transformer, on which is recorded the rated
output of a particular transformer. If the name plate rating of a single phase transformer shows 25KVA,
then 25KVA is the rated output at the secondary terminals. The rated output of a transformer is
expressed in KVA (Kilovolt Ampere) or VA (Volt Ampere) and not in Kilowatt (KW) because the rated
transformer output is limited by the heating and heating occurs due to losses in transformer. The two
types of losses in a transformer are: Iron loss and Ohmic loss. Iron loss depends on transformer voltage
and iron loss depends on transformer current and are unaffected by load power factor. A transformer
working on rated voltage, rated current and zero power factor load has rated losses, rated KVA output

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but delivers 0 watt power to load. For this reason also it is important to determine the rating of
transformer in KVA.

For a transformer: (Rated input in KVA at primary x input power factor) = (Rated output in KVA at
secondary x load power factor) + losses

Transformers operate at very high efficiency, so losses can be ignored and input power factor is almost
equal to load power factor. So, rated KVA on nameplate of a transformer refers to both the windings,
i.e., rated KVA of primary and secondary windings are equal.

Rated KVA = Rated primary side voltage x Rated primary side current = Rated secondary side voltage x
Rated secondary side current.

Rated primary side and secondary side voltages are also mentioned on nameplate of transformer. So, as
rated KVA and rated voltages are available with us, we can easily calculate the rated primary side and
secondary side currents. The windings of transformer are designed according to the rated primary and
secondary side currents.

4.3: Types of transformer, Core construction & different parts of transformer and their functions:

Types of transformer:

(i) Based on voltage level:

(a) Step Up transformer
(b) Step Down transformer
(c) Isolation transformer
(ii) Based on core material:
(a) Iron Core transformer
(b) Ferrite Core transformer
(c) Toroidal Core transformer
(d) Air Core transformer
(iii) Based on type of winding and core construction:
(a) Core Type Transformer
(b) Shell Type Transformer
(iv) Based on number of windings:
(a) Two winding Transformer
(b) Auto Transformer
(v) Based on usage:
(a) Power Transformer
(b) Distribution Transformer
(c) Instrument Transformer
 Potential Transformer
 Current Transformer
(vi) Based on supply

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 (a) Single phase transformer
(b) Three phase transformer
Step Up Transformer:

Fig. 4: Step Up transformer

Step up transformer increase the low primary voltage to a high secondary voltage. For the Step Up
transformer, the ratio of the primary winding and the Secondary winding remains less than 1. That
means the number turns in secondary winding is higher than the primary winding.

In electronics, step up transformers often used in stabilizers, inverters etc where low voltage is
converted to a much higher voltage. It is also used when power after generation in generating station is
fed to transmission system to reach the consumers. Generated electrical energy is fed to transmission
system through a step up transformer.

Step Down Transformer:

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Fig. 5: Step Down transformer

Step down Transformer is used in both Electronics and Electrical domain. A step-down transformer
converts the primary voltage level to a lower voltage across the secondary output. For step-down
transformers the number of windings is higher across the primary side than the secondary side.
Therefore, the overall winding ratio of primary and secondary always remains more than 1.

In electronics, many applications run on 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V, 24V or in some cases 48V. To convert the single
phase power outlet voltage 230V AC to the desired low voltage level, Step Down transformers are
required. In instrumentation as well as in many electrical types of equipment, Step-Down transformer is
the primary requirement for the Power section.

In electrical, step down transformers are used in electrical distribution system.

Isolation transformer:

Fig. 6: Isolation transformer

Isolation transformer does not convert any voltage levels. The Primary voltage and the secondary
voltage of an isolation transformer always remain the same. This is because the primary and the
secondary winding ratio is always equal to the 1. That means the number of turns in primary and
secondary winding is same in isolation transformer.

As discussed previously, the transformer does not have any electrical connections between primary and
secondary, the isolation transformer is used to isolate the primary and secondary windings, where the
conduction happens only with the magnetic flux. It is used for safety purpose and to cancel noise
transfer from primary to secondary or vice-versa.

Iron Core transformer:

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Fig. 7: Iron Core Transformer

Both the primary and secondary windings are wound on multiple iron plate bunch which provide a
perfect linkage path to the generated flux. It offers less reluctance to the linkage flux due to the
conductive and magnetic property of the iron. These are widely used transformers in which the
efficiency is high.

Ferrite Core transformer:

Fig. 8: Ferrite Core Transformer

It uses a ferrite core due to high magnetic permeability. This type of transformer offers very low losses
in the high-frequency application. Due to this, ferrite core transformers are used in high-frequency
application such as in switch mode power supply (SMPS), Radio Frequency related applications, etc.

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Ferrite core transformers also offer a different type of shapes, sizes depending on the application
requirement. It is mainly used in electronics rather than electrical application. The most common shape
in the ferrite core transformer is E core.

Toroidal Core transformer:

Fig. 9: Toroidal Core transformer

Toroidal core transformer uses toroid shaped core material, such as iron core or ferrite core. Toroids are
ring or donut shaped core material and widely used for superior electrical performance. Due to the ring
shape, the leakage inductance is very low and offers high Q factors. The windings are relatively short
and weight is much less than traditional, same rating transformers.

Air Core transformer:

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Fig. 10: Air Core transformer

Both the primary and secondary windings are wound on a non-magnetic strip where the flux linkage
between primary and secondary windings is through the air.

Compared to iron core the mutual inductance is less in air core, i.e. the reluctance offered to the
generated flux is high in the air medium. But the hysteresis and eddy current losses are completely
eliminated in air-core type transformer.

Core Type Transformer:

In this Core type transformer, the windings surround a considerable part of the core. Generally, the core
of the core-type transformer is a rectangular shape and the coils are both circular or rectangular inform
and the windings are located on the opposite limbs of the core. In most of the large-size core type
transformer, round or circular cylindrical coils are used because the mechanical strength of circular
cylindrical coils is high. For reducing leakage flux, high voltage and low voltage windings are placed one
after another separating with high insulation cylinder between them.

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Fig. 11: Core type transformer

Fig. 12: Top view of Core type transformer

Shell Type Transformer:

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Fig. 13: Shell type transformer

The shell type transformer is a simple rectangular form and the core surrounds the considerable portion
of the windings which is shown in fig. Both the primary & secondary windings are placed in the one limb.
And the coils are wound in from of multi-layer disc type. The different layers of the multi-layer disc are
insulated from each other by paper. Its windings are called sandwiched type windings as high voltage
and low voltage windings are sandwiched between each other.

Two Winding Transformer: It has two different windings called primary winding and secondary winding
coupled by a magnetic core as shown in Fig. 3.

Auto Transformer:

Fig 14: Auto transformer

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Till now, the primary and secondary winding is fixed but in case of an auto-winding transformer, the
primary and the secondary coil can be connected in series both physically and magnetically and the
center tapped node is movable. Depending on the center tapped position, the secondary voltage can be
varied. The ‘Auto’ is not the short form of Automatic; rather it is to signify the single coil. This coil forms
a ratio which consists of two parts, primary and secondary. The position of the center tap node
determines the primary and secondary ratio thus varying the output voltage.

The most common use is the Variac, an instrument to produce variable AC from a steady AC input. It is
also used in Power transmission where the voltages are needed to be changed to regulate voltage.

Power Transformer:

The power transformers are generally three phase transformers. They are used in the transmission
networks of higher voltages. The voltage ratings of the power transformer are as follows 400 KV, 200 KV,
110 KV, 66 KV. They are mainly rated above 200 MVA. It is mainly installed at the generating stations
and transmission substations. They are designed for maximum efficiency at 100% of load. They are
larger in size as compared to the distribution transformer.

At a very high voltage, the power cannot be distributed to the consumer directly, so the power is
stepped down to the desired level with the help of step-down power transformer in transmission
system and then power is supplied to distribution transformer. The transformer is almost loaded fully
and load fluctuation is very less as they are not connected at the consumer end directly and hence the
core loss takes place for the whole day and the copper loss is based on full load current. The transformer
is loaded for 24 hours at the transmission station, thus, the core and copper loss will occur for the whole
day.

Distribution Transformer:

A distribution transformer is generally a three phase transformer. This type of transformer has lower
ratings like 11 KV, 6.6 KV, 3.3 KV, 440 V and 230 V. They are rated less than 200 MVA and used in the
distribution network to provide voltage transformation in the power system by stepping down the
voltage level where the electrical energy is distributed and utilized at the consumer end.

The primary coil of the distribution transformer is wound by enamel coated copper or aluminum wire. A
thick ribbon of aluminum and copper is used to make secondary of the transformer which is a high
current, low voltage winding. Resin impregnated paper and oil is used for the insulation purpose.

The distribution transformer less than 33 KV is used in industries and 440, 220 V is used for the domestic
purpose. It is smaller in size, easy to install and has low magnetic losses and is not always loaded fully.

As it does not work for constant load throughout 24 hours as in the daytime its load is at its peak, and
during the night hours it is very lightly loaded thus the efficiency depends on load cycle and is calculated
as All Day Efficiency. The distribution transformers are designed for maximum efficiency at an average of
60 to 70% of load.

Instrument Transformer:

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They are generally known as an isolation transformer. Instrument transformer is an electrical device
used to transform current as well as a voltage level. The most common use of instrument transformer is
to safely isolate the secondary winding when the primary has high voltage and high current supply so
that the measuring instrument, energy meters or relays which are connected to the secondary side of
the transformer will not get damaged. The instrument transformer is further divided into two types:

 Current Transformer (CT)

 Potential Transformer (PT)

Current Transformer:

The current transformer is used for measuring and also for the protection. When the current in the
circuit is high to apply directly to the measuring instrument, the current transformer is used to
transform the high current into the desired value of the current required in the circuit.

The primary winding of the current transformer is connected in series to the main supply and the
secondary of the current transformer is connected to various measuring instruments like ammeter,
voltmeter, wattmeter or protective relay coil. They have accurate, current ratio and phase relation to
enable the meter accurately on the secondary side. The term ratio has a great significance in CT. For
example, if its ratio is 2000:5, it means a CT has an output of 5 Ampere when the input current is 2000
amp on the primary side.

Potential Transformer:

The potential transformer is also called as the voltage transformer. The primary winding is connected
across the High voltage line whose voltage is to be measured, and all the measuring instruments and
meters are connected to the secondary side of the transformer.

The main function of the Potential transformer is to step down the voltage level to a safe limit or value.
The primary winding of the potential transformer is earthed or grounded as a safety point. For example,
the voltage ratio primary to secondary is given as 500:120, it means the output voltage is of 120 V when
the 500 V is applied to the primary.

Single Phase Transformer:

There are two types of windings in the transformer. The winding to which AC supply is given is termed as
Primary winding and in the secondary winding, the load is connected. Both the primary windings and
secondary windings are single phase electrical circuits and the supply used is single phase AC supply.

Three Phase Transformer:

If the three single-phase transformer is taken and connected together with their all the three primary
winding connected to each other forming a three phase primary winding and all the three secondary
windings to each other forming a three phase secondary winding, the transformer is said to behave as a
three-phase transformer, that means a bank of three single-phase transformer connected together
which acts as a three-phase transformer. Three-phase supply is mainly used for electric power
generation, transmission and distribution for industrial purpose. The three-phase transformer

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connection can be done by Star and Delta type. Three phase AC power supply is provided to the primary
winding of a three phase transformer.

Core Construction:

Transformer cores are the main path of the magnetic flux. Simply as compared to electrical circuit, we
can say it as conductor. The way conductor carry the current in electrical circuit, transformer cores
carries the magnetic flux. Transformer core has low reluctance value [Reluctance opposes the flow of
magnetic flux].

Factors to be considered before selecting transformer core material:

 Transformer core should have less reluctance to the magnetic flux. The flux is inversely
proportional to the reluctance.

 The transformers core should be laminated in order reduce the eddy current losses, i.e., the
transformer core should be made from many thin sheets bunched together. The eddy current
loss is proportional the square of thickness of laminations. The thickness of the lamination is
made around 0.3mm to 0.5 mm. Reducing thickness of the lamination below 0.3 mm leads to
less mechanical strength.
 Higher content silicon steel is a soft iron material having less hysteresis loss. Also the
permeability of the silicon steel is high, therefore that material takes small amount of
magnetizing current. The steel used for transformer cores may be hot rolled or cold rolled. The
hot rolled steel allows the maximum flux density of 1.45 Wb/m2 and cold rolled steel permits
the maximum flux density of 1.8 Wb/m2 at 0.33 mm (or 0.35 mm) lamination thickness. At the
same time, the cost of cold rolled steel is higher than the hot rolled steel. But cold rolled steel
have many advantages that hot rolled steel iron.
 Cold Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO) steel sheet with an approximate silicon content of 3% is
typically used for magnetic circuits of transformer
1. Magnetic induction is maximum and the loop of BH curve is large.
2. Core loss during no load operation of the transformer is low.
3. Reactive power input at no load operation of the transformer is low.
4. Good mechanical strength.

Transformer Core lamination:

Transformer stampings are connected and should be closed to make magnetic flux flow in core. Four
types of lamination construction are made:

 E-I lamination
 E-E lamination
 U-I lamination
 L-L lamination

Here the English letter mentions about the shape of the lamination. E-I and E-E construction is used in
shell type transformer (Fig. 13). U-I and L-L construction is used in Core type of transformer (Fig. 11). E-I

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core laminated transformer construction is mostly used in isolation transformers, step-up and step-
down transformers as well as auto transformers.

Fig. 15: Different types of transformer core lamination shapes.

Individual laminations should be tightly bolted during the transformer core construction. Allowing the
air gap between the lamination leads to increases the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Also For
reducing the transformer noises, the lamination should be tightly clamped together and punch holes
should be avoided as far as possible. The air gap at the joint of limbs and yokes should be reduced as
much as possible for allowing maximum smooth conducting paths for magnetizing current.

Different parts of transformer and their function:

Several parts of the transformer are given different function with the works as follow.

1. Laminated Core
2. Transformer Winding
3. Insulating Material
4. Tap Changer
5. Transformer Tank
6. Oil Conservator Tank
7. Breather
8. Buchholz Relay
9. Bushing
10. Cooling Tube and Radiator
11. Explosion Vent

1. Laminated Core:

The transformer’s core is made up of iron or silicon steel or ferromagnetic materials. The core made by
thin metal strips and lamination insulated by a coat of varnishes or papers. Each metal strip has
thickness near around the 0.3mm to 0.5mm.

In the below figure, we can see the number of metal strips connected to each other with the lamination
layer and form a single core.

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Fig. 16: Lamination of core of transformer

Basically, ‘L’ and ‘E’ shaped laminations are used in different types of transformer. In the core type
transformer, ‘L’ or ‘U’ shaped lamination is used.

Fig 17: lamination structure of core type transformer

Shell types transformer uses ‘E’ or ‘I’ shaped lamination.

Fig 18: lamination structure of shell type transformer

These core lamination helps to reduce the eddy current loss. It also provides a low reluctance path and
high permeability for the flux in the magnetic circuit. The core of the transformer is also used to support
the windings. The diameter of a transformer’s core is directly proportional to copper loss and inversely
proportional to iron loss.

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2. The winding of the Transformer:

The transformer winding is consists of several turns of the copper coil. It is wrapped around the limb or
core with the lamination. These windings laminated by the insulation coating because it prevents the
short circuit condition. These windings are made of copper due to high conductivity and ductility. High
conductivity minimizes the amount of copper needed and minimizes losses. Moreover, high ductility
results in easy bending of conductors into tight winding around the core that also minimizes the amount
of copper and volume of winding.

The two windings of the transformer are primary winding and secondary winding. On the basis of value
of voltage across the windings, the windings are also called High voltage winding and Low voltage
winding.

On the basis of how the high voltage winding and low voltage winding are arranged with respect to one
another, the windings are of two types. They are Concentric types winding and Sandwich types winding.

Concentric type Winding:

In concentric winding, the windings are placed on the two limbs of the core. Consider a core of
rectangular shape as in the following picture.

Fig.19: Core structure of a core type transformer.

The windings are placed on both the limbs. You may think that the High-Voltage (HV) winding should be
on one limb and the Low voltage (LV) winding on the other limb. This arrangement is possible, but it is
not done in the concentric winding because there is a distance between the limbs; therefore, some of
the flux will not link with the other winding. This loss of flux is termed as Leakage Flux. To minimize the
leakage flux, half of the LV winding is placed on the limb (1), and half is placed on the limb (2). The half
HV winding is placed above the LV winding on the limb (1), and another half is on the limb (2) above the

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LV winding. There is insulation between the core and LV winding and LV winding and HV winding. Such
type of winding is done on Core-type Transformers.

Fig. 20: Winding arrangement of concentric winding in core type transformer.

Concentric types of winding consist of Helical types winding.

Sandwich type Winding:

Sandwich types of winding are used in shell type transformer. In a shell-type transformer, the primary
and secondary winding is placed on the central limb. In Sandwich winding, the HV and LV windings are
subdivided into sections, and all the sections are present on the central limb of the core. The windings
are in between the outer limbs of the core, which is behaving just like a shell. The sections are placed in
such a way that the HV is sandwiched between LV windings. This arrangement reduces the amount of
leakage flux.

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Fig. 21: Arrangement of sandwich winding in shell type transformer.

3. Insulating Material:

In the transformer, insulating materials rely on their voltage rating. Different types of insulating
materials are used in the transformer. These insulating materials maybe a transformer oil, insulating
paper, wood, the insulating glass material, papers and card boards are used to isolate primary and
secondary windings from each other as well as the transformer core.

4. Tap Changer:

Tap changer to regulate or change supply voltage and maintain minimum voltage by changing the
variable turn of windings. The tap changer can be easily removed from the first turn of winding and
connect the next turn ratio. Tap changers can occur on the primary side or secondary side. Generally,
tap changer use in the high voltage winding side because it reduces load current and it will cause
minimum sparking at the time changing the tap and increase the lifetime of tap changer.

Classification of Tap Changer –

 Off-load tap changer

 On-load tap changer

5. Transformer Tank (Main tank):

The transformer tank is a rectangular shaped tank. It is made of steel metal with a high thickness. Core
and transformer winding is placed in the transformer tank. The transformer tank is needed to store the
oil especially mineral oil. This oil provides insulation and cooling to the transformer winding.

22
6. Oil Conservator Tank:

The oil conservator tank looks like a cylindrical tank. It stores the extra oil and directly connected with
the transformer tank. The oil conservator tank plays an important role in the transformer. The purpose
of the conservator tank is to protect the expansion of oil in the main tank of the transformer when the
oil is heated due to high load. The oil is used in the transformer two purposes-

 Insulation
 Cooling

When the oil level reduces due to losses or leakage, the conservator will be delivering oil to the
transformer. Thus, It also acts as reservoir of oil.

7. Breather:

Breather is connected with the conservator tank. It is a cylindrical vessel which filled blue color silica gel.
It removes the moisture from the air when air from outside the transformer is sucked in conservator
tank. The outside air is sucked in conservator tank when oil level decreases in conservator tank. Thus, it
plays a role to act as the air filter and provide the moisture free air to the conservator tank.

8. Buchholz Relay:

Buchholz relay is a protective device that is an oil and gas-operated relay. It is connected to the main
transformer tank and conservator tank and is placed in pipe connecting the main and conservator tank.
When the internal fault occurs in the transformer due to leakage flux, insulation breakdown, over load,
short circuit, etc. and excess heat is produced. This excess heat expands and decomposes oil in the
transformer and gases are formed. Gases flow in the upward direction to reach the conservator tank
from main tank and in the way get collected in the relay.

Buchholz relay detects fault by the amount of gas, nature of gas and oil level collected in the relay.
During low level fault conditions, an alarm is produced as an alert and during high level fault, the relay
sends command to the circuit breaker and isolates the transformer.

23
Fig 22: Internal structure of Buchholz Relay

Fig. 23: Position of buchholz relay with respect to main oil tank and conservator tank.

24
9. Bushing:

The bushing is an insulating device that is made up of porcelain materials. The terminal of the bushing is
provided a path of the conductor to the transformer tank. Bushing prevents the direct contact of
conductor carrying current with the main tank. With the help of the terminal, the transformer gives and
provides the supply to another system. In the transformer, two types of the bushing are mostly used-
high voltage (HV) bushing and low voltage (LV) bushing. Bushing size depends on the voltage rating.

Fig. 24: Transformer bushing

10. Cooling Tube and Radiator:

The cooling tube is necessary for maintaining the temperature and circulating cooling oil in the
transformer. The radiator is connected with the transformer tank. It is also made of a number of metal
strips or pipes.

25
Both the cooling tube and the radiator provide the same function in a different way. When losses occur
in the transformer, heat is produced. This heat is absorbed by the cooling tube and radiator and is
dissipated outside by providing an extra surface area for cooling and maintains a suitable temperature
of transformer. The cooling tube and radiator forms a part of cooling system of transformer and can be
further classified into Natural cooling system and Forced cooling system.

In the natural cooling system, a cooling tube and radiator are used. And In the forced cooling system, we
can connect the extra air fan to the transformer.

11. Explosion Vent:

The explosion vent is located at the topmost position on the transformer. The conservator tank is
directly connected to the main tank with the help of a pipe. The main purpose is to prevent damage of
transformer main oil tank by expelling hot oil or gases during an internal fault after a diaphragm sheet is
exploded as heat generated by internal fault will cause oil to expand and oil is decomposed to release
gases and oil from main tank will enter conservator tank, but when oil expands beyond the limit of
conservator tank it may damage transformer. It is necessary to remove heated oil or gas from the
transformer. This explosion vent comes into play only in emergency purposes. It mostly works when
Buchholz relay will not doing work properly.

Fig 25: A transformer with its various parts

4.4: Concept of Ideal Transformer:

26
Fig. 26: An ideal transformer

The transformer which is free from all types of losses is known as an ideal transformer. It is an imaginary
transformer that has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and no leakage flux. The ideal transformer has
the following important characteristics:

(i) The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero.
(ii) The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite permeable means zero
magnetizing current requires for magnetizing the core.
(iii) The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the flux induces in the core
of the transformer links with their primary and secondary winding.
(iv) The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is free from hysteresis
and eddy current loss.

The above mention properties are not possible in the practical transformer. In an ideal transformer,
there is no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input power.

Phasor diagram of an ideal transformer:

The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is shown in the fig. 27. As the coil of the primary
transformer is purely inductive the magnetizing current induces in the transformer lag 90° by the input
voltage V1. The flux produced in the core is directly proportional to magnetizing current, so flux ϕ and

27
magnetizing current will be in same phasor. But magnetizing current is zero in case of ideal transformer.
The E1 and E2 are the emf induced in the primary and secondary winding of the transformer.

Fig. 27: Phasor diagram of an ideal transformer under no load condition.

4.5: Different types of cooling methods:

Cooling of Transformer is the process by which heat generated in the transformer is dissipated or
treated to lower the temperature of transformer. This is achieved by various cooling methods of
transformer available.

The major factor for the generation of heat in the transformer is the various losses like hysteresis, eddy
current, iron, and copper loss. Among all the various losses the major contributor of the heat generation
is the copper loss or I2R loss.

28
If the temperature of the transformer will continue to increase rapidly, it will result in the degradation of
the insulation used in the transformer resulting in the damaging of the various parts and hence the
failure of the transformer. Thus, proper removal or treatment of heat is necessary for the efficient
working, longer life and higher efficiency of the transformer.

The various coolants used for the cooling purpose of the transformer are air, synthetic oils, mineral oils,
gas, water.

Basically, there are two types of transformer based on insulation and cooling medium used. One is the
dry type, and another one is oil-immersed type. For the cooling of transformers, the following cooling
methods listed below are used.

1. Air Natural
2. Air Blast or forced
3. Oil Natural Air Natural
4. Oil Natural Air Forced
5. Oil Forced Air Forced
6. Oil Natural Water Forced
7. Oil Forced Water Forced

Cooling methods used in dry type transformer are: (i) Air Natural, (ii) Air Blast or forced

Cooling methods used in oil immersed transformer are: (i) Oil Natural Air Natural, (ii) Oil Natural Air
Forced, (iii) Oil Forced Air Forced, (iv) Oil Natural Water Forced, (v) Oil Forced Water Forced

Air Natural (AN):

By Air Natural method the generated heat in the transformer is cooled by the circulation of natural air.
When the temperature of the transformer becomes higher as compared to the temperature of the
surrounding air, thus by the process of natural convection, heated air is replaced by the cool air. This
method is also known as a self-cooled method. This method is used for cooling the smaller output
transformer rating that is up to 1.5 MVA.

Air Forced (AF) or Air Blast:

In this method, the heat generated is cooled by the forced air circulation method. With the help of fans
and blowers, high velocity of air is forced on the core and the windings of the transformer. As the
temperature inside the transformer goes beyond the standard safe level, an alarm is activated, and the
fans and blowers are switched ON automatically. This method is used for transformer rating up to
15MVA.

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN):

Natural convection process is used for this type of cooling. The assembly of the core and windings are
placed in the oil-immersed tank. As the core and the windings heat up the temperature of the oil in the
transformer rises. As a result, the oil moves upward and flows from the upper portion of the

29
transformer tank. This hot oil dissipates heat in the air by natural convection and conduction process,
the oil gets cooled by the circulation of natural air and passes through the radiator again for the use of
the transformer. This type of cooling is used for the transformer rating up to 30 MVA.

Fig. 28: Oil Natural Air Natural Cooling of Transformer

Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF):

30
ONAF method is used for the cooling of the transformer of rating up to 60 Mega Volts Ampere (MVA).
As discussed above that in ONAN method, the dissipation of heat is taking place by the convection
process in which air is naturally circulated to cool down, but in this type, the forced air is used for the
purpose of cooling the transformer.

The cooling of oil will be faster if the area of the tank of the transformer is increased finally, which result
in the increase in heat dissipation level. As the fans and blowers are installed, a high velocity of air is
forcefully applied to the radiator and cooling towers which will help in cooling oil more quickly and
efficiently.

Its cost is higher as compared to another process where the circulation of oil and air is done naturally
because a fan and blowers are attached as extra cooling equipment, in this method.

Fig. 29: Oil Natural Air Forced Cooling of Transformer

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF):

31
As the name itself says that both the oil and the air are applied by force for cooling of a transformer. The
Heat Exchanger is installed through which hot oil is circulated with the help of a pump. Air is forced to
pass on the heat exchanger with the help of high-speed fans.

This method is similar to ONAN, as when there is low load on the transformer the cooling is done by a
simple ONAN method. However, as soon as the load is increased, the generated heat will also be more
and therefore the sensor gives an alarm that the dissipation of heat has exceeded the safe value and as
a result, the fans and pumps are switched on automatically. Thus, the cooling takes place by OFAF
method.

Fig. 30: Oil Forced Air Forced Cooling of Transformer

Oil Natural Water Forced (ONWF):

In Oil Natural Water Force cooling method, the transformer core and the windings are
immersed in the oil tank. A radiator is installed outside the tank, as the temperature rises and
the oil heats up and moves upward, the heat is dissipated by the natural process of convection
and oil is passed through the radiator, but the water is pumped and passed through the heat
exchanger for cooling of the oil.

Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF):

32
 A heat exchanger is installed through which both oil and water are passed with the help of a
pump. The level and pressure of the oil are always kept higher than that of water so that if any
leakage occurs in the system the oil mixes with the water, but water does not get mixed up with
the oil. This type of method is suitable for large capacity of the transformer having rating as
several hundred MVA or where banks of transformers are installed. Mainly this type of cooling is
done for the transformer installed at the hydropower plant.

Fig. 31: Oil Forced Water Forced Cooling of Transformer

4.6: Performance under no-load condition with phasor diagram:

33
 Fig. 32: A Transformer under no load condition.

When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is open-circuited, which means
there is no load on the secondary side of the transformer and, therefore, current in the secondary will
be zero. While primary winding carries a small current I0 called no-load current which is 2 to 10% of the
rated current. This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current
losses) in the core and a very small amount of copper losses in the primary winding. The angle of lag
depends upon the losses in the transformer. The power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.
The no-load current consists of two components:

 Reactive or magnetizing component Im: It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1. It
magnetizes the core and produces flux in the core and does not consume any power).

 Active or power component Iw: It is also know as a working component. It is in phase with the
applied voltage V1. It supplies the iron losses.

The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram:

(i) The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the magnetizing flux, and thus, it will
be in phase with the flux.

34
(ii) Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the flux ϕ by 90 degrees.
(iii) The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current losses are zero as
I2=0. Therefore, the current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle ϕ0 called the no-load
power factor angle and is shown in the phasor diagram above.
(iv) The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the induced emf E1 because the
difference between the two, at no load, is negligible. The voltage drop due to the low value of
no load current flowing through resistance and inductance in primary winding is negligible.
(v) Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage V1.
(vi) The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working current Iw gives the no-load current
I0. This I0 is responsible for negligible copper loss in primary circuit of transformer.

Fig. 33: Phasor diagram of transformer under no load condition.

35
Phasors of induced emf E1 and E2 are drawn opposite to applied voltage V1 because when direction of V1
is such that it causes increase in flux in core, at that time the direction of induced emf E 1 and E2 are such
that when those induced emf acts alone on their respective electrical circuit they will establish a current
in their electrical circuit that will oppose the increasing flux due to V1 according to the Lenz’s Law. So,
effect effect of induced emf E1 and E2 are just opposite to applied voltage V1.

Work component or Core loss component of no load current = Iw = I0 cos ϕ0

Magnetizing component of no load current = Im = I0 sin ϕ0

No load current = I0 = √𝐼𝑚 2 + 𝐼𝑤 2

𝐼𝑤
No load power factor = cos ϕ0 =
𝐼0

No load power input = P0 = V1I0 cos ϕ0

4.7: Performance under load condition with phasor diagram:

When the transformer is on the loaded condition, the secondary of the transformer is connected to
load. The load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive. The current I 2 flows through the secondary
winding of the transformer. The magnitude of the secondary current depends on the terminal voltage V2
and the load impedance. The phase angle between the secondary current and voltage depends on the
nature of the load.

The Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition is explained below:

 When the secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws the no-load current from the
main supply. The no-load current induces the m.m.f. N1I0 and this force set up the flux Φ in the
core of the transformer. The circuit of the transformer at no load condition is shown in the Fig.
34.

36
 Fig. 34: A transformer under no load condition.

 When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer, I 2 current flows through their
secondary winding and I1’ current flows through their secondary winding. The secondary current
induces the m.m.f. force N2I2 on the secondary winding of the transformer. This force set up the
flux φ2 in the transformer core. The flux φ2 completely opposes the flux φ, according to Lenz’s
law.

37
Fig. 35: A transformer under loaded condition.

 As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the transformer decreases and this flux
reduces the induced EMF E1. Thus, the strength of the V1 is more than E1 and an additional
primary current I0 drawn from the main supply. The additional current is used for restoring the
original value of the flux in the core of the transformer so that E1 becomes sufficiently high. The
primary current I1’ is in phase opposition with the secondary current I 2. Thus, it is called the
primary counter-balancing current.
 The additional current I0 induces the m.m.f. force N1I0. And this set up the flux φ1’. The direction
of the flux φ1’ is the same as that of the φ and it is opposed by the flux φ2 which induces because
of the m.m.f. N2I2 and causes resultant flux ϕ in core.

N1I1’ = N2I2

𝑁
I1’ = 𝑁2 I2
1

 The phase difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of
the transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the
transformer.

38
  If the load is inductive, the power factor will be lagging and if the load is capacitive, the power
factor will be leading. The total primary current I1 is the vector sum of the currents I0 and I1’. i.e

𝐼0 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗𝐼1 = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐼1 ′

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load:

The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded inductively is shown below:

39
Fig. 36: Transformer phasor diagram for lagging power factor or inductive load.

Steps to draw the phasor diagram:

40
  Take flux ϕ, a reference.
 Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary is equal and opposite to induced emf in
the primary winding E1 and is represented by V1’.
 Current I0 lags the voltage V1’.
 The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore current I2 is drawn lagging E2 by an angle ϕ2.
 The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence
secondary terminal voltage V2 is the phase difference of E2 and voltage drop in secondary
winding resistance and leakage reactance.

V2 = E2 – voltage drops I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.

 The total current flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I 1’ and I0.
 Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the resistance and
leakage reactance of primary winding.
 Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I 2.

V1 = V1’ + voltage drop I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.

 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of
the transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the
transformer.
 If the load is inductive as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. 36, the power factor will be lagging
and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading.

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load:

The Transformer on the Capacitive load (leading power factor load) is shown below in the phasor
diagram:

41
Fig. 37: Transformer phasor diagram for leading power factor or capacitive load.

42
Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load:

 Take flux ϕ as a reference.

 Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in the
primary winding E1 is represented by V1’.
 Current I0 lags the voltage V1’.
 The power factor of the load is leading. Therefore current I2 is drawn leading E2
 The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence
secondary terminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2 and voltage drop.

V2 = E2 – voltage drops I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.

 Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I 2.

 The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’ and I0.
 Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary winding
resistance and leakage resistance.

V1 = V1’ + voltage drop I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.

 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side of
the transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the
transformer.

4.8: Equivalent Circuit

In a practical transformer –

(a) Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage gives rise to
leakage reactances at both primary and secondary windings, which are denoted as X1 and X2
respectively and causes voltage drop as, I1X1 and I2X2

43
Fig. 38: A single phase transformer showing leakage flux.

In Fig. 38, ɸL1 and ɸL2 are leakage fluxes in air associated with primary and secondary windings of
transformer respectively. ɸm is the peak value of pulsating flux which remains confined to iron core
of transformer.

(b) Both the primary and secondary winding possesses resistance, denoted as R1 and R2
respectively. These resistances causes voltage drop as, I 1R1 and I2R2 and also copper loss I12R1
and I22R2.
(c) Permeability of the core can not be infinite, hence some magnetizing current is needed. Mutual
flux also causes core loss in iron parts of the transformer. We need to consider all the above
things to derive equivalent circuit of a transformer.

Resistances and reactances of transformer, which are described above, can be imagined separately
from the windings. Hence, the function of windings, thereafter, will only be the transforming the
voltage.

44
 Fig. 39: Exact equivalent circuit of transformer.

The no load current I0 is divided into, current through pure inductance X0, i.e., magnetizing component
of current Iμ or Im and current through pure resistance R0, i.e., core loss or working component of
current Iw. Both R0 and X0 are connected into parallel across the primary. The value of E1 can be obtained
by vector subtraction of I1Z1 from V1. The value of R0 and X0 can be calculated as, R0 = E1 / Iw and X0 =
E1/Iμ.

But, using this equivalent circuit does not simplify the calculations. To make calculations simpler, it is
preferable to transfer current, voltage and impedance either to primary side or to the secondary side. In
that case, we would have to work with only one winding which is more convenient.

From the voltage transformation ratio, it is clear that, E1/E2 = N1/N2 = K.

Now, let refer the parameters of secondary side to primary. Z2 can be referred to primary as Z2'
where, Z2' = (N1/N2)2Z2 = K2Z2, where K= N1/N2, i.e., R2'+jX2' = K2(R2+jX2).
Now, equating real and imaginary parts, we get, R2' = K2R2 and X2' = K2X2 , V2' = KV2 and E2’ = KE2.

The Fig. 40 shows the equivalent circuit of transformer with secondary parameters referred to the
primary:

45
 Fig. 40: Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary side.

Now, as the values of winding resistance and leakage reactance are so small that, V1 and E1 can be
assumed to be equal. Therefore, the exciting current drawn by the parallel combination of R0 and X0
would not affect significantly, if we move the parallel combination of R 0 and X0 to the input terminals as
shown in the Fig. 41.

Fig. 41: Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary side.

Now, let R1 + R2' = R'eq and X1 + X2' = X'eq. Then the equivalent circuit of transformer becomes as shown
in the Fig. 42.

46
Fig. 42: Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary side combining the
resistances and reactances.
If only efficiency of transformer is to be calculated, then refer to Fig. 42.

If only voltage regulation is to be calculated, then even the whole excitation branch (parallel
combination of R0 and X0) can be neglected. Then the equivalent circuit becomes as shown in the Fig. 43.

Fig. 43: Simplified form of approximate equivalent circuit of transformer.

4.9: Per unit representation of impedance:

For electrical machines or electrical machine systems, the various calculations are done by using the per
unit quantities. For any system, the per unit values are obtained by choosing a set of certain base values,
which can be chosen arbitrarily. However, it is common and preferable to choose the rated quantities of
the device as its base values.
For any system or device, the per unit quantity is related to the base quantity by the following relation:
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
Per unit quantity = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

47
Here, base values of quantities of single phase two winding transformer are selected as follows:

For high voltage side,

Base voltage: VBH = Rated voltage on high voltage side
Base current: IBH = Rated current on high voltage side

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝐴
IBH =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑉𝐵𝐻 𝑉𝐵𝐻 𝑋 𝑉𝐵𝐻 (𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)2
Base impedance: ZBH = 𝐼𝐵𝐻
Ω= 𝐼𝐵𝐻 𝑋 𝑉𝐵𝐻
= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝐴
………………..(8)
2
Dividing the numerator and denominator of equation (8) by (1000) , we get:
𝑉
( 𝐵𝐻 )2 (𝑘𝑉)𝐵𝐻 2
1000
ZBH = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝐴 = …………………….(9)
(𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝐵𝐻
(1000)2
Per unit value of resistance of High voltage side,
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝐻
(reH)p.u. = 𝑍
= 𝑍 …………………(10)
𝐵𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝐵𝐻

Per unit value of reactance of High voltage side,

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑥𝑒𝐻
(xeH)p.u. = = ………………..(11)
𝑍𝐵𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑍𝐵𝐻
Per unit value of impedance of High voltage side,
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑍𝑒𝐻
(ZeH)p.u. = 𝑍
= 𝑍 ……………………..(12)
𝐵𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝐵𝐻

For low voltage side,

Base voltage: VBL = Rated voltage on Low voltage side

Base current: IBL = Rated current on low voltage side

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝐴
IBL = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑉𝐵𝐿 𝑉𝐵𝐿 𝑋 𝑉𝐵𝐿 (𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)2
Base impedance: ZBL = Ω= = ………………..(13)
𝐼𝐵𝐿 𝐼𝐵𝐿 𝑋 𝑉𝐵𝐿 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝐴
2
Dividing the numerator and denominator of equation (9) by (1000) , we get:
𝑉
( 𝐵𝐿 )2 (𝑘𝑉)𝐵𝐿 2
1000
ZBL = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝐴 = …………………….(14)
(𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝐵𝐿
(1000)2
Per unit value of resistance of Low voltage side,
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝐿
(reL)p.u. = 𝑍
= 𝑍 …………..(15)
𝐵𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝐵𝐿

Per unit value of reactance of Low voltage side,

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑥𝑒𝐿
(xeL)p.u. = 𝑍
= 𝑍 ……………..(16)
𝐵𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝐵𝐿
Per unit value of impedance of Low voltage side,
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑍𝑒𝐿
(ZeL)p.u. = 𝑍
= 𝑍 ……………….(17)
𝐵𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝐵𝐿
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
Per unit rated voltage on high voltage side = 𝑉𝐵𝐻
=1
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
Per unit rated Current on high voltage side = =1
𝐼𝐵𝐻

48
Thus the per unit values of rated quantities of a device are equal to unity. The per unit quantities are
dimensionless, whereas the base quantities have dimension.
𝑍 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑍 𝐼 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑒𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
(ZeL)p.u. = 𝑍 𝑒𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 𝑍𝑒𝐿 𝐼𝐵𝐿 = 𝑉
……………….(18)
𝐵𝐿 𝐵𝐿 𝐵𝐿 𝐵𝐿
Equation (10) is the per unit value of Equivalent impedance of low voltage side and gives information
about impedance drop on low voltage side. Example: A single phase transformer of 4000/230 Volts
having ZeL = 0.04 p.u., then the voltage drop across low voltage leakage impedance is 4% of 230 Volts,
i.e., 0.04 x 230 Volts = 9.2 Volts.
Similarly, per unit value of Equivalent impedance of High voltage side:
𝑍 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑍 𝐼 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑒𝐻 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
(ZeH)p.u. = 𝑍 𝑒𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 𝑍𝑒𝐻 𝐼𝐵𝐻 = 𝑉
……………….(19)
𝐵𝐻 𝐵𝐻 𝐵𝐻 𝐵𝐻
Also,
𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝑟 𝐼 𝑟𝑒𝐿 𝐼𝐵𝐿 𝐼𝐵𝐿 2𝑟𝑒𝐿 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
(reL)p.u. = 𝑍𝑒𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 𝑍𝑒𝐿 𝐼𝐵𝐿 = 𝑉𝐵𝐿
= 𝑉𝐵𝐿 𝐼𝐵𝐿
= 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝐴
𝐵𝐿 𝐵𝐿 𝐵𝐿
Thus, the per unit value reL and reH also furnishes the information about ohmic loss at rated current.
Example: A single phase transformer of 12Kva, 4000/230 Volts having r eH = 0.015 p.u., then the ohmic
loss at rated current is 1.5% of 12Kva, i.e., (0.015 x 12000) Watts = 189 Watts.
𝑍(Ω)𝑋 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝐵
From equations (8) to (17) , it can be written that : Z (p.u.) = (𝑘𝑉)𝐵2

In case the base values (kV)B and (MVA)B are changed, then we get:
𝑍(Ω)𝑋 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝐵 𝑜𝑙𝑑
Z (p.u.) old = …………………..(20)
(𝑘𝑉)𝐵 𝑜𝑙𝑑 2

𝑍(Ω)𝑋 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑤

Z (p.u.) new = (𝑘𝑉)𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑤 2
………………….(21)

Taking ratio of equations (21) and (20), we get:

𝑍 (𝑝.𝑢.)𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑘𝑉)𝐵 𝑜𝑙𝑑 2
= .
𝑍(𝑝.𝑢.)𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝐵 𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑘𝑉)𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑤 2

(𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑤 (𝑘𝑉)𝐵 𝑜𝑙𝑑 2

 Z (p.u.) new = Z (p.u.) old. . ……………(23)
(𝑀𝑉𝐴)𝐵 𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑘𝑉)𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑤 2
𝑟
Now, (reL)p.u. = 𝑍𝑒𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 ………………(24)
𝐵𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠

𝑁
 reL = reH(𝑁 𝐿 )2 Ω……………….(25)[NL and NH are the number of turns in low voltage and high
𝐻

voltage windings respectively]

𝑟 𝑁 𝑟𝑒𝐻 𝑟
Substituting equation (25) in equation (24), we get: (reL)p.u. = 𝑍𝑒𝐻 . (𝑁 𝐿 )2 = 𝑁 = 𝑍 𝑒𝐻
𝐵𝐿 𝐻 𝑍𝐵𝐿 ( 𝐻 )2 𝐵𝐻
𝑁𝐿

𝑁
[𝑍𝐵𝐻 = 𝑍𝐵𝐿 ( 𝑁𝐻 )2 ]
𝐿

 (reL)p.u. = (reH)p.u.
Similarly, (xeL)p.u. = (xeH)p.u. and (ZeL)p.u. = (ZeH)p.u.
[Note: Subscript B, L and H denotes base, low voltage side and high voltage side respectively.]

49
4.10: Voltage regulation at upf, lagging pf & leading pf.
The voltage regulation is defined as the rise in output voltage expressed as a fraction of full load rated
voltage when full load at a specified power factor is reduced to zero keeping the primary input voltage
constant. The voltage regulation determines the ability of the transformer to provide the constant
voltage for variable loads.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Voltage regulation (per unit) = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Voltage regulation % = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
x 100 %
𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 − 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Voltage regulation % = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
x 100 %

Say an electrical power transformer is open circuited, meaning that the load is not connected to the
secondary terminals. In this situation, the secondary terminal voltage of the transformer will be its
secondary induced emf E2.

Whenever a full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the transformer, rated current I 2 flows
through the secondary circuit and voltage drop occurs in secondary winding resistance and leakage
reactance. At this situation, primary winding will also draw equivalent full load current from source. The
voltage drop in the secondary is I2Z2 where Z2 is the secondary impedance of transformer.

Now if at this loading condition, any one measures the voltage between secondary terminals, he or she
will get voltage V2 across load terminals which is obviously less than no load secondary voltage E2 and
this is because of I2Z2 voltage drop in the transformer.

So, voltage regulation of transformer with respect to the secondary winding of transformer as shown in
Fig. 39 is:

𝐸2 − 𝑉2
Voltage regulation % = 𝑉2
x 100 %

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Lagging Power Factor:

We will derive the expression of voltage regulation in detail. Say lagging power factor of the load is
cosθ2, that means angle between secondary side current and voltage is θ2.

50
Fig. 44: Graphical approach for finding voltage regulation of transformer for a lagging power factor load.

In Fig. 44, OC = OA + AB + BC

Here, OA = V2, AB = AE cos θ2 = I2R2 cos θ2 , BC = DE sin θ2 = I2X2 sin θ2

If angle δ is considered to be very small, then OD ≈ OC

So, OD = E2 = OC = OA + AB + BC

E2 = V2 + I2R2 cos θ2 + I2X2 sin θ2

E2 - V2 = I2R2 cos θ2 + I2X2 sin θ2

𝐸2 − 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑅2 cos 𝜃2 + 𝐼2𝑋2 sin 𝜃2
Voltage regulation (%) = x 100 % = x 100%
𝑉2 𝑉2

Voltage regulation (%) =[R2 (p.u.) cos θ2 + X2 (p.u.) sin θ2] x 100%

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Leading Power Factor:

Let’s derive the expression of voltage regulation with leading current, say leading power factor of the
load is cosθ2, that means angle between secondary current and voltage is θ2.

51
Fig. 45: Graphical approach for finding voltage regulation of transformer for a leading power factor load.

In Fig. 45, OC = OA + AB - BC

Here, OA = V2, AB = AE cos θ2 = I2R2 cos θ2 , BC = DE sin θ2 = I2X2 sin θ2

If angle δ is considered to be very small, then OD ≈ OC

So, OD = E2 = OC = OA + AB - BC

E2 = V2 + I2R2 cos θ2 - I2X2 sin θ2

E2 - V2 = I2R2 cos θ2 - I2X2 sin θ2

𝐸2 − 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑅2 cos 𝜃2 − 𝐼2𝑋2 sin 𝜃2

Voltage regulation (%) = x 100 % = x 100%
𝑉2 𝑉2

Voltage regulation (%) =[R2 (p.u.) cos θ2 - X2 (p.u.) sin θ2] x 100%

Voltage regulation for leading power factor = Voltage regulation for lagging power factor at –θ2.

‘Zero voltage regulation’ indicates that there is no difference between its ‘no-load voltage’ and its ‘full-
load voltage’. This means that in case of leading power factor, voltage regulation equal to zero is
possible. Least value of voltage regulation is always desirable.

Condition for maximum voltage regulation:

Voltage regulation (p.u.) = R2 (p.u.) cos θ2 + X2 (p.u.) sin θ2

52
𝑑[Voltage regulation (p.u.)]
𝑑𝜃2
= -R2 (p.u.) sin θ2 + X2 (p.u.) cos θ2 = 0

 X2 (p.u.) cos θ2 = R2 (p.u.) sin θ2

 cos θ2 = R2 (p.u.) sin θ2 / X2 (p.u.)
 cos θ2 = R2 sin θ2 / X2
𝑋
 tan θ2 = 𝑅2
2

Fig. 46: Impedance triangle [Assume subscript 2 for R, X, Z and ϕ]

Φ2 is the winding impedance angle of secondary side.

𝑋
From Fig. 46, tan Φ2 = 𝑅2
2

So, tan θ2 = tan Φ2

 θ2 = Φ2
𝑅2
cos Φ2 = = cos θ2
𝑍2

𝑅2
 Load power factor = , which is the condition of maximum voltage regulation
𝑍2

Maximum value of voltage regulation (p.u.):

Voltage regulation (p.u.) = R2 (p.u.) cos θ2 + X2 (p.u.) sin θ2

𝐼2 𝑅2 𝑅 𝐼2 𝑋2 𝑋2
= 𝑉2
. 𝑍2 + 𝑉2
.𝑍
2 2

𝐼2 (𝑅2 2+ 𝑋22 ) 𝐼2 𝑍2
= 𝑉2𝑍2
= 𝑉2
= Z2 (p.u.)

Condition for Zero voltage regulation:

Voltage regulation (p.u.) = R2 (p.u.) cos θ2 + X2 (p.u.) sin θ2

53
 R2 (p.u.) cos θ2 + X2 (p.u.) sin θ2 = 0
 Z2(p.u.) cos ϕ2 cos θ2 + Z2 (p.u.) sin ϕ2 sin θ2 = 0
 Z2(p.u.) cos (ϕ2 - θ2) = 0……………….(26)

Z2(p.u.) cos (ϕ2 - θ2) = 0 is possible only when cos (ϕ2 - θ2) = 0, i.e., (ϕ2 - θ2)= 90°

 (ϕ2 - θ2)= 90°

 θ2 = - (90° - ϕ2) [For lagging power factor]
 θ2 = (90° - ϕ2) [For leading power factor]

[Note: Generally we consider leading power factor angle as a negative angle and lagging power
factor angle as a positive angle. So, if θ2 = - (90° - ϕ2) is a lagging power factor angle and it has a
positive value, then θ2 = (90° - ϕ2) is a leading power factor angle]

load power factor = cos θ2 = cos (90° - ϕ2) Leading = sin ϕ2 Leading
𝑋
cos θ2 = 𝑍2 , Which is the condition for zero voltage regulation.
2

Always remember that, we get zero voltage regulation for a leading power factor angle only.

Condition for minimum voltage regulation:

When θ2 = 90° Leading, we get minimum value of voltage regulation. So, θ2 = -90° [negative sign is
taken as it is leading power factor angle]

Minimum value of voltage regulation:

From equation (26), voltage regulation (p.u.) = Z2(p.u.) cos (ϕ2 - θ2)

 voltage regulation (p.u.) = Z2(p.u.) cos [ϕ2 – (-90°)]

 voltage regulation (p.u.) = Z2(p.u.) cos (ϕ2 + 90°)
 voltage regulation (p.u.) = -Z2(p.u.) sin ϕ2
−𝑍2 (𝑝.𝑢.) 𝑋2 (𝑝.𝑢.)
 voltage regulation (p.u.) = 𝑍2 (𝑝.𝑢.)
 voltage regulation (p.u.) = - X2 (p.u.)

Low value of Voltage regulation is always desirable. We can reduce the value of voltage regulation
by reducing the per unit impedance [as shown in Fig. 26]. Per unit impedance can be reduced by
reducing the per unit resistance or per unit leakage reactance. Per unit leakage reactance can be
reduced by reducing the leakage flux and leakage flux can be reduced by keeping the primary and
secondary windings as close as possible.

Power transformer generally operates on full load all the time, so voltage regulation is not
significant in power transformer. Whereas, load of a distribution transformer depends on consumer
demand and so load varies widely. So, voltage regulation is a very important factor in case of

54
distribution transformer and voltage regulation must be kept to the smallest value in distribution
transformer.

4.11: Polarity test of transformer

Current flows from high voltage point to low voltage point due to the potential difference between
them. Here, electrical polarity comes into the picture. Electrical polarity simply describes the
direction of the current flow. When we look into DC system, we find that one pole is always positive
and the other one is always negative that imply that the current flows in one direction only. But
when we look into an AC system, the terminals are changing their polarity periodically, and the
direction of the current also changes accordingly.

Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the primary and the secondary winding of
the transformer. If the two transformers are connected in parallel, then the polarity should be
known for the proper connection of the transformer. We do polarity test for parallel operation of
transformers to ensure that we connect the same polarity windings and not the opposite ones. If we
accidentally connect the opposite polarities of the windings, it will result in a short-circuit and
eventually damage the machine. There are two types of polarity: one is Additive and another is
Subtractive.

Fig. 47: Additive polarity and subtractive polarity test on a two winding transformer.

55
Additive Polarity: In additive polarity, the voltage Vc between the primary side Va and the secondary
side Vb will be the sum of both high voltage and the low voltage, i.e. we will get Vc = Va + Vb,

Subtractive Polarity: In subtractive polarity, the voltage Vc between the primary side Va and the
secondary side Vb will be the difference of both high voltage and the low voltage, i.e. we will get V c = Va
– Vb

In subtractive polarity, if Vc = Va – Vb, it is a step-down transformer and if Vc = Vb – Va, it is a step-up

transformer.

Procedure of Polarity Test of Transformer:

Fig. 48: Arrangement for polarity test of a two winding transformer.

1. Connect the circuit as shown above with a voltmeter Va across primary winding and another
voltmeter Vb across the secondary winding.
2. If available, take down the ratings of the transformer and the turn ratio.
3. We connect a voltmeter Vc between primary and secondary windings.
4. We apply some voltage to the primary side.
5. Record the values of the voltages as shown by the voltmeters Va, Vb and Vc.
6. By checking the value in the voltmeter (Vc), we can find whether it is additive or subtractive
polarity.

If additive polarity, Vc should be showing the sum of Va and Vb and if subtractive polarity Vc should
be showing the difference between Va and Vb.

The maximum voltage measuring range of the voltmeter Vc should be greater than the sum of Va
(Primary winding) and Vb (Secondary winding) as during the additive polarity, the sum of Va and Vb
comes across it.

4.12: O.C. and S.C. tests - Estimation of losses & Equivalent circuit parameters

56
 The open circuit (O.C.) test and short circuit (S.C.) test are performed for determining the parameter
of the transformer like their magnetic circuit parameters, equivalent impedance, equivalent
resistance, equivalent leakage reactance, different losses, efficiency, etc. These tests are performed
without actual loading of transformer and because of this reason very less power is required for the
test. The open circuit and the short circuit test give a very accurate result.

Open Circuit Test:

The purpose of the open-circuit test is to determine the no-load current and iron losses of the
transformer because of which their no-load parameters are determined.

This test is performed on the low voltage winding of the transformer. The wattmeter, ammeter and the
voltage are connected to their low voltage winding. The high voltage winding is kept open. This is
because arranging rated voltage supply at the low voltage side is easier and measuring instruments on
low voltage side are economic and working on low voltage side is also safe.

The nominal rated voltage at rated frequency is supplied to the low voltage winding with the help of the
ac source. The rated voltage and rated frequency are constant values. So, the iron loss determined from
this test is also treated as constant as iron loss depends on both voltage and frequency of supply.

Fig. 49: Circuit diagram of open circuit test of transformer.

In Fig. 49, the high voltage winding which is kept open, a voltmeter can be connected across it which
measures the high voltage winding induced voltage. As the secondary of the transformer is open, thus
no-load current flows through the primary winding. The value of no-load current is very small as

57
compared to the full load rated current. A very negligible copper loss occurs only in the low voltage
winding of the transformer because of no load current flowing through it. No current flows through the
high voltage winding as it is open. So, the reading of the wattmeter represents the core losses of
transformer.

Calculation of open-circuit test:

Refer Fig. 33, Fig. 41 and Fig. 49, for understanding it.

Let, Wattmeter reading = W0, Voltmeter reading = V0, Ammeter reading = I0

Iron loss of transformer = Wattmeter reading = W0

W0 = V0I0 cos ϕ0 [ϕ0 is the no load power factor angle]

𝑊0
No load power factor = cos ϕ0 =
𝑉0𝐼0

𝑊
 ϕ0 = cos-1 ( 𝑉 𝐼0 )
0 0

𝑊0
Working component or core loss component of no load current = IW = = I0 cos ϕ0
𝑉0

Magnetizing component of no load current = Im = √𝐼0 2 − 𝐼𝑊 2

No load parameters:

𝑉 𝑉2
Equivalent exciting resistance = R0 = 𝐼 0 = 𝑊0 ……………..(27)
𝑊 0

𝑉0
Equivalent exciting reactance = X0 = ……………………….(28)
𝐼𝑚

𝐼
tan ϕ0 = 𝐼𝑚
𝑊

𝑉0 𝑉0
Im = [From equation (28)], IW = [From equation (27)]
𝑋0 𝑅0

𝑉0
⁄𝑋
So, tan ϕ0 = 𝑉0 0
⁄𝑅
0

𝑅
 tan ϕ0 = 𝑋0
0
𝑅
 X0 = tan0𝜙
0

The iron losses measured by the open circuit test is used for calculating the efficiency of the
transformer.

58
Short Circuit Test:

The short circuit test is performed for determining the below mention parameter of the transformer.

 It determines the copper loss occur on the full load. The copper loss is used for finding the
efficiency of the transformer.
 The equivalent resistance, impedance and leakage reactance are known by the short circuit test.

The short circuit test is performed on the high voltage winding of the transformer. The measuring
instrument like wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter are connected to the high voltage winding of the
transformer. Their low voltage winding is short-circuited by the help of thick strip or ammeter which is
connected to its terminal. This test is conducted at rated current of transformer and the value of rated
current in high voltage winding is less than value of rated current in low voltage winding and measuring
instruments used will be economic because of low value of rated current and it is also safe to work with
low value of rated current.

The low voltage source is connected across the high voltage winding, which is approximately 5 to 10% of
the normal rated voltage, because of which the full load current flows in both the high voltage and the
low voltage windings of the transformer. The flux is set up in the core of the transformer. The magnitude
of the flux is small as compared to the normal flux. The iron loss in the transformer because of low flux is
very negligible as iron loss depends on flux.

The reading of the wattmeter only determines the copper loss occurred, in their windings. The
voltmeter measures the voltage applied to their high voltage winding. The ammeter measures the rated
current in low voltage winding.

Fig. 50: Circuit diagram of short circuit test of transformer.

59
Calculation of Short Circuit Test:

Refer Fig. 43, Fig. 50 for understanding it.

Let, Wattmeter reading = Wsc, Voltmeter reading = VSC, Ammeter reading = ISC

𝑉𝑆𝐶
Equivalent impedance referred to high voltage side = Z’eq =
𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝑊𝑆𝐶
Impedance angle of Impedance referred to high voltage side = ϕ = cos-1 ( ) [Refer to Fig. 46]
𝑉𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶

The full load copper loss of the transformer is WSC. [WSC = VSCISC cosϕ]

WSC = ISC2 R’eq

𝑊𝑆𝐶
So, equivalent resistance referred to high voltage side = R’eq = 𝐼 2 = Z’eq cos ϕ
𝑆𝐶

2 2
Equivalent reactance referred to high voltage side = X’eq = √𝑍′𝑒𝑞 − 𝑅′𝑒𝑞 = Z’eq sin ϕ

In the short circuit test, the wattmeter records the total losses, including core loss but the value of core
loss is very small as compared to copper loss so the core loss can be neglected.

4.13: Losses, Efficiency, Maximum efficiency, All-day efficiency:

Losses:

There are various types of losses in a transformer such as iron or core loss (hysteresis loss, eddy current
loss), copper loss, stray loss and dielectric loss. The hysteresis losses occur because of the variation of
the magnetization in the core of the transformer, eddy current loss occurs because of eddy current
established in core of transformer by the pulsating magnetic flux and the copper loss occurs because of
the transformer winding resistance. The majority of the transformer losses are iron loss and copper loss.
The stray load loss and dielectric loss are small and hence can be neglected.

Iron or Core Loss: Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer. The iron
or core loss (PC) has two components: (i) Hysteresis loss (PH), (ii) Eddy current loss (PE).

PC = P H + PE

The core of the transformer is subjected to an alternating magnetizing force, and for each cycle of emf, a
hysteresis loop is traced out. Power is dissipated in the form of heat known as hysteresis loss. The iron
or core losses can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the construction of the core of the
transformer. The hysteresis loss is given by the equation shown below: PH = KHfBmx

 KH is a proportionality constant which depends upon the volume and quality of the material of
the core and the units used in the transformer.
 f is the supply frequency.

60
  Bm is the maximum or peak value of the flux density.
 The value of exponent ‘x’ (called Steinmetz’s Constant) varies from 1.5 to 2.5, depending upon
magnetic properties of core material.

When the flux links with a closed circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit and the current flows, the
value of the current depends upon the amount of emf around the circuit and the resistance of the
circuit. Since the core is made of conducting material, this emf circulates current within the body of
the material. These circulating currents are called Eddy Currents. It will occur when the transformer
core experiences a pulsating magnetic flux. As these currents are not responsible for doing any
useful work, and it produces a loss (I2R0 loss) in the magnetic material known as an Eddy Current
Loss. The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin laminations. The eddy current
loss is given by the equation shown below: PE = KEf2Bm2

 KE is a proportionality constant which depends upon the volume, resistivity of core material,
thickness of laminations and the units employed.

So, PC = KHfBmx + KEf2Bm2

The applied voltage V to primary winding of transformer is almost equal to the induced emf and is
given by: V = √2πfNϕm = √2πfNBmA [ϕm is maximum value of flux, N is the number of turns in
primary winding of transformer and A is the net core area and ϕm = BmA]

1 𝑉
So, PH = KHf( )𝑥 (𝑓 )𝑥
√2𝜋𝑁𝐴

1
 PH = khVxf1-x [Where kh = KH( )𝑥 ]
√2𝜋𝑁𝐴

1 𝑉
PE = KEf2( )2 ( )2
√2𝜋𝑁𝐴 𝑓

1
 PE = keV2 [Where ke = KE( )2 ]
√2𝜋𝑁𝐴

Therefore the eddy current loss PE is directly proportional to square of applied voltage and
independent of frequency.

So, PC = khVxf1-x + keV2

Ohmic loss: These losses occur due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings when the
transformer is loaded. If I1 and I2 are the primary and the secondary current, R1 and R2 are the resistance
of primary and secondary winding then the copper losses occurring in the primary and secondary
winding will be I12R1 and I22R2 respectively.

Therefore, the total copper losses (Pcu) will be: Pcu = I12R1 + I22R2.

These losses varied according to the load and hence it is also known as variable losses. Copper losses
vary as the square of the load current.

61
Stray Loss: The occurrence of these stray losses is due to the presence of leakage field which induces
eddy currents in conductors, tanks, channels, bolts, etc and these eddy currents give rise to stray load
losses. The percentage of these losses are very small as compared to the iron and copper losses, so they
can be neglected.

Dielectric Loss: Dielectric loss occurs in the insulating material of the transformer that is in the oil of the
transformer, or in the solid insulations. When the oil gets deteriorated or the solid insulation gets
damaged or its quality decreases and because of this, the efficiency of the transformer gets affected.

Efficiency:

The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. Thus, Efficiency η
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑉2𝐼2 cos 𝜃2
= = ……………..(29)
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑉2𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 + 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐼2 2𝑅𝑒2

V2I2 = Output Volt Ampere

Cos θ2 = Load power factor

PC = Total core loss

I22Re2 = Total ohmic losses

As stray losses and dielectric losses are very small, so they can be neglected.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
η= 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 1 - 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

The core losses are constant for rated voltage and frequency supply and is independent of load current.
The ohmic losses depend on load current. For example: If I 2R is the ohmic loss at full load, then at half of
full load the ohmic loss will be (I2R / 4) [At half of full load current is I/2 and square of I/2 is I 2/4].

Dividing numerator and denominator of equation (29) by V2I2, we get efficiency in per unit parameters:

cos 𝜃2
η= 𝑃𝐶 𝐼 2𝑅
cos 𝜃2 + + 2 𝑒2
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑉2 𝐼2

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

 η = 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 η =1 - 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
……………..(30)

The above equation (30) represents efficiency of transformer at rated current only. Efficiency of
transformer at load current I2’ which is different from rated load current I2 is given by:

𝐼 ′
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + ( 2 )2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐼2
η=1- 𝐼 ′ 𝐼 ′
( 2 ) 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 + 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + ( 2 )2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐼2 𝐼2

62
The efficiencies of power and distribution transformers are usually very high, i.e., 95% to 99%.

Maximum Efficiency:
𝑑𝜂
At a specified value of load power factor θ2, the efficiency will be maximum when 𝑑𝐼 = 0.
2

𝑑𝜂
𝑑𝐼2
for equation (29) is:

𝑑𝜂 [𝑉2𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 + 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐼2 2 𝑅𝑒2 ][𝑉2 cos 𝜃2 ]− 𝑉2𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 (𝑉2 cos 𝜃2 + 2𝐼2𝑅𝑒2 )
= =0
𝑑𝐼2 [𝑉2𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 + 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐼2 2𝑅𝑒2 ]2

 [𝑉2 𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 + 𝑃𝐶 + 𝐼2 2 𝑅𝑒2 ][𝑉2 cos 𝜃2 ]− 𝑉2 𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 (𝑉2 cos 𝜃2 + 2𝐼2 𝑅𝑒2 ) = 0
 I22Re2 = PC

Therefore, when Variable ohmic loss becomes equal to constant iron loss we get the maximum
efficiency of transformer.

𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶
Load current I2 at which maximum efficiency occurs = √ = Ix√ = Ix√
𝑅𝑒2 𝐼𝑥2 𝑅𝑒2 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝑥

The load current Ix can be full load current or less than full load current.

𝑃
 I2 = Ix√𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐶
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
………………..(31)
𝑥

2 2 2 𝑥 𝐸 𝐼 𝐶 𝐸 𝐼 𝑃
Multiplying both side of equation (31) by E2 / 1000, we get: 1000 = 1000 √𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 𝑥

𝐸2 𝐼𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
KVA Load for maximum η = √𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
1000 𝑥

𝑉2𝐼2 cos 𝜃2
Maximum η =
𝑉2𝐼2 cos 𝜃2 + 2𝑃𝐶

All – Day Efficiency:

Power transformers are used at the sending and receiving ends of a long, high voltage power
transmission line for stepping up or stepping down the voltage. A power transformer does not come in
direct contact with consumer’s terminals. These transformers are manipulated to operate almost always
at or near their rated KVA rating. Therefore, power transformers are disconnected during light load
periods. A power transformer is designed to have maximum efficiency at or near its rated KVA.
Therefore, selection of a power transformer should be based on full load efficiency.

Distribution transformers change the voltage to a suitable level for utilization purpose at consumer’s
premises. The secondary winding of distribution transformer is directly connected to consumer’s
terminals. So, the load of distribution transformer varies over a wide range during a 24 hour day.
Whatever may be the load on distribution transformer, its primary winding is always energized and so

63
the core loss takes place continuously. So, the distribution transformers are designed to have very low
value of core loss. For reduced core loss, maximum efficiency of distribution transformer occurs nearly
at about one-half of its rated KVA. Therefore, a distribution transformer should not be judged by its full
load efficiency. Full load efficiency of distribution transformer is less than its maximum efficiency.
Selection of a distribution transformer is based on Energy Efficiency, which is the ratio of total energy
output for a certain period of time to the total energy input for the same period of time. The energy
efficiency can be calculated for any length of load cycle, provided its load variations are known. When
energy efficiency is calculated for a day of 24 hours, it is called All-Day Efficiency.

𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟)

All-Day Efficiency = 1 – 𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 (𝐾𝑊ℎ𝑟)

4.14: Parallel operation of single phase transformers

Parallel operation of two or more Transformers means that all the Transformers Primary is connected
with the common supply and their Secondary are feeding to a common bus through which load is
connected. Parallel operation of Transformers requires that their Primary as well as Secondary windings
are connected in parallel.

Parallel operation of two or more Transformers has many advantages when compared with a single
large Transformer. Though using single large Transformer instead of two or more Transformers
connected in parallel are cheap but still due to the following advantages, parallel operation of
Transformers are preferred where required:

 With two or Transformers, the Power System becomes more reliable. Let one Transformer
develops a fault, then the faulty Transformer can be removed from the circuit while maintaining
the power supply at a reduced level through healthy Transformers. Thus in this way, Power
System becomes more reliable.

 Depending upon the load, Transformers can be switched ON / OFF. In this way, Transformer
losses are reduced and the system becomes more efficient and economical.

 When the load power is greater than the power handled by single transformer or if the power
demand increases with time then extra spare Transformer can be taken into service to meet the
power demand.

64
Fig. 51: Parallel operation of transformers.

In Fig. 51,
a1 is the turn ratio of the transformer A
a2 is the turn ratio of transformer B
ZA is the equivalent impedance of the transformer A referred to secondary
ZB is the equivalent impedance of the transformer B referred to secondary
ZL is the load impedance across the secondary
IA is the current supplied to the load by the secondary of the transformer A
IB is the current supplied to the load by the secondary of the transformer B
VL is the secondary load voltage
IL is the load current

Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law in Fig. 51, we get: IL = IA + IB…………………….. (32)

By Kirchhoff’s Current Law, from Fig. 51, we get:

𝑉1
VL = - IAZA…………………………………..(33)
𝑎1

𝑉
VL = 𝑎1 – IBZB………………….………………(34)
2

Putting the value of IB from equation (32) in equation (34), we get:

65
 𝑉1
VL = – (IL – IA).ZB…………………(35)
𝑎2

𝑍𝐵 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝐴 𝐼𝐿
Applying Current Divider Rule, we get: IA = and IB =
𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵

If we consider the circulating current flowing from secondary of transformer A to secondary of

𝑍 𝐼 𝑉 (𝑎 −𝑎 )
transformer B, then IA = 𝑍 𝐵+ 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑎 𝑎1 (𝑍2 +𝑍1 )…………………(36)
𝐴 𝐵 1 2 𝐴 𝐵

𝑍𝐴 𝐼𝐿 𝑉1(𝑎1−𝑎2)
IB = + …………………(37)
𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 𝑎1𝑎2(𝑍𝐴 +𝑍𝐵 )

Now, the current IA and IB have two components. The first component represents the transformers
share of the load currents and the second component is a circulating current in the secondary windings
of the single-phase transformer.

When the voltage ratios of both the transformers are identical, i.e., a 1 = a2, circulating curreny=t is
eliminated.

𝑍𝐵 𝐼𝐿 𝑍𝐴 𝐼𝐿
So, now again IA = ………….(38) and IB = …………………….(39)
𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵

𝐼𝐴 𝑍
Equating equations (38) and (39), we get: 𝐼𝐵
= 𝑍𝐵 ……………………….(40)
𝐴

From equation (40), it is clear that the transformer currents are inversely proportional to the
transformer impedance. Thus, for the efficient parallel operation of the two single-phase transformers,
the potential differences at full load across the transformer internal impedance should be equal.

From equation (40), IAZA = IBZB……………………….(41)

This condition ensures that the load sharing between the two single-phase transformer is according to
the rating of each transformer. If the per-unit equivalent impedance are not equal, then the transformer
will not share the load in proportion to their kVA ratings. As a result, the overall rating of the
transformers in parallel will be reduced as one transformer will reach its full load before the other
reaches.

The current in the equations (38) and (39) is changed into volt-amperes by multiplying the two
equations by the common load voltage VL.

We know that, Total load in Volt Ampere (VA) = SL = VLIL…………………(42)

𝑍 𝐼 𝑉 𝑍𝐵
Volt Ampere of transformer A = SA = VLIA = 𝑍 𝐵+𝐿 𝑍𝐿 = SL 𝑍 ……………..(43)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵

𝑍 𝐼 𝑉 𝑍𝐴
Volt Ampere of transformer B = SB = VLIB = 𝑍 𝐴+𝐿 𝑍𝐿 = SL 𝑍 ……………...(44)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴+𝑍𝐵

66
Dividing numerator and denominator of equations (43) and (44) by a common base impedance, we can
express impedances in equations (43) and (44) in per unit basis and the ohmic ratio also remains
unchanged.

𝑆 𝑍
Equating equations (43) and (44) we will get: 𝑆𝐴 = 𝑍𝐵 .....................(45)
𝐵 𝐴

Equation (45) tells that the volt-ampere load on each single-phase transformer is inversely proportional
to its impedance. Hence, to share the load in proportion to their ratings, the transformers should have
the impedance which is inversely proportional to their ratings.

Condition for Parallel Operation of Transformers:

The various conditions which must be satisfied for the parallel operation of two or more Single Phase
Transformers are:

a) The Transformers must be connected properly in view of their polarities. The primaries of both
transformers are connected in parallel. The rating of voltmeter must be double that of secondary rated
voltage of the transformer. If the voltmeter indicates zero, it is Correct polarity. If the voltmeter
indicates double voltage that of secondary rated voltage of a transformer, it is Incorrect polarity. In that
case anyone connection of the secondary winding is interchanged.

67
Fig. 52: Arrangement for polarity check of parallel connected transformers.

b) The Transformers must have the same voltage ratio and same voltage ratings, i.e., with Primaries of
Transformers connected to the same supply and their Secondaries must have the same voltage.

c) The equivalent leakage impedance in Ohm should be inversely proportional to their respective kVA
rating. In other words, we can say that all the Transformers should have equal per unit leakage
impedance based on their own kVA ratings. If the per unit impedance of the transformers are not the
same, a transformer with smaller per unit impedance will carry more load than its actual share load and
other transformer carry only part of load.

d) The ratio of equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance, i.e., Xe / Re should be same for
all the Transformers. If the Xe /Re ratios of the transformers are different, one transformer will be
operating with a higher power factor and the other transformer with a lower power factor. It means
that kW load is not proportionally shared by them.

It shall be noted that conditions (c ) and (d) are desirable conditions for parallel operation of
transformers. Whereas, conditions (a) and (b) must be satisfied strictly for parallel operation of
Transformers. A difference in Secondary voltage and incorrect polarity will lead to circulating current in
the Secondary winding. Therefore the primaries of the transformer will draw reflected secondary

68
circulating current. This additional current causes copper loss on both windings of the transformers and
it may damage the windings. The circulating current also overloads one of the transformers and reduce
the permissible load kVA.

If the two Transformers A and B are of equal voltage ratio, that means equal secondary no load voltage.
If the primary leakage impedance drop for the Transformers A and B are same then their Secondary
terminal voltages Ea and Eb must be same for equal voltage ratio and hence there will not be any
circulating current.

Ea = Eb

Fig. 53: Equivalent circuit of two parallel connected transformers.

In Fig. 53, V is the common Secondary terminal voltage, load current I is shared as I a and Ib by the
Transformers A and B respectively. The Load impedance is Z.

Voltage equations of transformers, Ea – IaZea = V = IZ……………….(46)

As, Ea = Eb

So, Eb – IaZea = V = IZ……………….(47)

Eb – IbZeb = V = IZ……………….(48)

Equating equations (47) and (48), we get: Eb – IaZea = Eb – IbZeb

IaZea = IbZeb…………………(49)

𝑍 𝑍
IaZea = IbZeb = I 𝑍 𝑒𝑎+ 𝑍𝑒𝑏 ……………(50)
𝑒𝑎 𝑒𝑏

𝑍𝑒𝑏 𝑍𝑒𝑎
Ia = I 𝑍 …………………(51) and Ib = I 𝑍 …………………(52)
𝑒𝑎 + 𝑍𝑒𝑏 𝑒𝑎 + 𝑍𝑒𝑏

69
From equation (49), we can say: Ij . Zj = K [Where j is any number of transformer which is connected in
parallel with other transformers and K is any constant]

𝐾
 Ij = 𝑍
𝑗
𝐾 𝑉. 𝐾 𝐶
 Multiplying both sides of Ij = 𝑍 by rated voltage V (V is a constant value) we get: V. Ij = 𝑍𝑗
=𝑍
𝑗 𝑗
[C is a constant and C = V.K]
𝐶
 Sj = [Sj = V. Ij and p.u. means per unit]
𝑍𝑗(𝑝.𝑢.)𝑋 𝑍𝑗 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐶
 Sj = 𝑉 2
𝑍𝑗(𝑝.𝑢.)𝑋 ( 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 )
𝑆𝑗 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐶 . 𝑆𝑗 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
 Sj = 𝑍 𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 2
𝑗(𝑝.𝑢.)𝑋
𝑆𝑗 𝐶
 𝑆𝑗 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
=𝑍 𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 2
𝑗(𝑝.𝑢.)𝑋
𝐶1 𝐶
 Sj (p.u.) = …………………(53) [Zj base is a contant value and C 1 = ]
𝑍𝑗(𝑝.𝑢.) 𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 2

Equation (53) means that transformer with lowest per unit impedance will have highest per unit loading
and will reach full load first. When 𝑍𝑗(𝑝.𝑢.) of all the parallel connected transformer will have same value
then Sj (p.u.) of all the transformers will also be same, i.e., all the transformers in parallel will be loaded to
same percentage of their respective capacity and will reach full load at the same time.

Fig. 54: Phasor diagram of two parallel connected transformers operating at different power factors.

In Fig. 54,

 V2 = Common load terminal voltage

 ZA, RA, XA = Impedance, Resistance, Reactance respectively of transformer A
 ZB, RB, XB = Impedance, Resistance, Reactance respectively of transformer B
 ZAB = Combined impedance of both transformers
 E2 = Induced emf
 IA = Load current shared by transformer A
 IB = Load current shared by transformer B
 I = Load current
 ɸA = Power factor angle of transformer A

70
  ɸB = Power factor angle of transformer B
 ɸ = Load power factor angle

4.15: Tap –changing methods

Tap changers are the devices that are used to change the voltage level. They placed on the High Voltage
side of a transformer so that the current through it will be less and it will cause less sparking when the
taps are changed from one voltage level to another causing increase in lifetime of tap changers. The
voltage depends on the number of turns. Tap changers change the voltage by changing the number of
turns. There are several tappings taken out from the HV (High Voltage) winding to change the voltage
level. There are two types of tap changers on the basis of their use,

 Off Load Tap Changers

 On Load Tap Changers

Off Load Tap Changer:

The offload tap changer works when the load is disconnected. It changes the number of turns by moving
arm to the required tapping. Consider the Fig. 55,

Fig. 55: Off load Tap Changer.

Here the HV winding has six tappings in the picture. When the arm is between 1 and 2, the number of
turns is highest. The lowest number of turns will be at 5 and 6. The arm is moved, which changes the
number of turns. Consequently, the voltage level is changed.

71
Off load tap changer should be operated at offload. To prevent any false attempt, there is a circuit
breaker interlocked with it. Whenever anyone tries to change the tap in on load position, the circuit
breaker is operated to cut off the load from the transformer.

On Load Tap Changers:

On load tap changer can be operated while the load is connected. It has two switches, the Selector
Switch and the Divertor Switch.

Selector Switches are present at the tapping. By this switch, we can choose the tapping we want. This
switch does not undergo any transient because it is operated when the current is not passing through it.

Divertor switch is one that helps to change the tap in the on-load condition. It manages the transients by
resistors. It is operated when the current is passing through it. Therefore, it is kept in oil for cooling and
arc extinction.

With the help of these two switches, the tap changer is operated on-load without damaging the load.
Let’s discuss its working. Consider the Fig. 56,

Fig. 56: On Load Tap Changer.

72
The Divertor Switch is at position AB and Selector switch 4 is closed, which connects the Tap 4. If we
want to shift the tap to Tap 3, then we will follow the following steps.

Step 1: We will move the Divertor Switch to B.

Fig. 57: On Load Tap Changer with divertor switch at B and selector switch at 4.

The Divertor is at B, and the current will now flow through R, which will reduce the current.

Step 2: The switch of Tap 3 is closed, and Divertor Switch is moved to BC. At this state, the current is
divided into Tap 3 and Tap 4. The current is further reduced by passing through two resistors.

73
Fig. 58: On Load Tap Changer with divertor switch at BC and selector switches at 3 and 4.

Step 3: The Divertor Switch is moved to C, and Tap 4 can be disconnected.

74
 Fig. 59: On Load Tap Changer with divertor switch at C and selector switch at 3.

Now the current is flowing from the Tap 3 through resistor R.

Step 4: Finally, the Divertor Switch is moved to the CD.

75
 Fig. 60: On Load Tap Changer with divertor switch at CD and selector switch at 3.

In this way, we can change the taps while the transformer is loaded.

4.16: Principles of single-phase Auto transformer

An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding wound on a laminated core. An auto
transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but differ in the way the primary and secondary
winding are interrelated. A part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary sides. On load
condition, a part of the load current is obtained directly from the supply by conduction and the
remaining part is obtained by transformer action, i.e., by induction. An Auto transformer works as a

76
voltage regulator. The “auto” prefix in Autotransformer refers to the single coil acting alone (Greek for
“self”) – not to any automatic mechanism.

Explanation of Auto Transformer with Circuit Diagram:

In an ordinary transformer, the primary and the secondary windings are electrically insulated from each
other but connected magnetically, i.e., two different windings are used for primary and secondary
purpose as shown in the Fig. 61. While in auto transformer the primary and the secondary windings are
connected magnetically as well as electrically. In fact, a part of the single continuous winding is common
to both primary and secondary, i.e., single winding is used as primary winding as well as secondary
winding.

Fig. 61: Ordinary single phase two winding transformer.

There are two types of auto transformer based on the construction. In one type of transformer, there is
continuous winding with the taps brought out at convenient points determined by the desired
secondary voltage. However, in another type of auto transformer, there are two or more distinct coils

77
which are electrically connected to form a continuous winding. The Auto transformer is shown in the
Fig. 62.

Fig. 62: Autotransformer

The primary winding AB from which a tapping at C is taken, such that CB acts as a secondary winding.
The supply voltage is applied across AB, and the load is connected across CB. The tapping may be fixed
or variable. When a supply voltage V1 is applied across AB, an alternating flux is set up in the core, as a
result, an emf E1 is induced in the winding AB. A part of this induced emf is taken in the secondary
circuit.

Let, the winding AB has total N1 number of turns and winding BC has N2 number of turns.
𝑉
Voltage per turn of winding AB = 𝑁1
1

𝑉1
Voltage across winding BC = V2 = 𝑁1
N2…………….(54)

𝑉1 𝑁1
 = = K (constant)……………(55) [From equation (54)]
𝑉2 𝑁2

78
As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be understood that value of
constant ′K′ is nothing but turns ratio or voltage ratio of the auto transformer. When load is connected
between secondary terminals, i.e., between ′B′ and ′C′, load current I2 starts flowing to the load. The
current in the secondary winding or common winding is the difference of I 2 and I1.

Total current flowing to load is I2. The current I2 can be written as I2 = [(I2 – I1) + I1]. The first component
of current I2, i.e., (I2 – I1) which is found in the winding BC is because of induction effect and the second
component of current I2, i.e., I1 is because of conduction effect and it occurs as the current I1 from AC
winding flows to the load by the electrical connection of one of the load terminals of load with terminal
C of winding AC. Therefore in an autotransformer power transfer to load takes place because of both
conduction and induction effect. Whereas in a two winding transformer power transfer to load takes
place only because of induction effect.

Rating or capacity of an autotransformer = V1I1 = V2I2 = V2[(I2 – I1) + I1] = V2(I2 – I1) + V2I1
𝑉𝐼 100
Percentage of conductive KVA of the capacity of autotransformer = 𝑉2𝐼1 x 100%= 𝐾
%
2 2

𝑁 𝐼
[From equations (6) and (55), we can say 𝑁1 = 𝐼2 = K]
2 1

𝑉2(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) 𝑉2𝐼2 − 𝑉2𝐼1

Percentage of inductive KVA of the capacity of autotransformer = 𝑉2𝐼2
x 100% = 𝑉2𝐼2
x 100%

𝑉𝐼 1
= (1 - 𝑉2𝐼1 ) x 100% = (1 - 𝐾)x100%
2 2

For an ideal two winding transformer the mmf balancing is as follows: N 1I1 – N2I2 =0, i.e., primary
winding mmf (ampere turns) is opposed by secondary winding mmf (ampere turns). So, in an
autotransformer the secondary winding BC ampere-turns are opposite to primary ampere-turns, so the
current I2 is in phase opposition to I1. When the secondary voltage is less than the primary, current I 2 is
more than the current I1. Therefore, the resulting current flowing through section BC is (I2 – I1).

Therefore in an ideal autotransformer mmf balancing is as follows: Ampere turns due to winding AC –
Ampere turns due to winding BC = 0
𝑁 1
Ampere turns due to winding AC = I1(N1 – N2) = I1N1(1 - 𝑁2 ) = I1N1(1 - 𝐾)……………….(56)
1

𝑁1 𝐼1 𝑁1 1
Ampere turns due to winding BC = (I2 - I1)N2 = (I1K –I1) = (1 - )I1K. = I1N1(1 - )…………..(57)
𝐾 𝐼1 𝐾 𝐾 𝐾

As, ampere turns of both windings AC and BC are equal and they balance each other, so net mmf is 0.

Comparison of weight of Autotransformer with two winding transformer:

Copper weight = Copper volume x Copper density

Copper density is a constant value. So, Copper weight is directly proportional to Copper volume.

79
Copper conductor Volume = Copper conductor cross section x Copper conductor length

Copper conductor cross section is directly proportional to current flowing through the conductor and
Copper conductor length is directly proportional to number of turns of conductor.

Copper weight of autotransformer is directly proportional to (N1 – N2)I1 + N2(I2 – I1)

Copper weight of two winding transformer is directly proportional to N 1I1 + N2I2

𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 + 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) 𝑁1𝐼1 − 𝑁2 𝐼1+ 𝑁2 𝐼2 − 𝑁2 𝐼1 2𝑁1𝐼1 − 2𝑁2 𝐼1
= = =
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑁1 𝐼1 + 𝑁2 𝐼2 𝑁1 𝐼1+ 𝑁2 𝐼2 2𝑁1 𝐼1

𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑁 1

 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
= 1 - 𝑁2 = 1 - 𝐾 ……………(58)
1

[N1I1 = N2I2, from equations (6) and (55)]

Percentage of copper saving in an autotransformer:

𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 – 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
= 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
x 100%

𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟

= (1 - 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 ) x 100%

1 100% 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 1

= (1 – 1 + 𝐾) x 100% = 𝐾
[Using 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 = 1 - 𝐾 from equation (58)]

An autotransformer uses single copper winding and a two winding transformer uses two copper
windings. So copper is saved in an autotransformer. Also in winding BC of autotransformer, as shown in
Fig. 62, the current through it is (I2 – I1), whereas in a two winding transformer current throughout the
primary winding is I1. If value of (I2 – I1) is less than that of I1, cross section area of copper conductor
required for carrying current (I2 – I1) is less that of copper conductor carrying I1 current. So, again there is
a copper saving.

Now, the autotransformer requires less iron core size to accommodate less copper windings. So, iron
weight is reduced and iron loss is also reduced.

As there is a saving in both copper and iron in an autotransformer. So the overall weight of an
autotransformer is less than that of two winding transformer of same voltage ratio and same KVA rating.

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Fig. 63: A two winding transformer (1) and an autotransformer (2) of same voltage ratio and KVA rating.

Ratio of KVA rating of an autotransformer and a two winding transformer made from the material of
𝑉1
𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑉1𝐼1 𝑉1 ⁄𝑉 𝐾
2
that same autotransformer = 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
= (𝑉1− 𝑉2 )𝐼1
= 𝑉1− 𝑉2
= 𝑉1 = 𝐾−1
⁄𝑉 − 1
2
…………………….(59)

[K is the voltage ratio of autotransformer]

Fig. 64: Two winding transformer made from the material of autotransformer.

So, KVA rating of autotransformer = V1I1 is higher than KVA rating of two winding transformer, i.e., (V 1 –
V2)I1, made from material of an autotransformer.

From the above ratio seen in equation (59), we can say that when voltage ratio of autotransformer is
close to 1 (just above 1), then we get maximum advantage of autotransformer as KVA rating of
autotransformer becomes very high than KVA rating of two winding transformer made from same
material. It means using an autotransformer for getting high KVA rating is less costly than that of using
two winding transformer.

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Fig. 65: Step-Up Autotransformer
𝑉1
In Step-Up Autotransformer, voltage ratio = > 1, i.e., output voltage V2 is more than input voltage V1.
𝑉2

Fig. 66: Step-Down Autotransformer

𝑉
In Step-Down Autotransformer, voltage ratio = 𝑉1 < 1, i.e., output voltage V2 is less than input voltage V1.
2

Fig. 65 and Fig. 66 are drawn for additive polarity, i.e., in Fig. 65, V2 = V1 + Voltage across winding with
(N2 –N1) turns and in Fig. 66, V1 = V2 + Voltage across winding with (N1 –N2) turns.

Comparison of copper loss of Autotransformer with two winding transformer:

Primary winding copper loss of two winding transformer = I 12R1

Secondary winding copper loss of two winding transformer = I22R2

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Resistance of conductor = Resistivity of conductor material x
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

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Resistivity of conductor material is a constant value.

Length of conductor is directly proportional to number of turns of conductor and Cross section area of
conductor is directly proportional to value of maximum current that can flow through it.

Let, N1 and N2 be the number of turns of primary and secondary winding respectively.
𝑁1
Primary winding copper loss of two winding transformer is directly proportional to I12. , i.e., I1N1
𝐼1

𝑁
Secondary winding copper loss of two winding transformer is directly proportional to I22. 𝐼 2 , i.e., I2N2
2

Total Copper loss of two winding transformer is directly proportional to I 1N1 + I2N2
𝑁1 − 𝑁2 𝑁2
Copper loss of autotransformer is directly proportional to I12. 𝐼1
+ (I2 –I1)2𝐼 , i.e., I1(N1 – N2) + (I2 –
2 − 𝐼1
I1)N2

𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 (𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )𝐼1 + 𝑁2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) 𝑁1 𝐼1 − 𝑁2 𝐼1+ 𝑁2 𝐼2 − 𝑁2 𝐼1 2𝑁1𝐼1 − 2𝑁2 𝐼1 𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
= 𝑁1 𝐼1 + 𝑁2 𝐼2
= 𝑁1 𝐼1+ 𝑁2 𝐼2
= 2𝑁1 𝐼1
= 1 - 𝑁2
1

𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 1

 =1- [N1I1 = N2I2, from equations (6) and (55)]
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐾

Advantages of Single Phase Auto Transformer:

(1) An autotransformer required less Copper than an ordinary transformer of a similar rating. So an
autotransformer is less costly than a two winding transformer.

(2) It has better voltage regulation than a two winding transformer of the same rating because per unit
impedance of autotransformer is smaller than that of two winding transformer.

(3) It has a smaller size than an ordinary transformer of the same rating.

(4) An autotransformer requires a smaller exciting current than a two winding transformer of the same
rating because of low iron core reluctance.

(5) It has low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer of the same rating. So, an auto
transformer has higher efficiency than two winding transformer.

Disadvantages of Single Phase Auto Transformer:

(1) Because of electrical conductivity of the primary and secondary windings the lower voltage
circuit is liable to be impressed upon by higher voltage. To avoid insulation breakdown in the lower
voltage circuit, it becomes necessary to increase the insulation of the low voltage circuit to withstand
higher voltage.

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(2) The leakage flux between the primary and secondary windings is small and hence the
impedance is low. This results into severer short circuit currents under fault conditions.
(3) It is more difficult to maintain the electromagnetic balance of the winding when voltage
adjustment tappings are provided. It should be known that the provision of tapping on an auto
transformer increases considerably the frame size of the transformer. If the range of tapping is very
large, the advantages gained in initial cost is lost to a great extent.
(4) An autotransformer is not safe for stepping down a high voltage to a low voltage. in case an
open circuit develops in a common part of winding then full primary voltage appears across the load, it
will dangerous to both person and equipment.
(5) There is a direct connection between the primary winding and the secondary winding.
Therefore, the output is no longer directly isolated from the input.

4.17: Applications of 2- winding transformer & Auto transformer

Application of 2- winding transformer:

Single phase two winding transformer is widely used in low voltage applications. The single phase two
winding transformers are mostly used to step down the single phase supply 220 volts to lower voltage.
The transformer is used for power supply to electronic equipments. The transformer is used in the
AC/DC rectifier, electronic circuits, inverter circuit, commercial and residential lighting and heating
equipment, etc.
Application of Auto transformer:

1. Compensating voltage drops in electric traction supply system by boosting supply voltage in
distribution systems.
2. Auto transformers with a number of tapping are used for starting squirrel cage type three phase
induction motors.
3. Auto transformer is used as variac in laboratory or where continuous variable voltage over
broad range is required.
4. It is also used as a voltage regulator.
5. Used in power transmission and distribution system to connect two power systems at different
voltage levels. For example: 765KV / 400KV, 400KV / 220KV, etc. Generally three phase
autotransformer is used for this purpose.

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