NIGER

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Contents
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................3
Land............................................................................................................................................................4
Relief.......................................................................................................................................................4
Drainage and soils..................................................................................................................................4
Climate of Niger.....................................................................................................................................6
Plant and animal life..............................................................................................................................7
Settlement patterns................................................................................................................................7
People.........................................................................................................................................................9
Linguistic groups...................................................................................................................................9
Ethnic groups.........................................................................................................................................9
Religious groups...................................................................................................................................10
Demographic trends............................................................................................................................10
Economy of Niger....................................................................................................................................10
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing...........................................................................................................10
Resources and power...............................................................................................................................11
Mining..................................................................................................................................................11
Manufacturing.........................................................................................................................................15
Trade........................................................................................................................................................15
Transportation.........................................................................................................................................16
Government and society..........................................................................................................................16
Constitutional framework...................................................................................................................16
Local government................................................................................................................................17
Education.................................................................................................................................................17
Health and welfare..................................................................................................................................17
Cultural life..............................................................................................................................................17
History......................................................................................................................................................18
Early cultures.......................................................................................................................................18
Colonial administration......................................................................................................................19
Independence and conflict..................................................................................................................19
Military coup and return to civilian rule...........................................................................................21
References................................................................................................................................................25

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Introduction
Niger is a country in West Africa that does not have any coastline. It is next to Algeria in the
northwest, Libya in the northeast, Chad in the east, Nigeria and Benin in the south, and Burkina
Faso and Mali in the west. The capital city is Niamey. The country is called Niger because the
Niger River runs through the southwest part of it. The name Niger comes from the Tamashek
phrase "gher n-gheren," which means "river among rivers. "

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Land
Relief
Niger is about 750 miles long from north to south and about 930 miles wide from east to west.
The land is kind of boring, with lots of low areas and dry hills in the north. As you go south,
there is more rain. The country naturally divides into three parts: a desert in the north, a middle
area where nomads raise cattle, and a farming area in the south. In the south, most of the people,
who move around and stay in one place, live.

The highlands in the north have valleys called kori that are part of the Aïr Massif. This is a
range of mountains in the center of Niger that runs from north to south. There are separate
mountain masses within this range, including Tazerzaït, Tamgak, Takolokouzet,
Angornakouer, Bagzane, and Tarouadji. In the northeast, there are some tall plateaus that
connect the Ahaggar Mountains in Algeria and the Tibesti Mountains in Chad. From the west to
the east, there are plateaus called Djado, Mangueni, and Tchigai

The sandy areas of the Sahara Desert in Niger are on both sides of the Aïr mountain. To the west,
the Talak region has the Tamesna area in the north, where valleys with fossils are filled with
sand dunes that move, and the Azaoua area in the south. The Ténéré region is east of the Aïr and
it has some areas covered with sand called erg and other areas covered with a stony plain called
reg.

The flat areas in the south, which are about 900 miles long, can be split into three parts. The
Djerma Ganda region is in the west. The big valleys are full of sand, and the dallol (fossilized
valleys of rivers that formed tributaries of the Niger in ancient times) come down from the Aïr
and the Iforas Massif of neighbouring Mali. The middle area is made up of rocky Adar Doutchi
and Majia. It has dried-up valleys and a flat area made of sandstone that ends at the Tiguidit
scarp. The rock can be seen again in the east in areas like Damagarim, Mounio, and Koutous. To
the north of those places is the Damergou region, which has a lot of clay. In the Manga region, in
the east, old water paths can be seen on the flat sandy land.

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Drainage and soils
It's helpful to see a difference between the old water system that people used in the Aïr region
a long time ago and the current system, which is a big reason why the northern and southern
parts of the country are so different. This old system helped people like farmers, fishermen, and
shepherds live there thousands of years ago. The current system includes the Niger River area to
the west and the Lake Chad area to the east. In between these two areas, you can find remains of
the old system, like the dallol and the gulbi.

The Niger River goes across Niger for about 350 miles to the west. Due to the way the river
spreads out in Mali, the water only floods past Niamey in January and February. Sometimes, the
river gets water from small streams that flow into it from the right side. These are the names of
the rivers in W National Park: Gorouol, Dargol, Sirba, Goroubi, Djamangou, Tapoa, and
Mékrou. The last two rivers flow through the park, which is named after the shape of the
Niger River that flows through it. On the left side, going east, you can see the remains of old
rivers called dallol. Mostly running from north to south, they are areas with lots of moisture,
although some of them still have water flowing towards the Niger. The most famous wadis are
the Bosso, Foga, and Maouri. Other remains include the kori, which come from the Aïr and from
rivers that used to flow from the Iforas Massif, and then combined at the Ti-m-merhsoï Wadi.
There is no water in the kori right now, but there is still water underneath the sand. Other parts of
the old system are made up of gulbis, where water still flows every year and sometimes causes
damage.

Lake Chad is a big, shallow lake in the east. It is about 9,650 square miles in size, and Niger has
about 1,100 square miles of it. It gets a lot smaller in the dry season. The Komadougou Yobé
River is a river that goes into Lake Chad from the west. It is also part of the border between
Niger and Nigeria. The water starts to go up in August. From January to May, there are only a
few small areas of still water.

Besides the drainage system, rainwater gathers in many basins and creates permanent lakes or
pools in some places. These can be found in Keïta and Adouna in the Adar Doutchi region,
Madaroumfa in the Maradi gulbi, and Guidimouni to the east of Zinder. Some places have water
underground that can be used to make artesian wells.

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The land can be split into three different areas based on nature. In the Saharan region in the
north, the soil isn't good for growing plants, except in a few oases where there is water. In the
Sahel region, the soil is thin and white because of the salty deposits from evaporation. This
makes it hard for plants to grow. The third area in the southern part is farmed. In this area, the
soils are found in areas with lots of sandy hills, raised land, or low-lying areas. Some soils in the
Niger basin and gulbi are really good. Black soils are found in the Kolo basin. In the area,
especially on the plateaus, there are less fertile soils called lateritic soils that have had iron taken
out of them.

Climate of Niger
Niger is a country that goes south from the tropic of Cancer. The top two-thirds of the country is
in a dry desert area. In the south of the country, the weather is called Sahelian. It has a short
rainy season. In January and February, a dry wind called the harmattan blows from the Sahara
Desert towards the equator. Usually, the dry and dusty harmattan wind makes it hard to live in
the areas near the desert. From April to May, the winds from the south blow from the Atlantic to
the equator and then go towards the Sahara. When these winds meet the harmattan, there are
strong storms and it shows that the rainy season is starting. The rains can last from one to four
months, depending on where you are. In August, it is usually rainy everywhere except in the far
north, where it is hard to predict when it will rain.

Niger is in one of the hottest parts of the world. Temperatures go up from February to May and
go down during the rainy season in winter. Then they go up again a little before reaching their
lowest average in December or January. In May, it is very hot in the afternoon almost
everywhere. Temperatures range from 108 °F (42 °C) at Nguigmi on Lake Chad to 113 °F
(45 °C) at Bilma and Agadez in the northern desert. In January, it is very hot during the day,
with temperatures around 90 degrees Fahrenheit (mid-30s Celsius) at most places. But at night, it
can get very cold, even freezing, in the desert. In the desert, the temperatures vary more in the
north than the south, especially during the dry season.

Rain can be different in different places and at different times of the year. The 10-inch line on
the map shows where it rains the same amount. It goes from near Tahoua to Gouré and shows
where nomadic herding can happen because there is enough rain for plants to grow. The 30-inch
isohyet marks the very southern boundary of this area. After this line, the southern agricultural

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area starts. During the rainy season, the amount of rainfall and when it comes may change a lot
from year to year. This can be bad for crops.

Plant and animal life

Plants in the desert grow near water sources called oases. These plants include date palms and
maize. The dromedary is an animal that can survive without food or water for a long time.

In the Sahel zone, there are doum palms and prickly grass called cram-cram. The plants grow
quickly and are mainly eaten by animals. Animal life includes the ostrich and the gazelle.
Animal life has ostriches and gazelles in it.

An elephant is drinking water from the Tapoa River in W National Park, Niger. The Tapoa River
is a smaller river that joins the Niger River.

In the cultivated area, there are acacia trees, doum palms, and palmyra palms, and also baobab
trees. Some animals have gone away, like antelope, elephants, and warthogs. Giraffes are in the
Zarmaganda and Damergou areas, and hippos and crocodiles are near the Niger river. In the
farthest southwest, there is an area with lots of savanna where you can find baobab, kapok, and
tamarind trees. Many animals are kept safe in W National Park. You can see antelope, lions,
buffalo, hippopotamuses, and elephants there.

Settlement patterns
The lower part of Niger is in a big area called the Sudan in Africa. In the past, it was home to big
countries like Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, as well as the Hausa states, the empire of Sokoto, and
Bornu. In the top part of Niger, the Tuareg people live. The country has many old regions with
traditional names, even though it now has new administrative divisions. All these areas have
changing importance in politics, money and location. For example, the Hausa regions have been
split and shared between Niger and Nigeria. Most areas have different groups of people who

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interact with each other, like the Hausa and Tuareg in the Adar Doutchi region, the Tuareg and
Kanuri in the Damergou region, and the Hausa and Zarma in the Aréoua area.

About 20 percent of people live in towns. The countryside has people who move around a lot and
people who stay in one place. There are about 10,000 villages. About half of them have only a
few hundred people living in them. There are almost no villages in the desert area. Fulani
herdsmen raise cows and oxen, and the Tuareg raise goats, sheep, and camels. They travel in the
northern region during the winter. They gather to let the cows lick the salty ground in In Gall
region in August and September, but they move south during the dry season. Both Fulani and
Tuareg live in tribal groups and use temporary or portable shelters. They get their food and
resources from their livestock. The Fulani mainly eat milk in different forms, while the Tuareg
eat meat and dates.

People who don't move around a lot, like the Hausa, the Songhai-Zarma, and the Kanuri, live in
the Niger and Chad areas and mostly rely on farming to survive. They grow millet, rice, corn,
peanuts, and cotton. They also make shoes and fix metal things, while the Buduma and Sorko
people fish near Lake Chad and the Niger River. People who don't move around a lot live in
different types of houses. Some are made of straw or hardened mud, while the Wogo people live
in tents made of soft material.

Nomads are starting to live in one place and people who already live in one place are using more
land for farming to the north. In the countryside, especially when people stay in one place for a
long time, life slows down during the dry season. This is when people move to the towns or other
countries.

Around the 15th century, some towns like Agadez or Zinder were created as resting stops or
storage places along the trans-Saharan caravan routes. As trade routes grew along the coasts, the
northern towns became less important economically. Other towns like Birni Nkonni and
Tessaoua also declined in the 1800s because of colonial rule.

Niger has four main towns. Niamey has grown very fast and is the political capital. It is a diverse
place and has many people who come and go. The way people live in rural Europe and Africa is
different. There are also some in-between styles, but the way educated Africans live stands out
the most. Zinder is an old town in Africa, also known as Damagaram. It's older than Niamey.

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Zinder used to be the capital of Niger until 1926. The town has many skilled craftsmen,
especially leatherworkers and dyers. The town's industries have grown and it has strong
connections with Nigeria. Maradi has grown very fast. The town is in the middle of the area
where peanuts are grown, close to the border with Nigeria. Many European companies have
opened offices there. The town is well-known for its red goats, and their skins are sent to Europe
and the Americas. Tahoua grew up near the desert. There is a big place where people who raise
animals and farmers come together to sell and trade their animals. All the towns are mostly just
small places for government and business, but Agadez has grown a lot because they found
uranium there.

People
Linguistic groups
The biggest group of people who speak the same language is the Hausa. Their language is also
spoken in Nigeria and is very important in western Africa. Many people in Niger speak Hausa
and there are many books written in this language using Latin letters in Nigeria. Songhai is a
very important language. People speak it in Mali, northern Burkina Faso, and northern Benin. In
Niger, there are different ways of speaking, like Songhai proper, Zarma, and Dendi. The Fulani
people speak Fula. In Niger, there are two different ways of speaking Fula, called dialects. There
is an eastern dialect and a western dialect, and the area that separates them is in the Boboye
district. Tamashek is the language of the Tuareg people, who sometimes call themselves the Kel
Tamagheq, or people who speak Tamashek. The language is also spoken in Algeria and Mali and
has its own writing system called tifinagh, which is used a lot. Kanuri language is spoken in
Niger, Cameroon, and Nigeria. In Niger, most people speak five main languages. But there is
also a group of people in the Tibesti region who speak a language called Teda. Also, a lot of
people in Niger can speak Arabic, and even more can read and write in it. Agadez has one of the
oldest Arabic schools in Africa. The Arabic alphabet helped Fula and Hausa become written
languages. The writing style is called ajami. People are looking for more old writings in ajami.

By speaking Hausa and Songhai, you can communicate with people all over the country. French
is the main language and used for teaching, but only a few people understand it. English is the
main language we learn in high school from other countries.

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Ethnic groups
Ethnic groups are the same as the five different language groups we talked about. The Hausa
people are the biggest group and make up more than half of the population. Most of them live in
Nigeria. The Hausa people live in the middle of southern Niger, all the way to Dogondoutchi.
The Songhai-Zarma people live in the southwest. The Songhai people live along the Niger River
and are mixing with the Kurtey and Wogo people. Most of the Songhai people live in Mali. The
Zarma live on the side of the Niger River and interact closely with the Mauri and Arewa people.
The Fulani people live all over the country and most of them move from place to place. They can
also be found in many other countries in western Africa. The Tuareg people are split into three
groups, the Iullemmiden in the west, the Asben in the Aïr region, and the Itesen to the south
and east of Aïr. They are also nomadic. The Tuareg people live in Algeria and Mali too. The
Kanuri people live to the east of Zinder. They have different groups, like the Manga, Dogara,
Mober, Buduma, and Kanembu. They also live in Chad, Cameroon, and Nigeria. Other than the
nomadic Teda people from the Tibesti region, who are a small part of the population, the rest of
the people are Arabs, Black Africans from other countries, and mostly French Europeans.

Religious groups
About 80% of the people follow Sunni Islam. The Annaawaa group of Hausa and the Wodaabe
group of Fulani have not accepted Islam, but most Hausa and Fulani people still follow the
religion. Christianity, including Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, is mainly practiced in
cities, especially in Niamey. There are many Christian groups working in the Songhai and Arewa
regions. Most Christians are from Europe, but there are also some Black Africans who practice
the religion in other countries. The old religions of African people are still strong today.

Demographic trends
Niger has a lot of babies being born and the population is growing really fast. Also, a lot of
people are dying in Niger compared to other countries in Africa. Men usually live for about 58
years, while women typically live for 61 years. Niger has a young population. Around half of the
people are under 15 years old and about a quarter are between 15 and 29 years old.

Economy of Niger
The economic system uses planning but also values private businesses. Three main goals are to
keep the country together, make people's lives better, and be able to support ourselves

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economically. The private sector includes many small businesses and also big businesses owned
by French or international companies.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing

Farming and farm products are the biggest part of Niger's economy. They provide jobs for a lot
of people and make up the largest portion of the country's total income. Millet, sorghum,
cassava, and sugarcane are grown in the southern region as the main food crops. Rice is planted
and harvested in the Niger River valley.

Raising animals for food and other products is a big part of farming and is also a big part of what
we sell to other countries. People raise cows, sheep, and goats for their meat, milk, and skin.

Niger needs enough rain to grow its own food and animals. When it doesn't rain enough, they
have to buy food from other countries and get help with food. The government is investing in
irrigation projects and small-scale farming to grow crops year-round and prevent a shortage of
cereal.

People have been using plants for a long time, but not in big amounts. The doum palm and
palmyra palm give wood for building things, and the palms in the Manga oasis grow dates. A
little bit of kapok (soft down from the kapok tree used for insulation, life jackets, etc) and gum
from the acacia tree are sent to other countries for sale. The skin of ostriches, crocodiles, and
snakes is used to make crafts that are sent to Europe. Fish from the Niger River and Lake Chad
are sent to countries near the coast in the south.

Resources and power

Mining
Niger has a lot of uranium, which is very valuable. It is one of the top 10 countries in the world
for producing uranium. Deposits are in the center of Niger, in the Aïr Massif area. Active or
developing mine sites are found at Arlit, Imouraren, and Dasa. Production of goods goes up and
down depending on what people want to buy.

Uranium: Niger is one of the world's top producers of uranium, a key mineral used in nuclear
power generation. The country's uranium deposits are primarily located in the northern region of
Agadez. The mining of uranium has been a significant source of revenue for Niger and has
attracted investment from international mining companies.

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Uranium Deposits: Niger's uranium deposits are primarily located in the northern region of
Agadez, specifically in the Arlit area. The uranium deposits in Niger are among the largest in
Africa and have attracted significant interest from international mining companies.

Mining Operations: Uranium mining in Niger is carried out by both multinational mining
companies and state-owned enterprises. The two main uranium mining companies operating in
Niger are:

Areva: Areva, a French multinational conglomerate, has been one of the leading uranium mining
companies in Niger. It operates the two main uranium mines in Niger: the Somair and Cominak
mines in the Arlit area.

China National Uranium Corporation (CNUC): CNUC, a Chinese state-owned enterprise, has
also invested in uranium mining operations in Niger. It operates the Azelik uranium mine in the
Agadez region.

Export Market: Niger's uranium production is primarily exported to international markets, with
major customers including France, China, and other countries with nuclear power plants.
Uranium from Niger is used primarily for electricity generation in nuclear power plants.

Economic Impact: Uranium mining is a significant source of revenue for Niger and contributes
to the country's economy. The uranium sector provides employment opportunities, infrastructure
development, and government revenue through taxes, royalties, and other payments.

Regulation and Governance: The uranium mining sector in Niger is regulated by the Ministry of
Mines and other relevant government agencies. The government has implemented policies and
regulations to ensure transparency, accountability, and environmental sustainability in the
uranium mining industry.

Challenges: Uranium mining in Niger faces various challenges, including environmental

concerns, community relations, and security issues. There have been instances of protests and
conflicts between local communities and mining companies over issues such as land rights,
compensation, and environmental impact.

Oil: Niger also has some oil reserves, primarily located in the eastern part of the country,
particularly in the Agadem Basin. Oil production in Niger began in the early 2010s, and the

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sector has the potential to contribute to the country's economic development. However, oil
production levels are relatively modest compared to uranium.

Niger has emerged as a player in the global oil industry in recent years, although its oil
production levels are relatively modest compared to some of its neighbors. Here's an overview of
oil mining in Niger:

Oil Reserves: Niger has oil reserves primarily located in the eastern part of the country,
particularly in the Agadem Basin. The Agadem Basin is estimated to contain significant oil
deposits, making it the focal point of Niger's oil exploration and production activities.

Oil Production: Oil production in Niger began in the early 2010s, following the discovery of
commercially viable oil reserves in the Agadem Basin. The main oil field in the basin is the
Agadem Rift Basin, where oil extraction takes place through drilling wells and employing
various extraction techniques.

Chinese Investment: The development of Niger's oil industry has been supported by investments
from China. The China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), one of China's largest state-
owned oil companies, has been involved in oil exploration and production activities in Niger.
CNPC operates the Agadem oil field and is responsible for oil extraction and production.

Export Market: Niger's oil production is primarily exported to international markets, with
neighboring countries like Nigeria serving as key transit routes. Niger's oil exports contribute to
the country's economy, providing revenue and foreign exchange earnings.

Economic Impact: Oil mining has the potential to significantly impact Niger's economy by
providing revenue, employment opportunities, and infrastructure development. The oil sector can
also stimulate economic growth in related industries and sectors, such as transportation, logistics,
and services.

Challenges: Despite the potential benefits, Niger's oil industry faces various challenges,
including technical, logistical, and regulatory issues. The landlocked nature of Niger presents
transportation challenges for exporting oil, requiring infrastructure investments in pipelines or
alternative transport routes. Additionally, ensuring environmental protection and community
engagement are essential for responsible oil extraction and sustainable development.

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Gold: Gold mining is another important sector in Niger's mining industry, although it is not as
significant as uranium mining. Gold deposits are found in various regions across the country,
including the regions of Tillabéri and Tahoua. Artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities
are common in Niger, employing a significant portion of the population.

Gold mining in Niger is not as prominent as in some other countries in Africa, such as Ghana or
Mali, but it does have some potential and historical significance. Here's an overview of gold
mining in Niger:

Gold Reserves: Niger has gold reserves primarily located in the southwestern part of the country,
near the borders with Burkina Faso and Benin. The gold deposits in Niger are primarily found in
the regions of Tillabéri and Tahoua.

Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM): Gold mining in Niger is predominantly carried out by
artisanal and small-scale miners using basic tools and techniques. These informal mining
activities often take place in remote and rural areas, and they involve local communities who rely
on gold mining for their livelihoods.

Formal Mining Operations: While artisanal mining is the primary method of gold extraction in
Niger, there are also some formal mining operations conducted by companies. However, these
operations are relatively small-scale compared to other countries in the region.

Regulation and Governance: The gold mining sector in Niger is regulated by the government
through the Ministry of Mines and other relevant authorities. However, enforcement of
regulations in the informal sector can be challenging, and there are often issues related to
environmental protection, safety, and labor conditions.

Economic Impact: Gold mining contributes to the economy of Niger by providing income and
employment opportunities to local communities, particularly in rural areas where other economic
activities may be limited. However, the economic impact of gold mining in Niger is relatively
modest compared to other sectors such as uranium mining.

Challenges: Gold mining in Niger faces various challenges, including regulatory issues,
environmental concerns, and social conflicts. Additionally, the presence of artisanal and small-

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scale mining can lead to issues such as child labor, unsafe working conditions, and mercury
pollution.

Other Minerals: In addition to uranium, oil, and gold, Niger has other mineral resources,
including coal, phosphate, gypsum, limestone, and salt. However, the exploitation of these
minerals is relatively limited compared to uranium and oil.

Regulation and Governance: The mining sector in Niger is regulated by the Ministry of Mines
and other relevant authorities. The government has implemented policies and regulations to
promote transparency, accountability, and sustainable development in the mining industry.
Mining companies operating in Niger are required to adhere to environmental and social
standards and pay taxes and royalties to the government.

Challenges: Despite its mineral wealth, Niger's mining sector faces various challenges, including
infrastructure deficiencies, security concerns, and regulatory issues. The country also grapples
with issues related to environmental sustainability, community engagement, and the rights of
artisanal miners.

Overall, mining plays a significant role in Niger's economy, providing revenue, employment, and
opportunities for economic development. With the right policies, investments, and governance
mechanisms in place, Niger's mining sector has the potential to contribute further to the country's
growth and prosperity.

Other things that can be found are salt, which has been traditionally taken from regions like
Kaouar and Aïr, as well as places like dallol and the Manga district. Natron (a type of salt) is
found and collected nearby. Cassiterite, which is a mineral that contains tin, is mined in open
mines in Aïr. A little bit of gold is found by searching in the Sirba River. Limestone and a lot
of gypsum have been found in Malbaza and in the Ader Doutchi and Majia area. In the Aïr
region, there are small amounts of tungsten, copper, lignite, molybdenum, zinc, phosphates, and
titanium. People are still looking for more of these minerals. We found a lot of iron in the Say
region, and we found oil in eastern and central Niger.

Most of Niger's electricity comes from petroleum and coal mined in the local area. Wood is what
people have always used to heat their homes.

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Manufacturing
Manufacturing industries have been established, mostly at Niamey. They produce chemicals,
food products, textiles, farm equipment, and metal furniture. Petroleum is refined in Zinder.
There are many small craft industries in the principal towns.

Trade
Niger's main trading partners are Nigeria, France, and China. Niger wants African countries to
do more business together. In addition to being part of the African Union, Niger is also a
member of other groups in Africa such as Conseil de l⠀™Entente, the Economic Community of
West African States (ECOWAS), and the African Continental Free Trade Area.

Transportation
In Niger, most economic activity happens in the southern part of the country from east to west.
The main roads and transportation go towards the coast in the south. Niger doesn't have a
railroad and its two ports, Cotonou in Benin and Lagos in Nigeria, are each more than 600 miles
away. Many people still use old-fashioned ways of getting around and talking to each other. This
includes groups of camels carrying goods in the northern Sahel region, boats on Lake Chad and
the Niger, and people walking or riding horses by themselves. Only a small amount of goods is
being moved.

Trucks help keep things moving between Maradi and Zinder in Niger and Kano in Nigeria, as
well as between Niamey and Parakou in Benin. A road was built in 1981 to connect the places
where uranium is produced in Arlit and Akouta to the transportation system in Nigeria. The main
road starts in Gao, Mali and goes east to Niamey, following the Niger River. Then it goes even
further east to Nguigmi on Lake Chad. From this main road, smaller roads go toward the south.
To the north, roads from Tahoua and Tânout come together near Agadez, connecting Niger to
Algeria through Tamanrasset.

Niger Airlines flies within the country, connecting airports like Maradi, Zinder, Agadez, and
Dirkou. Niamey has a big airport that connects to other countries.

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Government and society
Constitutional framework
In 2010, Niger became a country ruled by a president and governed by laws. The president is the
leader of the country and is chosen by the people to serve for five years. They can only be
elected for two terms. The president chooses the prime minister, who leads the government. The
National Assembly has the power to make laws. Its members are chosen by the people and serve
for five years. In Niger, there are different courts like the High Court of Justice, the Supreme
Court, the Constitutional Court, and the Courts of First Instance. The constitution was stopped
after soldiers took over the government in July 2023.

Local government
Niger is divided into one capital district called Niamey and seven regions - Agadez, Diffa,
Dosso, Maradi, Tahoua, Tillaberi, and Zinder. Each region is looked after by a prefect for
administrative purposes. Each area is split into smaller parts called districts. Each district has a
leader called a subprefect.

Education
In Niger, kids can go to school for free, but not many of them actually go. The Ministry of
National Education is in charge of primary and secondary schools as well as teacher-training
colleges. Other departments are in charge of teaching technical skills. Niger has one of the
lowest rates of adults who can read and write in western Africa. They have programs to help
people learn to read and write in five of the main languages spoken in Africa. Niamey has a
university, and the Islamic University of Niger opened in 1987 in a place called Say.

Health and welfare

The health of people in the country is not good, and there are not enough doctors and hospitals,
especially in the countryside. The number of babies who die before their first birthday is very
high in West Africa, with about 125 out of every 1,000 babies not surviving. Health services
focus on getting rid of some diseases in countryside areas and also on teaching people about

17
staying healthy. Efforts to fight sleeping sickness and meningitis have been successful, and
vaccines for smallpox and measles are given to people. Other diseases like tuberculosis, malaria,
and leprosy still exist in certain areas. There are centers for treating tuberculosis in Niamey,
Zinder, and Tahoua. The main problems that stop health conditions from getting better are not
having enough money and not having enough trained people to help.

Cultural life
Niger is part of a big area in West Africa called the Sahel. Even though Islam is very important,
the traditions from before Islam are still very strong and everywhere. Since the country became
independent, more people have been interested in its culture, especially traditional buildings,
crafts, dances, and music. The United Nations helped create a center in Niamey to gather oral
traditions. The National Museum at Niamey is an important place for culture.

History
Early cultures
The history of Niger shows how the Tuareg and Tubu nomads in the north Sahara and the
farmers in the south had different but related lifestyles and cultures. In farming areas, the main
ethnic groups are the Songhai-Zarma in the west, the Hausa in the middle, and the Kanuri in the
east. The Hausa people have always been the largest in number. They make up almost half of all
the people in Niger.

In the 14th century, the Tuareg kingdom of Takedda was important in long-distance trade
because of its copper mines. Copper was used as money in western Africa. Archaeological
evidence shows that there were farming communities in this desert region during the time of the
kingdom of Takedda. They likely spoke the Songhai language. Takedda was replaced by the
sultanate of Agadez at a date we do not know.

For a long time, the bottom part of what is now Niger was a very important area for the Kanuri
empire of Bornu. Bornu was powerful because it controlled many places where salt was made
and traded over long distances, especially along oases between Lake Chad and Fezzan via
Kawar.

18
The big drought in 1735-56 had a bad impact on nature. This was before the dry period started in
1880. This might be the reason why the farming communities in the west of Aïr and the oases
between Lake Chad and Kawar vanished. This might also help explain why the Tuareg were able
to take control of a large part of the settled southern area.

When the French took over, they combined different areas to create Niger. These areas were on
the edge of the country and were not very connected. These areas were important as places
where people could go for safety. This was especially true in the west after 1591 when the
Moroccans took over the Songhai empire. Much later, after the 1804 Fulani jihad in central
Hausaland, which is now northern Nigeria, the Hausa region became another important refuge.
In both situations, the refugees were people who had suffered during wars and religious fights in
their home countries. In both areas, people held onto their traditional ways even when outsiders,
who were trying to make them follow Islam, conquered them.

Colonial administration
The French started their takeover in 1899. The trip in 1899 led by French captains Paul Voulet
and Charles-Paul-Louis Chanoine almost ended in a disaster because the local people fought
hard against it. The French government set up new rules and control in 1922, after a long period
of drought and hunger, and a rebellion by the Tuareg people. At that time, the Tuareg had lost
their power.

Just like in other places, the peace in French West Africa led to the quick growth of Islam, a
large increase in population, and the expansion of growing cash crops, but only for the Hausa
people. The Songhai-Zarma people reacted to the French taxes by working as temporary laborers
in the coastal areas.

In 1946, France said that its African subjects could become citizens, but it wasn't always true in
practice. Niger and other colonies in Black Africa were represented in the French parliament.
Local consultative and legislative meetings were created in the area. These changes made sure
that a small group of newly educated people, called the évolués, could move up in society.
Most of them were children of people who were once forced to work for others, and many of

19
them were from the Songhai-Zarma community. The people in the west were more open to
European influence than the Hausa people.

Until 1954-55, the French government (led by Governor Jean Toby for 12 years) had strong
control over the political situation. The first local leader was made in 1957. In 1958, most people
voted to stay connected with France, even though union leader Djibo Bakary wanted them to
vote no. However, under Bakary's replacement, his cousin and fellow Songhai-Zarma Hamani
Diori, the country became independent on August 3, 1960.

Independence and conflict

After the country became independent, Diori became the leader of a government where only one
political party was allowed and he remained in power until he was overthrown in 1974. Then a
military government led by Seyni Kountché (until he died in 1987) and then by Ali Seibou
took over. Mahamane Ousmane from the Social Democratic Convention became the president in
the first time there were elections where multiple parties could take part in the country in 1993.
At the same time, a group of Tuareg people in the northern part of the country started fighting in
the early 1990s. The fighting got worse until a cease-fire agreement in 1995 stopped a lot of the
fighting. Ousmane lost his position in 1996 when the military took over led by Col. Ibrahim Bare
Mainassara. After a short time being ruled by the military, Maïnassara became president after
questionable elections. Maïnassara's government was not liked, and in 1999 he was killed in a
coup. After that, there was a new government led by Maj. that lasted for nine months. Daouda
Malam Wanké and the National Reconciliation Council (CRN).

Later that year, a new set of rules for the country was made and people voted for their leaders.
This helped the country to go back to being run by a democratic government with a President.
Mamadou Tandja is a member of the National Movement for a Developing Society.

In the early 2000s, some people in Niger wanted to follow Islamic law, but others were against it.
This caused a lot of arguments and problems. Niger had a hard time keeping peace and making
its poor economy better. Tandja was a good leader who helped make Niger stable, and he was
voted to be the leader again in 2004.

Slavery is still a problem in Niger and other West African countries, even though it's against the
law. In 2008, the ECOWAS Court of Justice said that the Nigerien government didn't do enough

20
to stop a woman from being enslaved. Activists were happy with the decision and said it was a
big win for human rights. They hoped that it would make other West African countries, like
Niger, also follow antislavery laws.

2009 constitutional crisis

Under the rules in the constitution, Tandja was supposed to stop being the leader in December
2009 because he had already been in power for two terms. But, before the 2009 presidential
election, there was conflict between the president and other branches of government over
whether Tandja should have a third term. Tandja wanted to stay in power for three more years
and change the constitution to give himself more control. He said he was needed to finish
important projects and help the economy. To stay in power longer, Tandja wanted to change the
rules by having a vote to extend his time as leader. But the National Assembly said no. He asked
the country's court if he could have a referendum, but they said it would be illegal without the
National Assembly's permission. So, he got rid of the National Assembly. In early June, Tandja
made a group to write a new set of rules for the country. These rules would let him stay in power
for three more years and get rid of the limits on how long he can be president. On June 5, the
president announced that there will be a vote to decide if the new rules should become the
official constitution on August 4.

Tandja's actions made a lot of people in the country and the world really unhappy. People went
on strike and protested to show they were against the vote that was going to happen soon. A
group of political parties and civil groups called the Front for Defence of Democracy (FDD)
challenged the president's decision in court. The court ruled on June 12 that the president's
decision was not allowed because it did not have the approval of the National Assembly. This
ruling was final and had to be followed. Tandja asked the Constitutional Court to change its
decision, but the court kept the decision on June 26. Later that day, Tandja said he was taking
emergency powers and planned to rule by making his own decisions. Three days later he got rid
of the Constitutional Court.

Tandja didn't care about the criticism he was getting for his actions, people saying he wasn't
following the rules of democracy, or the international donors who said they would stop giving
money unless he made things more democratic again. The vote happened when it was supposed
to on August 4, even though some leaders told people not to participate. The official results

21
showed that over 92 percent of the voters agreed to the referendum, which means Tandja can
stay in power for three more years after his term was supposed to end in December 2009.

An election was held on October 20 to choose a new National Assembly after Tandja had gotten
rid of the previous one in May. The opposition refused to participate in the election, and many
other countries criticized it. Before the election, ECOWAS asked Tandja to delay it until they
could talk with the opposition. When Tandja didn't listen and the election happened, ECOWAS
kicked Niger out of the organization. The election results came out a few days later and showed
that Tandja's party, the MNSD, got the most seats.

Military coup and return to civilian rule

Despite winning the referendum and election, Tandja was not liked by many people. On
February 18, 2010, he was removed from power by a coup. At first, there were many different
stories about what happened, but it was later said that Tandja and some of his government
members were taken by soldiers and were being held. Later that night, the people who took over
in the coup said they formed a military group called the Supreme Council for the Restoration of
Democracy. They also said they stopped the country's rules, got rid of all government buildings,
and planned to bring back democracy. On February 23, the group in charge named a former
government minister, Mahamadou Danda, as the prime minister. Then, on March 1, a 20-
member temporary government was chosen. In October 2010, people voted for a new set of rules
that reduced the president's control, which Tandja had given himself in 2009.

The rulers organized a vote to choose a new president and lawmakers on January 31, 2011. The
PNDS, an opposition party in Niger, won the most seats in the National Assembly with 39 seats.
The MNSD came in second with 26 seats. None of the presidential candidates got most of the
votes. The top two candidates, Mahamadou Issoufou and Seyni Oumarou, will have another
election on March 12 because no one got enough votes to win. Issoufou won the second election,
getting about 58 percent of the votes. He became the leader on April 7, 2011, and the country
was run by regular people again. After the country became a democracy, foreign aid started
again. It had been stopped after the coup.

After Issoufou became the leader, many Islamic militant groups started doing more things in the
area. They started attacking Niger, and this became a bigger problem. Even though there were
some small attacks from al-Qaeda and other groups in the Islamic Maghrib, the biggest threat

22
came from Boko Haram, a group from Nigeria that had been causing terror in their own country
for many years and then started attacking nearby countries too. In 2015, it started an attack in the
south of Niger. Niger joined with other nearby countries to fight the group and quickly made
progress. Niger tried to help many refugees who had run away from Boko Haram in Nigeria and
come to Niger for safety.

In December 2013, in Niamey, many people in Niger protested because they were not happy
with the lack of progress in making their lives better under Issoufou. It was the first time people
showed they were unhappy since he became president. Some people were also against the
control of media and claimed that the government is corrupt. Prominent leaders Oumarou and
former prime minister Hama Amadou talked about what the public was unhappy about. The
demonstration against Issoufou showed the kind of problems he might have in the next election.

In December 2015, Issoufou said that the government had stopped a coup, and arrested many
military officers. However, some leaders who are against Issoufou, doubted his claims and
accused him of trying to make a big deal before the February 2016 elections. Issoufou led the
PNDS party and ran for president against 14 other people. Some of his main opponents were
Amadou from the MODEN-FA Lumana Africa party, Oumarou from the MNSD party, and
former president Ousmane from the MNRD party. Amadou was in jail because he was accused
of being involved in a baby-trafficking ring in November 2015, but he said he didn't do it. He
still campaigned while he was in prison. Even though a higher court did not let him out of jail
before trial, the country's top court said he can still run for president.

The election took place on February 21, 2016. Issoufou received the most votes- just over 48
percent. Because he didn't win over 50 percent of the votes, he will have to compete against
Amadou, who won about 17 percent, in a second round of elections in March. The PNDS got the
most seats in the legislature but not enough to have the most power. Before the second round of
voting, the COPA opposition group that Amadou belonged to said they would not take part in the
election because they thought there were problems with how the voting was being done. Before
the election, Amadou went overseas for medical care. Not surprisingly, Issoufou won the
election on March 20 by getting 92. 5 percent of the vote.

The country kept getting attacked by Islamic militant groups. In 2017, it teamed up with other
nearby countries to create a force called the G5 Sahel Joint Force. Their goal is to stop the

23
militants and make their borders safer. Some parts of Niger's border were not safe in the
following years, especially the borders with Mali in the west and Nigeria in the south. People in
those areas were being attacked by Islamic militant groups. Despite ongoing security problems,
Niger was able to make some economic progress. The country's GDP grew during Issoufou's
time in office, and the percentage of people living in poverty decreased from 50% in 2011 to
41% in 2019. From 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic made the economy worse.

Niger had an election on December 27, 2020. When Issoufou finished his two terms in office, 30
people wanted to take his place as the leader. Mohamed Bazoum and Mahamane Ousmane got
the most votes in the election, but since no one got more than half the votes, they had to have
another election on February 21, 2021. Bazoum won with over 55 percent of the votes. He won
and the Constitutional Court said it was okay in March.

Just before Bazoum was supposed to become the new leader, the government said there was a
failed attempt to take over the government, but it was stopped quickly. On April 2, Issoufou
stepped down and Bazoum became president as planned. This was the first time in the country's
history that one democratically elected leader passed the power to another.

A few years after Bazoum became the president, he was removed from power by a military
takeover on July 26, 2023. He was taken into custody by his presidential guard. The military
leaders got rid of the government and stopped following the rules of the constitution. General so-
and-so had a meeting. Abdourahmane Tchiani, who used to lead the president's guards, is now
the leader of the military group in charge of the country.

24
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