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    ——~ay Syllabus Time : 3 Hours THEORY TI, Magnetic Effects of Current & Magnetism 2 & p Opis Gee, iene 2% |» | 10 x Electronic Devices 15 Communication Systems“ 10 2) Total 160, 70 UNIT | ELECTROSTATICS 2 Periods apter 1 : Electric Charges and Fields. Electric Charges; Conservation of charge, Coulomb's law-force between two point charges, forces between multiple charges; superposition principle and continuous charge distsbuton Hlecttic field, electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines; electric dipole electric field due to dip torque on a dipole in uniform electric field. Hlectric flux, statement of Gauss’ theorem and its applications to find field due to infinitely long straight wit, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged thin spherical shell (field inside and outside). 7 rapier 2 Fecrasatic. Potential and Capacitance. Electric potential, potential difference, electric potential de to a point charge, a dipole and system of charges ; equipotential surfaces, electrical potential eneray of a syste of two point charges and of electric dipole in an electrostatic field. Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a conductor. Dielectrics and electsie polarisation, capacitors and capacitance, combination of capacitors in series and in parallel, capacitance of @ parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between the plates, energy stored in @ capacitor UNIT II_ CURRENT ELECTRICITY 29 Periods tex 3 : Current Electricity. Electric current, flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor, drift veloc ‘mobility and their relation with electric current ; Ohm's law, electrical resistance, V-I characteristics ae Ee non-linear), electrical energy and power, electrical resistivity and conductivity. Carbon resistors, colour code tarbon resistors; series and parallel combinations of resistors ; temperature dependence of resistance: or Internal resistance of a cet, Kitchhoff’s laws and simpte Potentiometer — cells ; measurem UNIT IIL Potential difference and : applications, Principle and its appti ic ent of internal reatlan emf of acell, combination of cells in series and in parallel. ‘Wheatstone bridge, metre bridge. ations to measure ice of a cell. MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT & MAGNETISM Potential difference and for comparing emf of two Chapter 4 : Movin ; aperods aittige Pi hat a Mognetism. Concept of magnetic field, Oersted’s experiment. infinitely Yong straight wire, ae a tart. Carrying circular loop. Ampere's law and its applications to eharge in uniform magnetic and dee aa Sleds (only quattative treatment), fore on 2 moving ds, Cyclotron. Force on a current-carrying conductor in a unif conductors ~ definition of am galvanometer ~ form magnetic field. Force between two parallel current-carrying ipere, Torque exper ae re. T rienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field ; moving coil ‘urrent sensitivity and conversion to ammeter and voltmeter. axis and perpendicular to its axis. Torque on a magnet as an equivalent solenoid, magnetic fi Para-, dia- and ferro- mai Permanent magnets. eld lines ; Earth’s magnetic field and magnetic elements. ignetic substances, with examples. Electromagnets and factors affecting their strengths. UNIT IV ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENTS 20 Periods Chapter 6 : Electromagnetic Induction. Electromagnetic induction ; Faraday's Laws, induced emf and current ; Lenz's Law, Eddy currents, Self and mutual induction. Chapter 7 : Alternating Current. Alternating currents, peak and rms value of altemating current/voltage ; Teactance and impedance ; LC oscillations (qualitative treatment only), LCR series circuit, resonance ; power in AC circuits, power factor ; wattless current. AC generator and transformer. UNIT V_ ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 04 Periods Chapter & : Electromagnetic Waves. Basic idea of displacement current, Electromagnetic waves, their characteristics, their Transverse nature (qualitative ideas only). Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays) including elementry facts about their uses. UNIT VI Optics mee rere ic i ic i it Refraction 9: stics and Optical Instruments. Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror formula. crip Steal reflection and its applications, optical fibres, refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin tens formula, lens-maker’s formula. Magnification, power of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact ; Refraction and dispersion of light through a prism. it light — d reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise and sunset. Scattering of light — blue colour of sky an e : ; i Optical instruments: Microscopes and astronomical telescopes (electing and refracting) and ther magnifying Chapter 10 : Wave Optics. Wavefront and Huygens principle, reflection and refraction of plane wave at a plane 10 : Wave Optics. , reflect action Rn aa oop wavefronts, Proof of law of reflection and refraction using Kuygens tinge, Interference, Young’ double slit experiment and expression for fringe width, coherent sources and sustained interference of Ugh Diffraction due to a single slit, width of central maximum. Resolving power of microscopes oe telescope. Polarisation, plane polarised light ; Brewster's law, uses of plane polarised light and Polaroids. Periods UNIT VII DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER 08 Peri ati ic effect, Hertz and * Chapter 11 : Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter. Dual nature of radiation. Photoelectric effect, He Lenard’s observations ; Einstein’s photoelectric equation - particle nature of light. nl ow oe outed; only conetusion shoutd be explained). reriods UNIT VIL ATOMS AND Nuctet 14 Perio + Bohr model, energy levels, Chapter 12: Atoms, Alpha-partice scattering experiment ; Rutherford's model of ator hydrogen spectrum, ticles/rays and Chapter 13 : Nuclei. Composition and sizeof nucleus, radioactivity ~ alpha, beta and gamma par their properties ; radioactive decay la 5 ray lav, i A ber ; nuclear Aass-energy relation, mass defect; binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass mum fission and fusion, 15 Periods UNIT IX ELECTRONIC Devices oe aed in conductors, Ghapter 16 : Semiconductor Electronics: Matvias, Devies and Simple See ei kewta semiconductor and insulator (Qualitative ideas only) ; Semiconductor diode ~ F-V c everse bias, diode as a rectifier, ae ‘ i tics, Zener Special purpose p- junction diodes ; LED, photodiode, solar cell, and Zener diode and their characteris Giode as a voltage regulator, it 5 i fier (common emitter Junction transistor, transistor action, characteristics of a transistor; transistor as ee configuration), basic idea of analog and digital signals, Logic gates (OR, AND, NOT, 10 Periods - UNIT X COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ; h of Chapter 15 : Communication Systems, Elements of a communication system (block diag only): eae signals (speech, TV and digital data); bandwidth of transmission medium, Propagation of el = ar amplitude in the atmosphere, sky and space wave propagation, satellite communication, Need for modulation, modulation. Design of Question Paper Class XII (2017-18) very Short Short Value Long Short A" T answer-1 | Answer-II | Based | answer | Total x Epestions, SA) (SAD | (SA-IE)_| Question | (La) | narks | weightage Seed (wom | Marks) | (3 Marks) | (4 Marks) | (& Marks) Hark) 1. | Remembering 2 1 L = = [Bz 10% - 1 2 2. | Understanding | eect | 20m 4 = 1 a 3. | Application si 2 ih ale | at 30% Higher Order 2 = 1 a a 10 14% Thinking Skills dh m8 ele Evaluation and] 1 a 2 1 i in oe “Multi-Disciplinary Sx1=5 | 5x2=10 | 12x3=36| 1x4=4 | 3x5-45 f 70(26) | 100% Chapter 1 1.1 Frictional Electricity 1.2 Electric Charge 13 Electrostatics 1 Fao Kinds of Electric charges 15 Electronic Theory of Frict 16 Conductors and insulate 17 Electrostatic induction 18 Basic Properties of Electric Charge Oe ivity of Electric Charge -10\ Quantization of Electric Charge Conservation of Charge 12 Electric Charge Vs. Mass (EIB) Coulomb's Law of Electric Force TE )Coulomb’s Law in Vector Form 115 Dielectric Constant : Relative Permittvity 1.16 Comparing Electrostatic and Gravitational Forces onal Electricity rs 1.17 Forces between Multiple Charges : The Superposition Principle 3 Electric Field (4.19 Flectric Field due to a Point Charge T.20 Electric Field due to a System of Point Charges 1.21 Continuous Charge Distribution 2 Electric Dipole ) Dipole Field CPhapter 2 2.1 Electrostatic Potential and Potential Difference ELECTROSTATIC Po Contents 1.1 - 1.135 124 Electric Field at an Axial Point of a Dipole 1.40 125 Electric Field at an Equatorial Point of 2 Dipole 9 1 C128) Tore on 2 Dole na Unto Bec tt at ‘3 127 Dipole in a Hon-unitorm Electric Field 1.42 141.28 Electric Field Lines Ls 1.29 Electric Field Lines for Different Charged \ _Sonductors 146 Pa Area Vector 18 1.31 Electric Flux 1s 1.32) Gauss’s Theorem 19 \Gaussian Surface 150 34 Coulomb's Law from Gauss's Theorem 1.50 Fleld due to an Infinitely Long Charged Wire 136 Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged Infinite Plane Sheet 136 Field due to a Uniformly Charged Thin Spherical Shell 1357 Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Insulting sphere 139 Very short answer conceptual problems 1.63 ‘Short answer conceptual problems 168 Problems on highs inking skills 1.73 Guidelines 18 NCERT = ) 181 Text based exercises with value based Qs. 1.85 ‘Competition Section 199 2.1 - 2.158 2.6 Electric Potential due to a Uniformly Charged Thin 24 ‘Spherical Shell 25 2.2 Electric Potential due to a Point Charge = 2.2.27 23. Electric Potential due to a Dipole 2, 24 Electric Potential due to a System of Charges 24 2.5 Electric Potential due to a Continuous Charge Distribution 2 Relation between Electric Field and Potential an 2.8 Equipotential Surfaces and their Properties 2.14 2.9 Equipotential Surfaces of Various Charge Systems Electric Potential Eneray 215 2.16 2.10 rr 11 Potential Energy 9 2° External Field 3A potent Energy of 2 DAE I” 2 Uniform Electric Field 2.13 Conductors and Insulators 214 Free and Bound Charges 215 Behaviour of Conductors In Electrostatic Fields ‘216 Electrostatic Shielding ~S.a7 Electrical Capacitance of a Conductor 2:18, Copacttance of an isolated ‘spherical Capacitor 219 Concept of a Capacitor and its Principle 220 Parallel Plate Capacitor 221. Spherical Capacitor ©2223 Cylindrical Capacitor ~223 Combination of Capacitors in Series and in Parallel S224 Energy Stored in @ Capacitor +225 Energy Density of an Electric Field Chapter 3 34 Current Electricity 32. Blectric Current 33. Maintenance of Steady Current in a Circuit 34 Electromotive Force : EMF *S5 EMF vs. Potential Difference 36 OftM’s Law : Resistance 37 Factors Affecting The Resistance : , Resistivity (38 Current Density, Conductance and ‘onductivity 39. Classification of Materials in Terms of Resistivity 3.10 Colour Code for Carbon Resistors 7811 Carriers of Current 3.12 Mechanism of Current Flow in a Conductor Tift Velocity 3nd Relaxation Time Relation Between Electric Current and Drift Velocity : Derivation of Ohm’s Law 3:4 Mobility of Charge Carriers 3.15 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity Limitations of Ohm’s Law : ‘Ohmic and Hon-ohmic Conductors 217) 2.18 2.23) 2.23) 2.24) 2.25) 2.26, 2.26, 2.28 2.29) 2.30) 2.30) 233 248 2.48) 31 31 34) 34 35 36 36 37 38 39 3.15 3.5 3.16 3.22) 3.24) 3.28) Redistribution of Charges pielectrics and their Polar Dielectric Strength Capacitance of a Parallel with a Dielectric Slab, Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor with a Conducting Slab Uses of Capacitors Effect of Dielectric on Various Parameters Discharging Action of Sharp Points Corona Discharge Collecting Action Van De Graaff Generator" Very short answer conceptual problems Short answer conceptual problems Problems on higher order thinking skills Guidelines to NCERT exercises 2.26 227 2.28 2.29 ization | Plate Capacitor 2.30 231 pee ps 2.34 2.35 of a Hollow Conductor 2.49 2.56 259 259 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.67 2.67 2.67 2.68 274 281 2.91 Text based exercises with value based Qs. 2.102 Competition Section a 3.1 - 3.228 3) superconauetivity 3.29 4.18 Resistances in Series and Parallel 3.30 19 )hternal Resistance of a Cell 3.45 .20 Relation between Internal Resistance, EMF =e Terminal Potential Difference of a Cell 3.45 321 Kcombinations of Cells in Series & Parallel 3.51 3.22 Heating Effect of Current 3.59 3.23. Heat Produced 8; y Elect es de ric Current 3.24 Electric Power ee A5% Electric Energy ae 3.26 Power Rating oo 3.27 Power Con: oe 'sumptio : ; pontonscsumetion ina Combination of 3.28 Efficiency 3.61 329 nn of 8 Source of emt a an eRe” ofan Elect Device ‘a DpPlcations of Heating 38 INT of Curent S31 Sirchhoft's Laws 3.64 G2) ‘Stentiometer 3.79 3 3 Applications Of a Pot 3.96 34 Sensitiy Srentiomet 3 fe SESS Of a Popa 3.96 Corapter 4 x rs Pgpargersted's Experiment 4.12 Lorentz Force 4.30 Es Work Done by a Magnetic Force on a Chapter 5 335 Wheatstone Bridge G6)Mette Bridge or Side Wire Bdge Very short ansiver conceptual problems an Short answer conceptual problems tk 31 % Concept of Magnetic Field jot-Savart Law Biot-Savart Law vs. Coulomb's Law 45. Magnetic Field Due to a Long Straight Current Carrying Conductor* 4s 46 Magnetic Field at the Centre of Circular Current Loop 4.7 Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current Loop 413 Ge droee ircuital Law and its Application to Infinity Long Straight Wire 4 49 Magnetic Field inside a Straight Solenoid 4.23, 4.10 Hagnetic Field due to a Toroidal Solenoid 4.2 TI Torce on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field 4 Charged Particle is Zero 433 4.14 Motion of a Charged Particle in @ Uniform Magnetic Field 433 MAGNETISM 5.1 Introduction 51 5.2 Atficial Magnets 5A 5.3 Basic Properties of Magnets 5. 5.4 Some Important Definitions Connected with Magnetism 52. 55 Coulomb's Law of Magnetic Force 53) 6 Magnetic Dipole & Magnetic Dipole Moment 53. (sq Magnetic Field Lines 56 158 Magnetic Field of a Bar Magnet at an ‘Axial Point 83 5,9. Magnetic Field of a Bar Magnet at an Equatorial Point 5 Problems on higher order thinking shils 3.131 Guidelines t{ CERT exercises? 3.148 Text based exercises with value based Q5.3.155 Competition Section 3167 41-4174 415. tion of a Charge in Perpendicular Magnetic and Electric Fields 434 ycltron 440 “417 Force on a Current Carving Conductor in a Magnetic Field 443 Cope between Two Parallel Current-arrying Conductors 448 4.19 Torque Experienced by a Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field 433 (Ga yningch are ‘ £21 Sensitivity of 4 Galvanometer 459 422 Measurement of Currentand Voltage 462 423. Conversion of a Galvanometer tito an = ammeter — 468 424 Conversion of a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter 463 Very short answer conceptual problems 4.73 Short answer conceptual problems 479 Problems on higher order thinking skils 4.87 498 Competition Section 5.10 Torque on a Magnetic Dipole in a Magnetic Field Sil 5.11 Potential Energy of a Magnetic Dipole in a Magnetic Field Bal 5.12 Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole 512 5.13 Magnetic Dipole Moment of a Revolving Electron 513 5.14 Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid 5.18 5.15 Gauss's Law in Magnetism 519 3x16 Magnetic Field of the Earth 519 5.17 Origin of Earth's Magnetic Field 5.20 5.18 Some Definitions in Connection with Earth's Magnetism =a 5.19 Elements of Earth's Magnetic Field 5.20 Global Variations in the arth's Magnetic Field* 5.21 Temporal Variations in the Earth's Magnetic Field” 5.22 Neutral Point 5.23 Some Important Terms used to describe Magnetic Properties of Materials 5.24 Classification of Magnetic Materials, 5.25 Origin of Diamagnetism 5.26 Origin of Paramagnetism 5.27 Origin of Ferromagnetism : Domain Theory 5.28 Properties of Diamagnetic Substances Chapter 6 6.1 Magnetic Flux 61 6.2 Electromagnetic Induction : An Introduction 6. 63 Faraday's Experiments 62 _A64 laws of Electromagnetic Induction 64 65. Explanation of Lenz's Law 64 6.6 Motional Emf From Faraday's Law 69 67 Fleming's Right Hand Rule 69 68 Motional Emf From Lorentz Force and Energy Consideration 69 6.9. Relation between Induced Charge and Change in Magnetic Flux 6.10 6.10 Methods of Generating Induced Emf 615 6.18, Al Eddy Currents CLhapter 7 LAA Alternating Current 7.2. Mean or Average Value of A.C. 72. 73. Root Mean Square (Rms) or Virtual or 7A Effective Value of A.C. e 7.4 Root Mean Square Value of an Alternating EMF va 75. Phasors and Phasor Diagrams 76 76 AC. Circuit Containing only a Resistor 77 “97 AC. Circult Containing only an Inductor 7. vg AC, Circuit Containing only a Capacitor 7, 729. AC. Gircuit with Resistance and a Properties of Paramagnetic Substances 718. Average Power Associated 5: 5.29 530 Properties of Ferromagnetic Substances 5.34 5.31 Hysteresis 5.36 5.32 Permanent Magnets and Electromagnets 5.40 5.33. Tangent Galvanometer* 541 5.34 Oscillations of a Freely Suspended Magnet 542 5.35. Vibration Magnetometer* 5.43 Very short answer conceptual problems 5.45, Short answer conceptual problems 5.49 Problems on higher order thinking skills 5.55 Guidelines to NCERT exercises 5.61 Text based exercises with value based Qs. 5.68 Competition Section 5.77 6.1 - 6.86 (S12 Self-induction 6.20 6.13 Self-inductance of a Long Solenoid 6.21 6.14 Phenomena Associated with Self-induction 6.21 fs Mutual Induction 6.22 6.16 Mutual Inductance of Two Long Solenoids 6.23 6.17 Grouping of Inductances* 6.24 Very short answer conceptual problems 6.30 Short answer conceptual problems 634 Problems on higher order thinking skills 6.43 Guidelines to HCERT exercises 650 Text based exercises with value based Qs. 6.56 Competition Section 663 71-7116 J A.C. Circuit with Resistance and Capacitor in Series 747 JAI Series LCR-circuit < 7.12 Resonance Condition of a 7 Series LCR-circuit ‘ian 7.13. Sharpness of R i 714 Gee cor nn ee 28 7.45 Power in an A.C. Circuit 730 7.16 Power Factor 7.30 BIT Wattless Current 731 731 Inductance in Series iio eRe a 8 732 a 7.19 Eneray and Average Power Associated with a Pure Inductor 7.20 Eneray and Average Power Associated with a Pure Capacitor 7.21 LC-Oscillations _-F2E Transformer 7.23 Uses of Transformers 7.24 Long Distance Transmission of Electrical Power _225 AC. Generator Chapters 8 to 15 are in Vol. II 7.26 Advantages and Disadvantages of AG. Over D.C. Very short answer conceptual problems Short answer conceptual problems. Problems on higher order thinking skills Guidelines to CERT exercises Text based exercises with value based Qs. Competition Section * marked articles are not included in the CBSE syllabus. 7.50 752 755 7.63 773 787 1.1 FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY 1. What is frictional electricity ? When is a body said to be electrified or charged ? Frictional electricity. If a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, or a fountain-pen with a coat-sleeve, itis able to attract small pieces of paper, straw, lint, light feathers, etc. Similarly, a plastic comb passed through dry hair can attract such light objects. In all these examples, we can say that the rubbed substance has become electrified or electrically charged. It is because of friction that the substances get charged on rubbing. [ie property of rubbed substances due to which they attract light objects is called electricity. The electricity developed by rubbing or friction is called frictional or static electricity. The rubbed substances which show this property of attraction are seid to have become electrified or electrically charges i. 2. Give a historical view of frictional electricity. From where did the term electricity get its origin ? Historical view of frictional electricity. In 600 B.C., electrica for such substances. In fact, the Greek name for amber is elektron which is the origin of all such words : electricity, electric force, electric charge and electron. For Your Knowledge = Amber is a yellow resinous (gum like) substance found on the shores of the Batic sea > Bothelectricand magnetic phenomena can be derived, from charged particles. Magnetism arises from charges in motion. The charged particles in motion ‘exert both electric and magnetic forces on each other. Hence electricity and magnetism are studied together as electromagnetism. 1.2. ELECTRIC CHARGE 3. What is electric charge ? Is it a scalar or vector quantity ? Name its SI unit. Electric charge. Electric charge is an intrinsic property of the elementary particles like electrons, protons, etc, of which all the objects are made up of. It is because of these electric charges that various objects exert strong, Thales of Miletus, one of the founders of Greek science, Cp een of attraction or repulsion on each other. v first noticed that if a piece of amber is rubbed with a, Tectric; charge is an intrinsic property ¢ : ; of cemetary woollen cloth, it then acquires the property of attrac- pasticlas-of antler which gibes-cite fo electric force between —e, ting light feathers, dust, lint, pieces of leaves, ete: In 1600 A.D,, William Gillbert, the personal doctor to Queen Elizabeth ~ I of England, made a systematic study of the substances that behave like amber. In his book De Magnete (on the magnet), he introduced the name > Rees 1.1) wes ‘various objects. Electric charge is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is coulomb (C). A proton has a positive charge (+ 4) and an electron has a negative charge (6), where Jomb, ee 2 Large-scale matter that consists of equal number - electrons and protons is electrically neutral. If there 1 ‘an excess of electrons, the body has a negative chargé and an excess of protons results in a positive charge. 13° ELECTROSTATICS 4, What is eléctrostatics ? Mention some of its important applications, Electrostatics. Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest. Here we study the forces, fields and Potentials associated with static charges. Applications of electrostatics. The attraction and repulsion between charged bodies have many indus- trial applications. Some of these are as follows : 1, In electrostatic loudspeaker. 2, In electrostatic spraying of paints and powder coating. 3. In flyash collection in chimneys. 4. Ina Xerox copying machine. 5. In the design of a cathode-ray tube used in television and radar. (KINDS OF ELECTRIC CHARGES L 5.How will you show experimentally that (i) there are only too kinds of electric charges and (ti) like charges repel and unlike charges attract cach other ? ‘Two kinds of electric charges. About 100 years ago, Charles Du Fay of France showed that electric charges, on various objects are of only two kinds. The following simple experiments prove this fact. EXPERIMENT 1 (i) Rub a glass rod with silk and suspend it from a rigid support by means of a silk thread. Bring another similarly charged rod near it. The two rods repel each other [Fig. 1.1(a)}. sim rs Sik ce costing) EE “traction Fig. 1.1., Like charges repel and unlike charges |” attract eachyother. Vomf VY i sl near the 4 rubbed with woo! Bring 2 Pie rod ‘The two rods attract each charerrig. 11W! : oA et fod with woo! and suspend it (ii) Now rub a Pe ipport. Bring another similarly from 6 ‘near it. There will be a ic 10 : charged aaa the two rods [Fig. 1.1(¢)]. repulsion 5 rod, rubbed with silk, is he oa pi al or pee d by silk threads, re Oo balls) which af ae een in Fig. 1.202). Similarly, balls repel ene Suched with a plastic rod rubbed wit two pith bal iotepel each other (Fig. 1.2(6)], But it is fur are found 1° ‘iil touched with glass rod attracts sean herbal touched with plasticrod [Fig. 1.2} another a EXreRIMe! made to touch a © Repulsion (@ Repulsion = (© Attraction Fig. 1.2 Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. _ From the above experiments, we note that the charge produced on a glass rod is different from the charge produced on a plastic rod. Also the charge Produced on a pith ball touched with a glass rod is lifferent from the charge produced on pith ball Sehelya plastic rod. We can conclude that : here are only two kinds “2 Of electric charges — positive tke charges repel and unlike charg each other. es attract . of electrostaties © SNOW? as the fundamental law ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FELD 6. What are vit vitreous and resi treous and resinous f0as wrong with this nomenclature > charges ? What tums out to be negative in this convention, It would | have been more convenient if electrons were assigned Vitreous and Kenna incee —— nous charges, Charles Du Fay used the positive charge. But in science, sometimes we have to. Llcwes Sinous for the ftvo kinds of charges. live with the historical conventions, silk was called soe" Slass rod when rubbed with | > Different substances can be arranged in a series in treous charge (Latin virtum =glass), Peloped on amber when rubbed with resinous charge (amber isa resin). such a way that f any two of them are rubbed together, then the one occurring earlier in the series acquires a. postive charge while the other occurring later acquires 2. The charge dep ‘wool was called. site on te toe wee ond be | Sens resinous cece exam ground glass rod develops | % Ft | & Hamel | 3, Senin wax develope vine ty While a highly polished eboniterod | & | Sims | 5: Cotton | 6 Paper velops vitreous electricity, 7 silk | Humantoxy | 9. | Wood ae man itt 278 positive and negative charges ? What is | 3% Metals | 1, Robber | 32, Resin ie nature of charge on an electron in this convention ? 23, Amber | 14. Sulphur |,15,_ Ebonite Positive and negative charges. Benjamin Franklin + hs (1706-1790), an American pioneer of electrostatics introduced the present-day i i i h lay convention by replacin; with silk but it acquires negative charge when rubbed the terms vitreous and resinous by positive and \_withflanndl, E negative, spectively. According to this convention - J the charge developed on a glass rod when rubbed 1,5 ELECTRONIC THEORY OF FRICTIONAL 6 Aeon is called posjtive charge, ELECTRICITY he char m ic when i ee ceases Plastic rod tohen rubbed g, Describe the electronic theory of frictional ee - regative charge. i electricity. Are the frictional forces electric in origin ? conventions consistent with the fact i pees aay nition oni att that when wo opposite Kindsafehargesarebrovghtin , ie me iictona elect er contact, they tend to cancel each other's effect. According or eaaee wege teeta to this convention, thecargeon an electrons apt TUES containg protons and neurons, wound Table 1.1 gives a list of the pairs of objects which get matter, the positive proton charges and the negative charged on rubbing against each other. On rubbing, an Glectron charges cancel each other and so the matter in object of column I will acquire positive charge while ae that of column II will acquire negative charge. balk is electrically neutial The electrons of the outer shell of an atom are Table 1.1 Two kinds of charges developed on rubbing loosely bound to the nucleus. The energy required to Thus glass acquires a positive charge when rubbed remove an electron from the surface of a material is Column I Column: 1 called its ‘work function’. When two different bodies (Positive charge) (Negative charge) are rubbed against each other, electrons are transferred Glass rod Silk eloth from the material with lower work function to the er ald ite ro material with higher work function. For example, Ee va re win — ian ‘when a glass rod is rubbed with a sill cloth, some Lie ie " electrons are transferred from glass rod to silk. The ‘Woollen coat Eee glass rod develops a positive charge due to deficiency Woollen carpet Rubber shoes | of electrons while the silk cloth develops an equal negative charge due to excess of electrons. The combined total charge of the glass rod and silk cloth is still zero, as it was before rubbing ie., electric charge is conserved during rubbing. Electric origin of frictional forces. The only way by which an electron can be pulled away from an atom is. to exert a strong electric force on it. As electrons ie actually transferred from one body to another during rubbing, so frictional forces must have an electric origin. Obviously, any two charged objects belonging to the same column will repel each other while those of ‘two different columns will attract each other. RL For Your Knowledge Eis RE UES ene a > Benjamine's choice of positive and negative charges is purely conventional one. However, itis unfortunate that the charge on an electron (which is so important “to physical and chemical properties of materials) in ct all = The cause of charging is the actuat transfer of eles: {rons from one material to another during THsbInB: ~ Protons are not transferred during rubbing, ‘The material with lower work function toses electrons and becomes positively charged. | = Asan electron has. finite mass, therefore, there always _ occurs some change in mass during charging, The ‘mass of a positively charged body slightly decreases ‘due to Joss of some electrons. The mass of a negatively charged body slightly increases due to gain in some electrons, 1.6 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS 9, Hox do the conductors difer from the insulators ? Why cannot we electrify a metal rod by rubbing it while holding it in our hand ? Hovo enn we charge it ? Conductors. The substances through which electric charges can flow easily are called conductors. They contain large number of free electrons which make them good conductor of electricity. Metals, human and animal bodies, graphite, acids, alkalies, etc. are conductors. Insulators. The substances through tohich electric charges cannot flow easily are called insulators. In the atoms of such substances, electrons of the outer shell are tightly bound to the nucleus. Due to the absence of free charge carriers, these substances offer high resistance to the flow of electricity through them. Most of the non- metals like glass, diamond, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood, mica, ec. are insulators. ‘An important difference between conductors and insulators is that when some charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily gets distributed over its entire surface. On the other hand, if some charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the same place. We shall discuss this distinguishing feature in the next chapter. A metal rod held in hand and rubbed with wool does not develop any charge. This is because the human body is a good conductor of electricity, so any charge developed on the metal rod is transferred tothe Garth through the human body. We can electrify the fod by providing, it a plastic or a rubber handle and rubbing it without touching its metal part, 40. What i meant by earthing. or grounding in household circuits? What i inp? ‘ne and safety. When a charged body is ening tact with the earth (through a connecting brought in contact WT ge passes 10 the ground ie conductor), i5 rontary current. This process in which a the form of a mor ne earth i called grounding or body shares its charges with tl earthing. Tee tive © rig 1.3 (Postel charge ( Hegatvely charge, earthed bay, clectricity from the mains is supplied to our ehuree-core wiring : live, neutral and ste live wite red in colour brings in the ene ir ack neutral wire isthe return wire, The current. Th wire is connected to a thick metal plate d 0 the earth. The metallic bodies of the appliances such as electric iron, refrigerator, TV, oar Pe nected to the earth wire. When any fault aa nos live wire touches the metallic body, the charge seo the earth and the person who happens to touch the body of the appliance does not receive any shock. 7 ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION 41. What is meant by electrostatic induction ? Electrostatic induction. As shown in Fig. 1.4, hold a conducting rod AB over an insulating stand. Bring a positively charged glass rod near its end A. The free electrons of the conducting rod get attracted towards the end Awhile the end Bbecomes electron deficient. The closer end A acquires a negative charge while the remote end B acquires an equal positive charge. As soon as the glass od istaken away, the charges at the ends A and B digppear. The houses using. reer buried deep int Conducting Pod +p +By +4 Excess of Deficiencyof electrons electrons Insulating stand Hlectrostatic induction, Gressnne induction is temporary clectrifieary the phe charges pp eation Of a conductor i which oppose : d as its farther end iy oser end and similar charges appeargt th Presence of a nearby charged body. yw Se AND FIELD a 12. Descrife how f (oe by induction,” Meta! SPheres can be oppositely 43, How ean you charge a metal sphere positively Charging of two sphere without touching it ? ‘SHOws the various step ane gindtetion, Figure 1.5 Charging of sphere by induction. Fig. 1.6 shows in inducing opposite the various’ st a Shmeson oma, | MSREronte ts wet poled In Indu» pv (a) Hold the metal sphere on an insulating stand, Bring a negatively charged plastic rod near it. ‘The free electrons of the sphere are repelled to the farther end. The near end becomes posi- tively charged due to deficit of electrons. (®) When the far end of the sphere is connected to the ground by a connecting wire, its free electrons flow to the ground. (©) When the sphere is disconnected from the ground, its positive charge at the near end @ remains held there due to the attractive force of the extemal charge. (@) When the plastic rod is removed, the positive charge spreads uniformly on the sphere, © lati Fig. 1.5 Two metal spheres get oppositely charged by induction. ee (@) Hold the two metal spheres on insulating stands Cane and place them in contact, as shown in Fig. 1.5(a). Y () Bring a positively charged glass rod near the left sphere. The free electrons of the spheres get attracted towards the glass rod, The left surface of the left sphere develops an excess of negative charge while the right side of the right sphere develops an excess of positive © charge. However, all of the electrons of the spheres do not collect at the left face. As the negative charge begins to build up at the left face, it starts repelling the Similarly, the metal sphere can be negatively charged Fig. 1.6 Charging by induction. new incoming electrons. Soon an equilibrium is by bringing a positively charged glass rod near it. established under the action of force of attrac- tion of the rod and the force of repulsion due to the For Your Knowledge ated electrons. The equilibrium situation is aaa a Fig. 1.5(6). . Gold-leaf electroscope. It is a device used for detecting (©) Holding the glass rod near the left sphere, sepa- an rig en se pre e ee a consists of si rate the two spheres by a small distance, as shown in 5 ‘ Fig. 1.5(0). The two spheres now have opposite charges. a rubber stopper fitted in the mouth of a glass vessel the glass rod. The charges on the spheres ‘Two thin gold leaves are attached to lower end of the 1 ratte) cert rca en xd. When a charged object touches the metal knob at get dentate Their positive and negative charges Ree ccd of te se spre eee face each other, as shown in Fig, 1.5(d). The two spheres attract each other. leaves. The leaves diverge due to (©) When the two spheres are separated quite apart, repulsion of the like the charges on them get uniformly distributed, as charges they have shown in Fig. 1.5(e). received. The degree ‘Thus the two metal spheres get charged by a Of divergence of the process called charging by induction. In contrast to the leaves gives a process of charging by contact, here the glass rod does measure of the not lose any of its ones amount of charge. mer 1.6 18 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE It is observed from experiments that electric charge has following three basic properties 1, Additivity 2, Quantization 3. Conservation. We shall discuss these properties in detail in the next few sections. (DDITIVITY OF ELECTRIC CHARGE oa 14, What do you mean by additive nature of electric charges ? Additive nature of electric charges. Like mass, electric charge is a scalar quantity. Just as the mass of an extended body is the sum of the masses of its individual particles, the total charge of an extended body is the algebraic sum (ie,, the sum taking into account the positive and negative signs) of all the charges located at different points inside it. Thus, the electric charge is additive in nature, Additivity of electric charge means that the total charge of a system is the algebraic sum ofall the individual charges located at different points inside the system. If a system contains charges qy, yy qjyr then its total charge is f The total charge of a system containing four charges 2 uC ~3 uC 4 Cand ~5 uCis q=2yC-3nC+ 4C-5 pC =-2 pC 1.10 QUANTIZATION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE 15. What is meant by quantization of a physical quantity ? Quantization of a physical quantity. The quanti- zation of a physical quantity means that it cannot vary cont- ruously to have any arbitrary value but it ean change discont- nuously to take any one of only a discrete set of values. For example, a building can have different floors (ground, first, secohd, etc.) from the ground floor upwards but it cannot have a floor of the value in-between. Thus the energy of an electron in atom or the electric charge of a system is quantized. The minimum amount by zohich a physical quantity can change is called its quantum. 16. What is meant by quantization of electric charge ? What is the cause of quantization of electric charge ? Quantization of electric charge. It is found experimentally that the electric charge of any body, Tame oF small, is always an integral multiple of ‘in minimum amount of charge. This basic charge cee Jectron, which is denoted by eand is the charge on an ele on hus the ako Tnagnitude 1.610"? coulomb, Thus the charge on has iectron is ~¢ on a proton is +¢ and that on ceparticle is +26 PHYSICS-xil ct that electric charges occur in The eerie end of continuous amounts is called discrete anon i ah “Tie quantization of electric quantization Othe total charge (q) of body is always an charge basis le of a basic quantum of charge (e), ie., integral oie), where n=0,£1 £2, £3; om quantization. The basic cause of quanti- Case oe enc charge is that during rubbing only an zation of eof electrons can be transferred from integral nu yo another. 3 ; ee eae lof electric charge is an experi- . mentally verified 16 wes of electrolysis, discov- 1. The experiment ested the quanti- are by Faraday first suse: Sation of electric charge. Millikan’s oil drop experiment in 1912 on the » Miacurement of clectric charge further estab- Tished the quantization of electric charge, = 17. Can wwe ignore the quantization of electric charge ? If ves, under tehat conditions ? When can we ignore the quantiz charge. While dealing with macroscopic charges (q = ne), we can ignore the quantization of electric charge. This js because the basic charge cis very small and 11is very large in most practical situations, so q behaves as if it were continuous ie, as if a large amount of charge were flowing, For example, when we switch on a 60 W bulb, nearly2 = 10'* electrons pass through its filament per second. Here the graininess or structure of charge does not show up ée,, the bulb does not flicker with the entry of each electron. Quantization of charge becomes important at the microscopic level, where the charges involved are of the order of a few tens or hundreds of e, For Your Knowledge imental fa ion of elect v The smallest amount of chai i o : rge or basic quantum of charge is the charge on an electron or a proton, Its exact magnitude is e= 1.602192 x 10" C. Setiaton of lec charge cannot be explained on easel letrodynamies or even modern Physics. Hi e atoms molec o/s and chemical properties v re elementa: charges (2/3) ¢ and with atablished in future ill still hold. Only the luce from eto ef 3. nia o Cue Evenif.q Quantization uantum of cha, iwark-model ig of cha ge Be will red ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FiEip Lf. Exar ; By Te based on Example 4. How much positive and negative charge is EST therein a.cup of water ? | Formulae Used INCERT] Solution. Suppose the mass of water contained in a | cup is 250 g. The molecular mass of water is 18 g. 1. gene 2. Mass transferred duris Pe ee 5 egg, oi Number of molecules present in 18 g of water Units Used - = Avogadro's number =6.02 «10? and ¢ are in coulomb, mj +: Number of molecules present in a cup (or 250 g) free , mis pure intege Constants Used : ie Smead 6.02 » 10° JP C, my 91107 ig 0 nbn tot Ex . Which is bi Each molecule of wat ins 2 +8 = ES eave nase St OHO) cn " nic charges form one coulomb of : charge ? le ina rge i (riven ‘Total number of electrons or protons present Solution. One cou! f water, lomb of charge is bi ore ee ae large is bigger than the = nx 10 =8.36 «10% Charge on one electron, e=1.6 x wc Total negative charge carried by electrons or total : ive i i of water, +. Number of electronic charges in 1 coulomb, Positive cae carried by protons in a cup of water, " gzme a= 4 6.25 x 10°; een er =xample 2. A'comb drawrt through person's hair on adry “Probl i < w son's hair lems For Practice day causes 10 electrons io leave the person's hair and stick to the comb fate the charge carried by the comb. Solution. Here n=10”, e=1.6x 10" c = 8.36 x 10 x 1.6 x 10°? C=133 x 107 C — i 1. Calculate the charge carried by 125 x 10° electrons. [CBSE D 921 (Ans. 2x10” © ASthe comb has excess of electrons, 2, How many electrons would have to be removed 7 from a copper penny to leave it with a positive + Charge on comb =—1.6 10° C. charge of 107C? (Ans. 625 x10" electrons) Example 3. If a body gives out 10° electrons every second, 3, Calculate the charge on an alpha particle. Given how much timé is required to get a total.charge of 1 C from’ "charge on a proton = 1.6 x10"? C. it? . (NCERT] (Ans, + 32x10" Q Solution. Number of electrons given out by the 4, Calaiate the charge on $SFe nucleus. Given charge on body in one second =10° aproton=1.6x10C. (Ans. + 416x105 Charge given out by the body in one second 5. Determine the total charge on 75.0 kg of electrons. = ne=10° x 1.6x 10" C (Ans. - 133x105 Q 6x10 PC 6. How many mega coulombs of positive (or Time required to get a charge of 16x 107 C eee naee presen an 70 seeks Ok Deira See. 7. Estimate the total number of electrons present in Time required to get a charge of 1 C 100 g of water. How much is the total negati charge carried by these electrons ? Avogadro's number = 6.02 x 10” and molecular mass of water 2 =18 (Ans. 535 x10°Q) = 625% 10 oars = 198.18 years. 365 x 24 x 3600 SNe : Thus from a body emitting 10° electrons per ay alpha particle contains 2 protons and 2 second, it will take nearly 200 years to get a charge of ! 1 C from that body. This shows how large is one coulomb as the unit of charge. — 1 55 =6.25 «10's 6x10 =+2e 1.10 PHYSICS-Xil jan forces. Coulombian forces act IN VECTOR FORM Range of coulombian fore om ° 7 oi crmous ange oa importance of exponen ay eo" frm. What isthe Sete dimensions (7=10-® m) to macroscopic dls, Coulomb's tay peer tances as large as 10'® m. Inverse square is : hepa eee i to a high degree of accuracy. consider two positive vm. As shown in Fig. 1.8, this range of separation maine POM ChaReS and pated myiasis of Coulomb's Iw, Coulomb's lve 0 ach pot applicable in all situations. Tt is valid only under the following conditions 1.14 coutome's Law 22. Write Coulomb's law 1 3 1. The electric charges must be at rest. ; oh Fa 2. The electric charges must be point charges i.e., = —hy ¢ the extension of charges must be much smaller Fig. 1.8 Repulsive coulomb ™ than the separation between the charges. tivcehey Se eh kT 3, The separation between the charges must be form, Coulomb's law may be expressed as greater than the nuclear size (10m), because E, = Force for distances <10"m, the strong nuclear force en haree dy due to 4, eqep “ies oote eletrosatic Force, = Shy, . ih FR 1.15 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT : where §, = 42, is a uni RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY tog. 7 Wecorin the direction from q, 24. What do you mean by permittivity of a medium ? Define dielectric constant in terms of forces between two Similarly, Ff, =F, charges. 7 ‘12 = Force on chi Fi aFB° 4, due tog, —__Permittivity : An introduction. When two charges = Ah 3, are placed in any medium other than air, the force > pcs ae i 1s grealy affected. Permittcity is a where §, = 21. is aunit i of the medium which determines the electric force * '1 = 48 a unit vector in the direction from h pera {wo charges situated in that medium, For metas = sor ar garg ees ae dee © coulombian forces between unli them when the of the force between (hp Hence the Coulomb's law for any material medium may be written as Pane FE, nel ree Formulae Used 1 1 Ine" Gae, 1 2 Fe trex Units Used 44% ate in coulomb, F in newton and rin metre, Constant Used positively.charged ions carrying equal charges is3.7 10° WN, tohen they are separated by a distance of 5 A. How many electrons are missing from each ion 2° Solution. Here F =3.7* 10” N, A=5x10 m, 4 = 4 (say) 10° x 4x9 6x10? 9 20 fn 272107 x25 410 19.2810 9% 10" or q=32x10°C Number of electrons missing from each ion is no 9 32x10" € 16x10 33.7% 10 or Example 6. A free pith-ball A of 8 g carries a positive charge of 5x10°C. What must be the nature and magnitude of charge that should be given to a second pith-ball B fixed 5 cm below the former bal so that the upper ball is stationary ? {Haryana 01] Solution. The pith-ball Bmust be of positive charge ie,, of same nature as that of A, so that the upward force of repulsion balances the weight of pith-ball A. When the pith-ball A remains F stationary, Femg aC) a 1 hh _ T ie me Sem} mg But my =8 g=8x 10 kg, | On” 4 =5x10°C O r=5cem=0.05m Fig. 1.10. «10° x 5 x 10° x g PAO 210 a 810 x98 (0.057 or _ 8x 9.8 x (0.05)? x 10° ct 9x5 = 4.36 x 10-7C (positive). Example 7. A particle of mass m and carrying charge — 9, is moving around a charge + q, along a circular path of radius. Prove that the period of revolution ofthe charge q, about + gy is given by 167° &4 mr Nh Solution. Suppose charge — 9, moves around the charge +9, with speed v along the circular path of radius r. Then Force of attraction between the two charges T = Centripetal force ik ancy mr 412 The peri will be Te? D od OF revolution of change ~ ina fia e™ SOT or Ta [SRty me TN Yow Example 8, Treo ey Particles, each having a mass of 5 g and charge 1.0% 10°7 C | stay in Limiting equilibrium on a Tacotal table with a separation of 10 em between them. The coefficient of fiction bettoven each Particle and the table is the same, Find y. Solution, Here 4, 4 around +4, = 2nr =, =1.0% 107 CG r=10cm=0.10m, m=5g=5% 10-9 kg The mutual electrostatic force between the two Particles is Pap Sde .9610" (10x 107 r (0.10 The limiting force of friction between a particle and the table is f=nxmg =p x 5x 10x98 =0,019 »N As the two forces balance each other, therefore 0.049 1 =0.009 oe 0.009 a Bemoie» = 0.009 N 0.18, = 0.049 (2) Two insulated charged conper spheres A. aud B have their centres separated by a distance of 50 chi. Whats the mutual force of electrostatic, repulsion ifthe * charge on each is 6.5 x 107 negligible “comp red to the distance of Separation. Also compare'this forte with their mitual gravitational attraction Hfeach weighs 05 kg. ~ (©) What isthe force of repulsion, if (i) each sphere is charged double the above amount, and the distance between them is halved ; (ii) the two spheres are placed in water ? (Dielectric constant of water = 80). (NCERT] Solution. (a) Here q, = q, =6.5« 107 C, 7=50.cm =0.50m Using Coulomb's law, 4% E,, =k AR — . ie 7 7 29 x 199, 65*10 eS nT (0.507 =15x 1077 N. The mutual gravitational attraction, =o™™ on Smee 667 x10 X95 X05 _ 6695 gt (05) Clearly, iy << Air « te C? The radii.of A’and B are. PHBE doubled, 28 the fore (ay (9 When chart the distance ete repulsion becom 2qy2Mp 216 Ke Fe ake (iy The force br constant jelectric const medium of diel 1 hh Fee Arty For water, «80 15%107? : Alt = os ot e190" N. «10% N16 ie vores A and B in Example 9 Ware same size but uncharged then brought in contac the sph Jo 10. Suppose the sph Faecal sizes Athird sphere ae oo is brought in contact with the, ‘ifrom ee what is ee with the second, and finally remove dB? {NCERT} ion between A ant z eae, ae cach of the spheres A and Bis Solution. Charge se, When a is placed in i sed sphere Cis p' similar but uncharg a contact with sphere A, each sphere shares a charge Tera Caged * 8 92 : 5 : 3443404 Fig. 1.1 Now when the sphere C (with charge 4/2) is placed in contact with sphere B (with charge q), the charge is redistributed equally, so that _ Charge on sphere B of C= ants: po 42 Regge sta tea *15x107 N =05695 y 10?.N ELECTRIC CHARGES anyry FIELD Solution, Let the and B Be 1. Ifthe sepae a8 OM each ofthe g i heres electrostatic force beter eet Meee ist, then When sphere C jg to charge 9/2 each, boca hee 10 A, becatise both arcs SPheres share 1. Force on C due to identical, =k 2p (Ry Rk a, along Ac 4-4/2 ? ; - a (ria ey along Bc Since these fore e8 act in of ite therefore net force on C Eros 2 Pek 20, Pg directions, 2.0 10° N, along BC. Example 12.0 identical charge) Q each, are kept at « distance r from each other, A third charge q is placed on the Hint joining the abowe to9'charges such that all the tine charges are in equilibrium. What is the magnitude, sign and position of Mie Chiirgeq ICBSE OD 94, 961 Solution. Suppose the three charges be placed in the manner, as shown in Fig. 1.12, es e*E" ks m, b a p « og Qe a ’ ~e Fig. 1.2 7 The charge q will be in equilibrium if the forces exerted on it by the charges at A and C are equal and opposite. or Since the charge at A is repelled by the similar charge at C, so it will be in equilibrium if itis attracted by the charge q at B, ie,, the sign of charge q should be opposite to that of charge Q. :. Force of repulsion between charges at A and C = Force of atiraction between charges at Aand BY Q-4 4, 2-2 =2 Keepyph eo 4 Example 13. Two point charges + 4e and + eare ‘fixed’ a distance ‘a’ apart, Where should a third point charge q be placed on the line joining the two charges so that it may be in mercer 113 equilibrium ? In which case the equilibrium will be stable and in which unstable ? ‘ Solution. Suppose the three charges are placed as shovrn in Fig, 1.13. Let the charge q be positive. he o + —____+—1_,_; fs —: Fig 3.13 For the equilibrium of charge + 9, we must have Force of repulsion F, between + 4e and +g = Force of repulsion F, between + eand +q or As the charge q is piaced between + 4e and +¢ so only x =22/3 is possible. Hence for equilibrium, the charge q must be placed at a distance 2a/3 from the charge + 4e. We have considered the charge q to be positive. If we displace it slightly towards charge e, from the equilibrium position, then F, will decrease and F, will, increase and a net force (F, ~ F,) will act on q towards left iz, towards the equilibrium position. Hence the equilibrium of positive q is stable. Now if we take charge qto be negative, the forces F,: and F, will be attractive, as shown in Fig. 1.14. +4 Fig. 1.14 The charge ~q will still be in equilibrium at x=2a/3, However, if we displace charge ~q slightly towards right, then F, will decrease and F, will increase, A net force (Fy ~ F,) will act on ~q towards right i.e, away from the equilibrium position. So the equilibrium of the negative q will be unstable. Example 14. Two ‘free’ point charges +4e and +.¢ are placed a distance ‘a’ apart, Where should a third point charge 4qbe placed between them such that the entire system may be i ium ? What should be the magnitude and sign of q ? of a equilibriunt will it be ? A Fp CP 3 Fig. 1.16 For the equilibrium of charge 4, the charge Q must have the same F, and F, are As sign as that of q or 4g, so that the forces ‘equal and opposite F,=% or i pHysics-X! Example 16. 4 charge Q is 10 be divided on 20 oi ie Tat nould be the values of the charges on ihe tN so thatthe force Between the objects cat Be MANIA olution. Let q and Q~qbe the charges on 1° fois jects. Then force between. the two object oe 1 9-2) Po ane F here is the distance between the two objects: For F to be maximum, or (qQ-7)=0 oo =0 r Q-24=0 : Q or 49 ie, the charge should be divided equally on the two objects. Example 17. Two identical spheres, having charges of opposite sign attract each other wth a force of 0.108 N when separated by 0.5 m. The spheres are connected by a conduc- ting wire, which then removed, and thereafter they repel each ther witha force of 0.086 N. What were the inital charges on the spheres ? Solution. Let + , and ~ q, be the initial charges on the two spheres. (a) When the two spheres attract each other, Fk 4B ie, 0108=9%10° DR, r sy 0.108 x (0.5) eer =3x10-2 (®) When the two spheres are connected by the ‘wire, they share the charges equally. +: Charge on each sphere = 1+ ©) _ 4 - 2 2 Force of repulsion between them is e(toe)(ate Fat 2 A2 2 ie, 0036 =2%10° (4-mY o3F 2 2 (dy = gy)? = 9086 05? x 4 9x10" 2 4-4 =2% 10-5 =4% 19-2 Ai) RUECTRIC CHARGES AND Peup NO Fa sty

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