Thewnomctry & Thermal Expansion

Tempekate
Tt detined as the degree ob hotness oT
Coldness o a body. The natutal flow o heat is from
higher temperoatwre to Lousen tempesotwu

Twd bolies ase said to be in thumal equuli

brum wi th each other when no heat Hows rom one body
to the othe This is whwn both the boolies ane at Hhe
Sa me tempesaduw.

SI Unit - kelvin (K) Dimension Cej

*
Tempesatue Lsa scalan quantity
Note
When heat i iven to a boy and its state does
not change,
net the temperature rises and i heat is taken
ronn the body its temperature falls.

2 Nomal temperature ohuman body is 310.S l37e).

3NTP oY STP implies 273-1S K ( oc 32'F)

Scales oh Temperaturt
Boiling 212°F H100C 1 373 K
water

Freezing 32°F 0°C 1273 K

water

Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin

 To Constnuet a scal of tempeatwma , two fixel
points
aL taken. Firat
fixed point the
free zing point ice
s
point) o wate, t is Calliol Lowr fxed Point (LFP).
The second fixed Point id the boiling point (steam poira)
of
of wate, t i s Callud uppes fixed point (UFP).
1 CelsiusScale-
In this Scale LFP (ice poin)is o'c
and UFP (steam pomt) is taken 100 C. The tenperature
measwRd on this scale al in degrea Celsius (c).

2 Fahrenheit scale
This ScalL ob temperaturu has LFP
as 32F and UFP as 212°F The change in temperature
of 1'F Covresponods to change dbf less than o n celsius
SCale.

3kelvin_Seale Tt is also kmousn as

heamodynamic
scale. The tiple Point oh wate is also selected tobe
the zero Scale o temperatuse. The temperawa
measued on this cale as in kelvin CK).
Scale Symbol for LFP UFP Number of dlvisions
ach degrae on the scale

Calsius C OC 100C 100

Fahrenhet F 32F 212P 180

Raaumer R 0R 80 °R 80
Kalvin K 273.15 K 373.15 K 100

Diple Point of water

I t is hat peimt on a P-T
the three phaseb of
dagram whure
wote, the solio, lqud and gAs
Can coexist in eqili
brium
Temperatwe on one sale Con be Canverdees ino othey
Scale by using followina identity
Reading on any scale LFP Canstant fov all stales
UFP LFP

All the tempeatunes are Yelated to each othen as

C o F-32 273.1S =R
212-32 373.1S-273.1s

Note The Celsius amd Kelvin scales have aitternt zen

Points but the sane size degrees. Therafore amy
any
temperatwre iferunce t h e Seme on Celsius and
Relvin scales.
( T T c = (T - T

Thehmometru-
A branch oSuence which deals with Hhe mias-
wnament of tepraue of a suhstance i Knoon a
heamomey
Theamometrend
An instmument used to measwe Hhe temperahae
of a baly is Callud a thehmometes.
Some Cmmon ype o thehmometers a e as follows
Lguid (Mercuy) Thermometers
In Liguld hermometers mecwy is preferredd
its expanslon s large and unlformh
ove 0thn liquids as
and it has high temal Conductivity and low speciic heat.
 - 50'c
Range o Tempesatune: 350C
(Areeeing feint) (boiling Point)

Formula t - o X100 cc

2 Gas Themometers -
TRee aAu mara sensittve and accwhae nan
iquid hemometers, as erpansi on o gaus is moru
han +he iquids
Thse ane oh wo type3-

i ) Constend PresswrL gas hwmomeer

Pinupla VaT Li P Constant

Fomua t V- Vox 100'C

Vae-V.
(i ) Constand Volume gas Thuumomete-
Painciple Pa T Li v = Constant
Formula t P-Px
Po0-P
10dC
3. Resstance Themomeren
Aused in resistamce thamo-
metehs
Usually platinum
duu to high muHng Point and Aage valuuu oh

tempesatuhe Coefficient o Yesstance

Formula t R R 1oo'e
Roo Ro
shne a tempeode coeffi cert ob rebistamce anod
change in demperatwa
 Themoelectric Themometer-
The aL baseol on Seeback effect
to which
when two dstinct metals are joinud to form
accovding
a closeal circut calluol theumocouple and the
in temperatuhe is maintaineol behwean thair
dijference
junchions,
an emf isdeveJoped The emf s Calld themo- emf
and it one junction s a t o'c, themoelecthnc
emf vaies
ith tempehatwe ot het junchon (t) according to
e at +bt2| a and b a Constants

Different tem perature range

Fe Thermo couple Temperature range
Cu
Copper-iron thermocouple O'C to 260C

Ice Iron-constantan themocoupke OC to 800C

Hot

Tungsten-molybdenum themocouple 2000-C to 3000°C

Thermo ele cthic themometers have o hamo Capacity

and high twamal Conductivity So can be used to
measw quickly changing tempehatwe
S Pyroreters
These are the dwices used to measur
the tem peratwe by meQAuing the intnsty of Yadiation
yeceived rom the body
Th
They an based on the fact that the amount
ofYadiations emrtted trom a body per unit anua per Sec.
drecty propohtiona to the fpwuth poLwes o temperature
Stefan's Law). Telescope
Radiations
Pyrorneters Cannot measw Lamp
temperatwt belono 8oc'e,
Red glass
because the amount oh radiations filter
o Amall be measuhad
 Vapou Presswte Thermomaker
TRue a used to mansWA, vey l w
h a t satuated
tempeatwu. Thy a bascol on t h fact
liquid dupends on he teperature
vapow preswAL P of a
according to h e relaion -

Log P a + bT +

b avnd C. L Comstants.
where a

Therma Expansion
hen mautte2 heated without a n change in
its State, it usually expands TA is Calleol hwma
houmal
expansi on.
Themal expansion is minimum in case ob Solids
bu maximum in case o . gases because intemolecuah force
is maxi mum n Solias bu minimum in gaAs.

TheAmal expansion oh solids an o threa types-

Lmear expansion-
when a solid is headed iks Jngth increases,
then t is calud thwrmal expamoion.

- Lo- -Lo + L =L-

Change in Length AL : L. aAT

wheke Lo is original Lungth and AT is change in temp.

Final LengthL : L (1+ aAT)

h e o i s callud coefficient oh nea expanaiom.
2 Area (Super ficial) Expansion
when he anma oh an object changes with
increase in temperatwa than it is callud area expaniom.

in Area AA A.BAT Lo
Change
whoe A Origina! arRa and AL
Lo
AT chenge in femperatuYe

AL
Final Area A A1+ BAT) -

wwe P Callud Coetheient ot arsa expansiom.

Volume expanion-
whun a selid is huated nd its. volume increases
then
then h expansion is callud velume expanaion.

Change in Volume AV VTAT

where V is original volume

and AT s chanae in temperaure.

Fina Volume V Yo 1+TAT)

tohwhe Y is Callad Coetficiendt o volume expansjon.
Change in density AP: - PTAT

P Initial density
Note
i Unit o a,B and oCor K,
(i) Fo CSolid a, B Cmd are related to each othe
as follow

Pr i: 2:3
Application o Thermal Expansion in solids
Bi-metallic Stip-
TwD sti ps o
Two
equal ungth but of diferent
mateuals (bteant Coe icient of inean expansion) ohan
joincd together, Calluol "bi-metallic Stip", and Com
Cn
be used in themostad o break or mak lechita
Contact.
This ship has he chana cteisic propey of
bending on heating du to unequas Lineas expansion ot
the two metals The stip will bend with matal of
areaten a on outen Side i-e. Covex Sioe

TON| oOPF
Steel Brass Bimetallic
strtp

Higher temperature At room temperature At high temperature

Room temperahure
(A) (B) (C) . (D)

2J Efect of tenpeoture. on the time period o a simple

Penduumn-
A penduwum clock Kaaps poper time at
tempeatw e. It temperactwe is increasec do 9(>6)
han ou Linan expansion, lunghh o pendudum and
hanc its time peiod wl mcreaue.

Fractiona change in time peiod AT : a a

As T o
JT
Due
DuL to imcreament in its time. peioel a pendulum clock
beeomes slow im Summer amd will dose time
 Thermal stress in arigidlyfixed rod
whan a whose ends a
rod rigidy Axed such
as to Prevent expansion or conachion, undergoes a
dharge
in tumperatw , d u o hanmal expansion or Comtractiom,
a Compressive ar tenile sress is developed in it.
Com presSive tenile
stress Stress

(A) Heating (B) Cooling

Du tod his eamal shess the rod will exert a
lage force on the supports. T he Change in temp.
lasge
of a rad of ngth L isA6 han

Thermal strain =
4L a A0 [As a 4 ]
Thenma Stress Y a 40 As Y : es
Force on the SuppoTtss F YA« Ae

4Some Other Applieoctions

whan he rails laid don on th round, Spoce
is t betwearn he ends of two rails.
Gi) The fransmissi on Cable not
are tight)y fixed to he
Poles
in) ThL iron rim to put on can wheel is
a
always of
slightly Smaller diameter than that o wh
iv) A
glass stopper jammed in the neck o Hass botle
Can be taken out
by wanming the neck o the bott le
(V) Some Suitable space is betwean the girders
ed upt
fo Supporing bidges
Heat The
The form oh enun which is exchanges among
among
variows bodies or Bystem on accoun o tempeatr
heat.
difference istinaol as

amount oj hot (a) 2ven to a body depends

The
in its tem peratwre (A8) and
upon its m a s (m), change
natue o maduia
ie. mcA8
whe C is specfic haat o materia
Heat is a scalan quartity.
ST Unit - Joule, Cal, Dmenaion
1 Ca. 44 18 Joule
Note
G In solids present in the form o
Hhmal e n g ia
Kinetie enery in iquids in the form of trans latony energy
of molecule. Im gas it is oluL to the random mo Hon
o molecules.
ii Heat adways flows fom a body ot high tunperadure
to Jas temperatw tiln thir hempeahat becomes
equa. Therma eguiibrium).

SpecificHead
1GYam specitie heat-
The amount ot heat enegy yequived to nsee
thetemperotwre ounit mas o a booly thwough 1'c
the material
Cor 1 K) is Callud speci fe haat o h e
o the body.
C
 Specific head og wadeh
Cude1 Cal/g-e s 1 Cal/g-K = 1kal/g-k = y200 I/g

2Mola specifie heat ovMelar heat Copacity-

The amount o heat* ragquired to ise he
temperatuu a m mole of he substance +hrough
unit degre s Calleel melar speci ie haodt.

Mok speci fle heat (C) = Mx Gran specifie heat (c)

Here M molecuah mas o substance

C M _
m A6

where A Number oj meles m M

Unit T/mal-K
Latert Heat
The amount o hao requured to Chemge the stat
othe mas m oh the substance while its temperatur
remains Constuntis witten as
mL CL Latert haat
Hence atent ktat o a substance is the amount of
heat required to chamge the state o unit mas ofthe
fam Solid to liquid or from iquiel to ga/vapoun wthout
from
Qny chamge in temperaturh.
Latent heat (L) uantity of heat (G)
mas ot Substan ce (mn)

Latent hat is also knousn as Heat ot Transsormathon.

Tts unit is T/kg or Cal/a

Dimenbien CMLT]
Eg. Latent heat o fusion o5 ice = 80 Cal/g
 .Ladent heat ot Vaporisaion oY wadu 536 KCal/Ka.

Themal Capacity
T+ is duhnd as he amourt o head requred
to ise the tempeatwre o the whole body mas m)
through 1°c o r 1K).

Thumal Capacity mc LC .
A

The
Te valu oh Hhomal Capacity o a body dupends upon
the natw ot he body and its ma

Unit Jowe k or Cal/c Dimension- SM'L2T26]

Waer Equivalend -(w)

wate equi valent ot a body is dehined as he
mas o wate which woulc absorb or evdve he Sme

amo unt is done by the body in isina

ot heat as or

fallina through the seme ronge o demperature.

Let heat iven to the body AQ mcAe

amount o heat is given to wade

I Same gm ob
to rise its temperatuwu by A9, hen
Heat ven to water A W xi xAe Catey1

Water equvalent W mc gm

Note Theamal capacity oh the body and its watn

equi valnt ae numehically equal.
Some Inmpastant Tems-
1JMeltng (or fusion/Freezing (or salidification)-
TKe phase change b Solid to iquid s Callnd
meling or fusion. The reverse phenomenon is Callud
freezing or solidliicotion.

2Yaporisation / Lauetication
The phabe Change trom kiquid o vapouw is
calud vapolisation. The Yevesse transithon is Callud
Liquefication or Condensahion
Heat reguired dto change unit mam of liquid
into vapou at a gien temperadn is Calld heat o
eaporahion
3 Sublimation -
Subimation i the Converaion oh a Soliol
directly into vapows. Sublimation takes place whun
botling point is dess han he melting poind.
A block o ice Sublimates into vapous on
th swnface o moon because o vey vey hous pressure
on its Swface.

Boiling As
AS he tempekatue o 9quid is increased
the rate of evaporation also inereaes. A stage i
reached when bubblus of vapour Stat fon mimg in the
the
uquid which nse to the swhface and escape
A liguid boils at a tmperatu at which the
S.v.P.Satuated Vapouh pressuwe) is equal to he extemal
PresuAL
SSatwrated Vapow Pressuhts.vP)
whan t h spacs above a iqud is dosed,
it Soon become sotnated itm vapoun and a dunemic
equlibkium establishud. The preswL exerted by his
Vapow is Callid saturated vapow preauna (5.v.P).
o
The valu o S.v.R dapends ony on temperahure
and is incdpendlent o any external pressu.

HoaHoa Frost -

Divect Convesion o vapowrs into Solid

Callrd hoas frost. T+ isjust revese pocess F
Sublimaion.
Eg romation oj snow b treuzna douls
Jowe's Law
Accoving o Joul, wo ma lbe Converdec
into huar and vice-versq. The roho oob work odone to
the hatt procuced is alwaus Constant.

i-e. Constant T W Ta

He T is Callua mechanical equivalnt of heat. I i

not a phaical quartity but simply a Comvehaion factoT.
I t is usid to ConvetF Joule or ea into Calone or Kild
Calonies and ice-vesq.

Valu o J 4:2 T/tal. 4.2x10 er3/cCal

E . The Kinuic eneay f a bult fired trom a aun

tt s
s comverted into heot on stikirg he tanget and
t h temperature. oh the bulll increases.

Heating Cuwve-
Ib heat s Aupplied to a given solicd o mas (m)
at Cmstant rate and a raph is plotted betwean temp-
eratuhL and time, then the qroph is Knovn as haating
Cuhye
E

C
Boiling
Boiling D
point
Luquid
T A/Melting BA -.. Melting
point

o t 4
Time
In the regiom OA
Tempeatwu o selid is changing uith ime, So that

m Cs AT qnd Rate o heat Suppy P

PAt mcs aT
Slope o temp. tme Cuwe

heat oh Solid Cs
Hence Specific slope. of line OA

In the region A
Temperatwu i Comstart So it represents change of state,
of solid
i t h melting point T At A meltirg
ie. meing
stats and a t B a u solid is Converted into Uquud.

A and B substance is pattly Solid qmd

Betwean point
patly Lquid.
Th LF is the datent heat of fusion, Hhen

a m Le oX L P(tz-t)Ym

LF a
Length ot ine ABe Plt2-t)
i . Latent heat ot fuwion is poporhional to the lungth
o ine o zero slope

In this Yegion Speciie heat

tamo

n the region Bc
the
Temperatme of Liquid inereases so Specific heat o
line
iquid will be invsey propotional to the slope oh
CL
Slope o line ec
 In the rgion cD
Tem peratwe is Constant, So it represents he Change
of State ie. biling i t h boiling point T2.
At c all substances e in liquid state while at
D in vapow Stote and betwten Cand D parHy Jiquid
Cand party 8as. The ungth ot une CD is proportional to
Aatent heat ot vaporisathion.
i-e Lv a Length o ine cD

In his region Specitic heat 1

Fan
Tn the region DE -

The ine DE reprtaents aaeous State o Substance

with its temperatwuL increasing naanly with m e
The reci proca o the slope o he n e will be
prpohhonal to specific haat or thema! Copacity o the
Swbstunce im vapowh State.
 Phase of a suhstanee
The phase ob a Substance u duinecd as its form
whch shomogeneous,, physically lisHntt ond mechanically
h e o t h fomms ot h a t substancu.
separable from

Phase diagram-
A phase dioqam is a raph in which Presu(P)
isrepresented along h e Y-axis and temperatwe (T) is
represented along the x-qxis.

A region on the phase diagram represents a singee

phase of h e substance, a Cwe, represemts equilibrium
between two phases Qnd a Common poin repreents
t h egiibrium betwean threa phases.

Phase diagramfor hwater

three
The phase oiogram for yater comaist ot
Cwwes A , AC and AD meetin each other et he poirt
A. Thse Curuwes divide the phase aliagram irto
hree

and represerts the boundary beturun two phaes

regions,
of the Substance.

P
Fusion, Cwe
yor tce Une
Liquid Vapoisation Cwwe
oY Steam Line
Sublimation Cuve Solid
Or hoar frost Line
-
Vapour (gas)
Tvipple
Point
o
 *Region to the Jut ot the cwwe AB and above h e
Cuwwe AD represents the solid phase o water (ice

The reqion to the right ot the cwwe AB amd above

watey.
he cowe Ac represents he qid phase ot
the
The region below the cuwe AC amd AD Yepresents
water vapout).
gaeous phase ob wate. Lie.

Along any Cwwe the two phases Can Coexist in equuübrium.

and water Can remain in equibtium.
A, ice
i Cwve
AHongcuwe iu Knon as
This fusion Cwwe or ice line. This
ice decreases ui th
Cuve shos that the melking point of
increase in presswa

Yemaun
lii) CuweAC, water and wade apour Can
Alo
Along
in eguiibrium. Th Cwwe is Knouwn as vaporisaion
Cwwe or steanm ine.
This cuwe shous that boilina point o water
inereases with imerease im pressuu.

wader vapour can vemaln

Alomg the C v e AD, ice and
) Alon8
Gii)
inequiubrium.
in This Cuwe is Called sublimation Cunve
or hoa frast line.

Tiple Point oh woder

The tiple point ot water represents the co-existante
of all the thre phases or uater Lce, water cmd water
vapo) in equiubrium.
The presswe Coresponding o hiple point oo water
6.03 X 1oastmosphere oy 4 58 mm oh Ha and temperature
CoYvesponding to it is 273.16 k.