SPH 3250

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

 Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one body to the other.
 It is a measure of the internal energy of a body or the kinetic energy possessed by the
molecules of the body
 The heat content of a body cannot be measured directly but the change in heat content
may be measured.
 Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
 Its measured using thermometers
 Thermometers have particular properties that change proportionally with changes in
temperature called thermometric properties.
 There are two main temperature scales: the Degree centigrade or celcius scale and the
Kelvin scale (Absolute temperature scale)
 Temperature scales are designed using specific known temperatures such as melting
and boiling pints of pure substances. Such known temperatures are called fixed points.
There are 3 commonly used fixed points:
1. Ice point: it’s the temperature at which pure ice can exist in equilibrium with pure
water at standard pressure (760mmHg). (273.15K)
2. Steam point: temperature at which pure water can exist in equilibrium with steam at
standard pressure (373.15K)
3. Triple Point: Temperature at which pure ice, pure water and steam can exist n
equilibrium at equilibrium with each other at standard pressure (273.16K).

TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
Liquid in Glass Thermometer
 Uses mercury or alcohol as a thermometric liquid and their expansion due to increase
in temperature as its thermometric property
 It is calibrated by immersing it in melting ice (Ice point) and marking the level of
mercury/ alcohol 00C or 273K, then immersing it in pure boiling water (steam point)
and marking the level (1000C or 373K). The space in between is then divided into 100
equal subdivisions and marked.
The assumptions behind this is that the liquid expand uniformly with increase in temperature
for this range of temperature and that the capillary bore for expansion is of perfectly uniform
cross section.

Advantages
 It’s cheap
 Easy to use

Disadvantages
 Cannot read beyond 0.1K accuracy due to parallax error
 Poor accuracy due to non uniformity of the capillary bore
 Can’t be used to measure rapidly changing temperatures as glass is a poor conductor
of heat and takes time to adjust its temperatures
 Its significantly affects the temperature of the substance for small quantities due its
high Specific Heat capacity.
The temperature may be obtained from the lengths of the liquid colum at ice point, steam
point and at the measured temperature.
The temperature is given by change in length for a change of temperature from ice point to
temperature θ as a fraction of change in length for the change in temperature from ice point to
steam point multiplied by 100.

Let the l 0 be length at ice point, l 100 be length at steam point and l θ be length at temperature θ

l θ−l 0
θ= ×100
l 100 −l 0
NB: this calibration is based on the assumption that there uniform increase in length of the
column for every unit change in temperature which is not proven.
Due to this temperatures measured using different thermometers may be slightly different.
 Thermocouple
 Uses electromotive force of a pair of metal junction as the thermometric property.
When two metals are in contact, a potential difference is created at the junction
resulting to an emf which varies proportionally with variation in temperature of the
junction.
 It consists of a milivoltimeter/ galvanometer connected to two wire of Allumel and
chromel as shown here:

Galvanometer

Chromel wire
Allumel wire

The set up in this case has a number of problems:

 There are 3 different emfs associated with the set up: emf due to the junction between
allumel and chromel and two emfs due to the brass-chromel and allumel –brass
junction at the terminals of the galvanometer.
 To solve this problem a second junction is introduced such that the galvanometer
terminals are Chromel-Brass and Brass- Chromel and two Allumel Chromel junctions
are formed.

Chromel-Brass
Chromel-Brass G
Chromel

Allumel

Cold Junction Hot Junction

  In this set up, the Brass-Chromel and the Chromel-Brass junctions will have equal but
opposite emfs that will cancel out.
 The cold junction is maintained at ice point by immersing it in melting ice which
keeps its emf constant.
 The hot junction is used as the measurement junction and it connected or immersed to
the substance whose temperature is being measured.
 Variations in the temperature of the hot junction causes variations in the emf hence the
temperature can be measured.
 The temperature is given by:

2
E=αθ + β θ

Where α ∧β are constants that depend on the metal used for the wires E is the emf and
θ is the temperature.

A plot of the emf against temperature has a maxima:

θ
N

The maximum value of the emf occurs at temperature called Neutral point (N) at which the
slope of the curve is zero. At this point variations in temperature do not case variations in emf.
Near the neutral point the rate of change of emf with temperature is very small thus a
thermocouple is not suitable for measurement of temperatures near its neutral as it has low
sensitivity and may be inaccurate.
 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
These rely on the fact that resistances of materials are temperature dependent
They are made of platinum because it has a large temperature coefficient and high melting
point,
The resistor is a platinum wire that is wound on an insulator such mica or alumina.
The resistor is connected to one arm of Wheatstone bridge. This arrangement allows it to
detect very slight changes in resistance and therefore small changes in temperature.
Advantage
 Its very accurate
 It has a wide temperature range (-2000C-12000C)

Disadvantage
 They cannot be used to measure rapidly changing temperatures since they have large
specific heat capacities and take a long time to come to equilibrium with the
surroundings

The resistance and the temperature are related by the equation:

2
R=R 0 (1+αθ + β θ )
Where R0 is the resistance of platinum at ice point and α ∧β are constants.
The values of R0 , α a nd β for any thermometer are found by measuring R ice point, steam
point and melting point of pure sulphur (444.60C) and solving the equations.

THERMISTORS
They rely on change of resistance with temperature as the thermometric property.
However they have a negative temperature coefficient
They are semiconducting devices made from mixtures of metal oxides such as
Fe3O4+MgCr2O4

Advantages
 They are highly sensitive (20 times more than resistive thermometers) since they are
not affected by the resistances of the connecting wires since their resistance is very
high (KΩ) as compared to the connecting wires
They have no effect on temperature of the substance due to their low specific heat
capacity.
 Disadvantages
 Have small temperature range (-700C to 3000C)

HEAT
Heat is a form of energy which is transferable from one body to another and measured in
Joules (J).
Heat is a measure of the internal energy of a body. However it’s not possible to measure the
quantity of heat in a substance since it would involve measuring the Potential and the kinetic
energies of all the particles.
Changes in heat content of a body may be measured since they are indicated by change in
temperature.
When a body absorbs heat the temperature rises while loss of heat is accompanied by decrease
in temperature.

HEAT CAPACITY (C)

 Heart capacity the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of a substance
by 1K
 It’s given by the quantity of heat (Q) divided by temperature change ( θ ) thus its units
are J/K
 Different substances have different heat capacities
Q
C= where Q is quantity of heat, C is heat capacity and θ is change in temperature.
θ
Specific Heat capacity (c)
 It’s the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by 1K
 It’s the heat capacity divided by mass of a substance
 The SI units are J/Kg/K
Q
c= where m is the mass of the substance.
mθ
 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
 When two or more bodies are in contact, heat flows from one body to the other such
that the rate of heat transfer from hot body to the cold one is higher until the two
bodies acquire the same temperature
 Such bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium when no net heat flow from one
body to the other.

Zeroth Law: it states that if two bodes A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a body C, the
two bodies A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 The quantity of heat absorbed by a body is given byQ=Mass ×C ×θ

Examples
1. How many joules of heat are liberated when 50g of iron are cooled from 80 0C to 200C.
(c=460J/Kg /K)

Solution
Q=Mass ×C ×θ
50 −1 −1
Q= × 460 J Kg K × ¿) = 1380 J
1000

2. Suppose water of the same mass changes temperature by the same margin how much
heat will be lost.

If two bodies exchange heat the amount heat energy lost by hot body is equal to the
amount of heat energy gained by the cold body

3. A mass of copper at 1200C is immersed in water at 200C. if the mass of the water and
copper are the same determine the final temperature of the mixture.
4. 200g of aluminum are immersed in water at 35 0C. if the initial temperature of the
aluminum block was 1500C, calculate the final temperature of the mixture given that
the mass of the water was 100g.
Solution
Heat lost by Al =Heat gained by water
−1 −1 −1 −1
0.2 Kg× 900 J Kg K × (150−T )=0.1 Kg× 4200 J Kg K × (T −35 )

0
T =51.2 5 C
 EFFECT OF HEAT ON SUBSTANCES
Solids
 All solids expand when heated and contract when cooled. This leads to changes in length,
area and the volume of bodies. The change in length is called linear expansion.

Linear expansion
The fractional change in the length of a material per unit change in temperature is called its
linear expansivity (α ).
Let a bar of length l 0 be heated so that the temperature rises by θ and its length increases to
anew length l ❑
change ∈length
Linear expansivity α =
initial length ×θ

l−l 0
α=
l0 × θ
If we let l 0=1 m, then
l−l 0
α= …………………………………………………………………………… 1
θ
The change in surface area per unit rise in temperature is called is called superficial
expansivity β.

Relationship between α and β

Let a square of surface of length l 0 be heated so that its temperature changes by θ and the
length of side changes to l

l−l 0
α= …………………………………………………………………………… 1
l0 θ
A− A 0
β= …………………………………………………………………………… 2
A0 θ
l=l 0 +l 0 αθ …………………………………………………………………… 3
A=A 0 + A0 βθ ………………………………………………………… 4
But:
2
A0 =l 0 and A=l 2
Replacing A∧A 0 we obtain
2 2
l =l 0 + βθ…………………………………………………………………… 5
But
2 2
l =(l 0+ αθ) ………………………………………………………………… 6
2 2 2 2
l =l 0 +2 l 0 αθ +α θ ………………………………………………………… 7
Replacing l 2 with l 02 + βθ
2 2 2 2
l 0 + βθ=l 0 +2 l 0 αθ+ α θ …………………………………………………… 8
But α 2 θ 2 ≪ 2l 0 αθ and l 0=1
βθ=2 αθ…………………………………………………………………………… 9
β=2 α …………………………………………………………………………………… 10

Assignment
Show that volume expansivity γ =3 α
 GAS LAWS
Boyles Law
 States that: the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure if
the temperature is kept constant.
1
P∝ ………………………………………………………………………… 1
V

According to Charles law the volume of as fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to
temperature if the pressure is kept constant.
V ∝T ………………………………………………………………………………… 2
Combining equations 1 and 2
PV ∝ T ……………………………………………………………………………… 3
This implies that
PV ∝ mT ……………………………………………………………………………… 4
Where m is the mass of the gas
Let the proportionality constant be A
PV ∝ AmT …………………………………………………………………………… 5
For different gases A is different. However if the quantity of the gas is measured in moles, the
value A is the same for all gases. In this case the constant A is replaced by the universal gas
constant R and m is replaced by n .
Where n is the number of moles of the gas:
m
n=
M
M is the molar mass of the gas
If the pressure of the gas is measured in N m−2, volume in m3, PV has the units Nm and the
value of R=8.31 J mol−1 K −1.
This law is obeyed by ideal; gases only. The law is called ideal gas law.

AVOGADROS NUMBER AND IDEAL GAS LAW

 It states that equal volumes of gases have the same number of molecules at the same
temperature and pressure.
 Similarly 1 mole of a gas occupies the same volume at the same pressure and temperature
23
Avogadros no .=6.02 ×10
 Number of molecules( N )
Number of moles ( n )=
Avogadros no .(N A )
Combining with the ideal gas law:
N
PV =nRT = RT
NA

PV =NKT
R −23
Where K= isthe Boltzman constant =1.38 ×10
NA
 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
It explains how gases behave in atomic scale. It is based on a number of assumptions:
i. The number of molecules is very large and the average separation distance between
the molecules is very large as compared to the dimensions of the molecules thus the
molecules occupy negligible volume of the container.
ii. Molecules move in random motion but obey Newton’s laws of motion
iii. Molecules undergo perfectly elastic collisions with each other and with the walls of
the container i.e. both K.E and Momentum are conserved after collision.
iv. The forces between molecules are negligible except during collisions
v. All molecules of a pure gas are identical

Suppose we consider a gas of N number of molecules and volume V which is cubic.

Vx

Consider a molecule of mass m moving in the positive x direction with velocity v x when the
molecule collides with the wall it bounces back since collision is perfectly elastic.
Momentum is conserved such that:
Momentium before collision ( P x ) =m v x
Momentium after collision ( −P x )=−m v x
The change ∈momentum after collision=−m v x −m v x =−2 m v x
The change in momentum of the wall must be equal and opposite for conservation of
momentum thus 2 m v x
Applying the impulse –momentum theorem to the wall:
F ∆ T=∆ P=2 m v x……………………………………………………………………………………… 1
In order for the molecule to make 2 collisions with the same wall along x direction it
must travel a distance 2 d
The time taken between the two collisions is:
2d
∆ t= ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 2
vx
Substituting in equation 1
2
∆ P 2m v x 2 m v x
F= = =
∆t ∆t 2d
2
m vx
F= …………………………………………………………………………………………… 3
d
The net average force exerted by the molecule on the wall is:
m 2 2 2 2
F Net = (v + v x 2 + v x 3 +… … … . v xN )………………………………… 4
d x1
2 2 2 2
2v x 1 + v x2 +v x3 +… … … . v xN
Ṽ =
x
………………………………………………………… 5
N
Replacing v x 12+ v x 22+ v x32 +… … … . v xN 2 in equation 4
m 2
F Net = N Ṽ x …………………………………………………………………………………… 6
d
If the molecule has three components along x , y ∧z:
2 2 2 2
v =v x + v y + v z ……………………………………………………………………… 7
The average velocity for all molecules is:
2 2 2 2
Ṽ =Ṽ x +Ṽ y +Ṽ z ……………………………………………………………………… 8
But
2 2 2
Ṽ x =Ṽ y =Ṽ z
2 2
Ṽ =3 Ṽ x
2
N mṼ
F Net = ( )………………………………………………………………………………… 9
3 d
The pressure on the wall is:
F Net F Net 1 N 2
P= = 2 = ( 3 m Ṽ )……………………………………………………………… 10
A d 3 d

1 N 2
P= ( )mṼ ¿……………………………………………………………………………………… 11
3 V
2 N 1 2
P= ( ) mṼ ……………………………………………………………… 12
3 V 2
1 2
mṼ is the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
2
NB: pressure exerted by the gas is proportional to the number of molecules per unit volume
and the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules.

TEMPERATURE AND TRANSLATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY OF THE

MOLECULES
 The temperature of an ideal gas has a physical meaning. The pressure and the volume
are related by:
2 N 1 2
P= ( ) mṼ …………………………………………………………………… 1
3 V 2

2 N
P= ( ) ⟨ KE Tr ⟩…………………………………………………………………… 2
3 V

Making KE Tr the subject of the formula in equation 1:

3 PV
⟨ KETr ⟩ = 2 N
…………………………………………………………………………… 3

But from ideal gas law:

PV =NKT …………………………………………………………………………… 4
PV
=KT …………………………………………………………………………………. 5
N
PV
Substituting in equation 3 with KT we get
N
3
⟨ KETr ⟩ = 2 KT ……………………………………………………………………… 6

NB: the absolute temperature of an ideal gas is proportional to the average translational
kinetic energy of the molecules.
 Root Mean Square Speed (RMS)
 It is the speed of a molecule that has kinetic energy equal to the average kinetic energy
of all molecules
 It is the square root of the mean of the speed squared.

1 2 1
⟨ KETr ⟩ = 2 m ⟨ v ⟩ = 2 m v rms 2……………………………………………… 7

√ 2
v rms= ⟨ v ⟩ ……………………………………………………………………. 8

 Since the average KE of the molecules in an ideal gas depends only on the temperature
the equation 7 implies that more massive molecules move more slowly on average
than lighter ones at the same temperature.
 From equation 6 and 7
3 1 2
KT = m v rms
2 2
2 3 2 KT
v rms = ×
2 m

v rms=
√ 3 KT
m
…………………………………………………………… 9
 THERMODYNAMICS
A thermodynamic system is a portion of the universe selected to investigate some properties
e.g a gas vapour, stretched wire, a capacitor etc.
A thermodynamic system is selected by a use a boundary.

Thermodynamic Boundary
 It is the envelop that covers the system separating it from the rest of the universe.
 Surroundings refer to the rest of the universe or everything else outside the system
 There are three types of boundaries: open, closed and isolating.
 Isolating Boundary: this is a boundary that does not allow exchange of heat energy or
matter with the surroundings
 A system bounded by an isolating boundary is called an isolated system
 A boundary that allows exchange of heat energy between the system and surroundings
but does not allow exchange of matter is called a closed boundary
 A system that is bounded by a closed boundary i.e. does not exchange matter with the
surroundings but exchanges heat energy with the surroundings is called a closed
system
 An open boundary is the one that allows exchange of heat and matter with the
surroundings
 An open system is the one that exchanges both heat and matter with the surroundings
 The state of a system is defined completely by a set of measurable quantities called
thermodynamic variables, e.g. a stretched wire corresponds to length and tension,
surface film corresponds to surface tension and area, hydrostatic system (gas)
corresponds to pressure and volume
 A thermodynamic variable can intensive or extensive
 Intensive variables are the ones that are independent of mass and number of particles
in the system
 Extensive variables are the ones that are dependent or proportional to the mass and the
number of particles of the system.
Thermodynamic equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if:
i. There are no unbalanced mechanical forces within the system or between the system
and the surroundings
ii. The temperatures of the different parts of the system are the same and equal to the
temperature of the surroundings
iii. The chemical composition and the density are not changing
NB: there must be mechanical, thermal and chemical equilibrium.
If we let X, Y and Z be the thermodynamic variables or coordinates like P, V and T of the
equilibrium state of a system, the equilibrium state of the system is denoted by:

f ( x , y , z )=0

Thermodynamic process
 A system is said to undergo a thermodynamic process when the thermodynamic
variables change from one equilibrium state to another
 A plot of one thermodynamic variable against the other is called an indicator diagram
 An point on the curve represents an equilibrium state
 If the process can be retraced back through the same curve it is said to be a reversible
process
NB: all natural processes show irreversible behavior
There are four main thermodynamic processes for a hydrostatic process:
1) Isothermal process: it’s a process that occurs at constant temperature
2) Isobaric process: it’s a process that occurs at constant pressure
3) Isochoric/isovolumetric process: it’s the one that occurs at constant volume
4) Adiabatic process: is the one that occurs in such a way that no heat exchange between
the system and the surroundings

HEAT, WORK AND ENERGY

 A thermodynamic system can do work without energy being supplied to the system.
This implies that the system has some internal energy
 The internal energy of a thermodynamic system is the energy possessed by the
particles of the system (U )
 The magnitude of the U depends on the thermodynamic variables P , V ∧T for a
hydrostatic system
 Since P, V and T are interrelated by the equation of state, they can be treated as
independent parameters, thus the equilibrium state of a system can be fully defined by
specifying any two variables
 For the internal energy of a gas:
U =f ( P ,T ) , U=f 1 ( T ,V )∨U=f 2 (P , V )

 When the system is in the same thermodynamic state the its internal energy does not
change
 NB: U is a single valued function of the state of the system
 When the system changes from one state A having internal energy U A to another
state B having internal energy U B, the change in the internal energy is:
∆ U =U B−U A

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 This law is basically the principal of conservation of energy applied to a
thermodynamic system and its surroundings
 It states that:
The difference between the quantity of heat supplied to a system and the quantity of
work done by the system to the surroundings is equal to the increase in the internal
energy of the system
 Let a system be in a state A with internal energy U A absorb heat energy Q and do
work W passing to another state B with internal energy U B. The net enegy before
transformation was:
U A+ Q
After transformation the net energy is
U B +W
By law of conservation of energy

U A + Q=U B +W
Q=U B −U A +W
Q=∆ U +w
 This can be written in differential form as:
dQ=dU + dW : First law of thermodynamics in differential for

a) In acyclic process where the system goes back to its initial state after a given time;

∮ dU =0
∮ dQ=∮ dU +∮ dW =∮ dW

NB: The total work done in a cyclic process is equal to the heat energy supplied to the
system

b) In an isothermal process there is no change in the internal energy since the

temperature remains constant
dU =0
dQ=dW
NB: all the heat energy supplied is used in doing mechanical work e.g. expanding
the gas

c) In an adiabatic process no heat is supplied or lost from the system thus:

dQ=0
dW =−dU
NB: for an isolated system, work is done at the expense of its internal energy

ISOTHERMAL AND ADIABATIC CHANGES

 If the pressure and the volume of a gas change in such a way that the temperature
remains constant, the change is said to be isothermal
 If the pressure and the volume change in such a way that no heat is absorbed or
liberated by the system the change is said to be adiabatic
 Isothermal changes occur when the process is carried out so slowly and the walls are
that perfectly conducting so that all the heat energy produced is exchanged with the
surroundings such that the temperature will always remain unchanged
 An adiabatic change takes place very fast in a system with insulating walls. Slow
Since heat conduction is a slow process no heat exchange between the system and
the surroundings e.g. bursting of a tyre
 SPECIFIC HEAT OF A GAS
 Heat capacity of gas depends on the conditions of pressure and volume, thus gases have
two different heat capacities: specific heat capacity at constant pressure ( c p) and specific
heat capacity at constant volume (c V )

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AT CONSTANT VOLUME

It’s the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a gas by 1K
when the volume is kept constant
If one mole of the gas is taken into account it is called the specific molar heat capacity of the
gas (C V )

C V =M c V
Where M is the molar mass of the gas

From the first law of thermodynamics:

dQ=dU + dW
dW =PdV
dQ=dU + PdV
But dV =0
dQ=d U
Let the rise in temperature be dT
dQ=CV dT

CV= ( dQ
dT ) =(
V dT )
dU
V

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

 This is the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of a unit mass of a gas by
1K at constant pressure (c V )
 Molar heat capacity at constant pressure is the quantity of heat required to change the
temperature of 1 mole of a gas by 1K at constant pressure (C P )
C P =Mc P
 Let d Q1 be the heat enegy required to raise the temperature of 1 mole by 1K

d Q1=C P dT =dU + PdV

CP= ( dQdT ) =( dUdT ) + PdV

1

P P

C P >C V

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CP AND CV

 Consider n moles of a gas
 Let a quantity of heat d Q1 raise the temperature of a gas by dT at constant volume
d Q1=n C v dT

d Q1=dU + PdV

n C v dT =dU + PdV
PdV =0
d Q1=n C v dT

Let d Q2 be the heat required to raise the temperature of n moles of the gas by dT

d Q2=n C P dT
From the first law
dQ=dU + PdV
n C P dT =n C v dT + PdV

But PV =nRT -ideal gas law

PdV =nRdT

n C P dT =n C v dT + nRdT
C P =C v + R

C P −C v =R
 ADIABATIC RELATION FOR AN IDEAL GAS
 Consider a fixed mass of an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder with a movable piston and
non conducting walls
 Let the pressure, the volume and the temperature of the gas be P , V ,T
 If the piston is moved through a small distance dx inwards so that the gas is
compressed adiabatically
 If the cross sectional area of the piston is α the force on the piston is
 F=P ×α
 The work done by the piston is
W =Pα × dx
But αdx=dV
W =PdV
 Due to the compression the temperature of the gas will increase
 Let C V be the specific heat capacity of the gas at constant volume and dT be the
temperature change
 The heat produced due to the compression is
C V dT
dU =−dW
dU + PdV =0 ……………………………………………………………….. 1
For 1 mole
But PV =RT ………………………………………………………………… 2
Differentiating 1
PdV +VdP=RdT …………………………………………………………. 3
PdV + VdP
dT = ……………………………………………………………….. 4
R

Replacing dT in equation 1 we have

CV
( PdV +VdP ) + PdV =0
R

C V PdV +C V VdP+ RPdV =0

Collecting like terms together

PdV ( CV + R ) +CV VdP=0

But R=C P−C V

Substituting for R
PdV ( CV +C P−C V ) +C V VdP=0
C P PdV + CV VdP=0
Dividing both sides by C V PV
C P dV dP
× + =0
CV V P

CP
=γ
CV

dV dP
γ + =0
V P

Integrating

γlogV + log P=constant

γ
P V =Constant

γ γ
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2

Volume and temperature

γ
P1 V 1 = K
RT
PV =RT ; P=
V

Substituting for P
RT γ
V =K
V

γ −1
RT V =K
 γ−1 K
TV = =constant
R
Pressure and temperature
γ
P V =K
PV =RT
RT
V=
P
Replacing volume

( )
γ
RT
P =K
P
Opening the brackets
γ γ
R T
γ −1
=K
P

γ
T K
γ −1
= γ =K
P R

γ
T
γ −1
=K
P

Electromagnetic radiation
This is a range of transverse radiation having different wavelengths
They have the following properties:
1) They are propagated by varying electric and magnetic fields oscillating at right angles
to each other
2) They are not deflected by either magnetic or electric fields
3) They have constant velocity of approximately 3.0 ×1 08 m/s
4) Travel in a straight line in a vacuum
5) Undergo diffraction, interference and polarization

HEAT TRANSFER
Introduction
Heat is fundamentally transported, or “moved,” by a temperature gradient; it flows or is
transferred from a high temperature region to a low temperature one.
Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a
process from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives no indication about how long the
process will take. A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how much heat must be
transferred to realize a specified change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy
principle.  In practice we are more concerned about the rate of heat transfer (heat transfer per
unit time) than we are with the amount of it. For example, we can determine the amount of
heat transferred from a thermos bottle as the hot coffee inside cools from 90°C to 80°C by a
thermodynamic analysis alone.
But a typical user or designer of a thermos is primarily interested in how long it will be before
the hot coffee inside cools to 80°C, and a thermodynamic analysis cannot answer this
question. Determining the rates of heat transfer to or from a system and thus the times of
cooling or heating, as well as the variation of the temperature, is the subject of heat transfer

Heat Transfer Mechanisms  Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction,
convection, and radiation. All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature
difference, and all modes are from the high-temperature medium to a lowertemperature one.
 CONDUCTION
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can
take place in solids, liquids, or gases.

 In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules
during their random motion
 In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons
 The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the geometry of the
medium, its thickness, and the material of the medium, as well as the temperature
difference across the medium
 We know that wrapping a hot water tank with glass wool (an insulating material)
reduces the rate of heat loss from the tank. The thicker the insulation, the smaller the
heat loss. 
 We also know that a hot water tank will lose heat at a higher rate when the
temperature of the room housing the tank is lowered. Further, the larger the tank, the
larger the surface area and thus the rate of heat loss.
Let us consider the steady flow of heat through a large wall as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Heat flow through a plain wall

Let the wall be area A, thickness∆ X=L, and T1 and T2 be the temperatures of the two sides of
the wall such that ∆ T =T 2−T 1 and Q is the rate of heat transfer.
Experiments have shown that:
 The rate of heat transfer ̇ through the wall is doubled when the temperature difference
across the wall or the area A normal to the direction of heat transfer is doubled, but is
halved when the wall thickness L is doubled
 Therefore, the rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the
temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer. Mathematically this can be represented as:

Area ×Temperature difference

Rate of heat conduction ∝
Thickness

T 1−T 2
Q cond =−kA ……………………………………………. 1.1
∆x
Where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity of the material,
which is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat. In the limiting case of
∆ x →0 , the equation above reduces to the differential form:

dT
Qcond =−kA ………………………………………………… 1.2
dx

Equation 1.2 is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

dT
Here is the temperature gradient, which is the slope of the temperature curve on a
dx
T-x diagram (the rate of change of T with x), at location x

 The relation above indicates that the rate of heat conduction in a direction is
proportional to the temperature gradient in that direction. 
 Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and the
temperature gradient becomes negative when temperature decreases with
increasing x.
 The negative sign in Eq. 1.2 ensures that heat transfer in the positive x
direction is a positive quantity.  The heat transfer area A is always normal to
the direction of heat transfer.
Thermal Conductivity
 The thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference.
 The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the material to
conduct heat
 Note that materials such as copper and silver that are good electric conductors are also
good heat conductors, and have high values of thermal conductivity while rubber,
wood, and styrofoam are poor conductors of heat and have low conductivity values

STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION

The rate of heat conduction in a specified direction is proportional to the temperature gradient,
which is the rate of change in temperature with distance in that direction. One dimensional
steady state heat conduction through homogenous material is given by Fourier Law of heat
conduction (equation 1.2)

dT
Qcond =−kA
dx
Q dT
q= =−k ………………………………………………………… 1.3
A dx
Where,
q is heat flux, (heat conducted per unit time per unit area) (W /m2 )
Q is rate of heat flow, (W)
A is area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow,
dt is temperature difference between the two surfaces across, (Kelvin K) or degree
centigrade
dx is thickness of material along the path of heat flow, (m)
dT
is The ratio represents the change in temperature per unit thickness, i.e. the
dx
temperature gradient.

 The negative sign indicates that the heat flow is in the direction of negative
temperature gradient, so heat transfer becomes positive
The Fourier law is essentially based on the following assumptions:
1. Steady state heat conduction, i.e. temperature at fixed point does not change with
respect to time.
2. One dimensional heat flow.
3. Material is homogenous and isotropic, i.e. thermal conductivity has a constant value in
all the directions.
4. Constant temperature gradient and a linear temperature profile.
5. No internal heat generation.
dT
If we let dx=1 m , dT =10 C , A=1 m2 then from the equation; Qcond =−kA we obtain;
dx

Qcond =k Therefore we can define thermal conductivity as; the amount of heat conducted per
unit time across unit area and through unit thickness, when a temperature difference of unit
degree is maintained across the bounding surface. k is given in W/m/K
Thermal Resistance
 In systems, which involve flow of fluid, heat and electricity, the flow quantity is
directly proportional to the driving force and inversely proportional to the flow
resistance
 In a hydraulic system, the pressure along the path is the driving potential and
roughness of the pipe is the flow resistance
 The current flow in a conductor is governed by the voltage potential and electrical
resistance of the material
 Likewise, temperature difference constitutes the driving force for heat conduction
through a medium.

Figure 2: Concept of Thermal Resistance

temperature potential (dt )

Heat flow ( Q )=
thermal resistance (dx /kA)

dx
Thermal resistance Rt = given in K/W.
kA
The reciprocal of thermal resistance is called thermal conductance and it represents the
amount of heat conducted through a solid wall of area A and thickness dx when a temperature
difference of unit degree is maintained across the bounding surfaces
Thermal Conductivity of Materials
Thermal conductivity is a property of the material and it depends upon the material structure,
moisture content and density of the material, and operating conditions of pressure and
temperature
 Thermal conductivity is due to two effects: the lattice vibrational waves and flow of
free electrons.
 In metals the molecules are closely packed; molecular activity (lattice vibrational
waves) is rather small and so thermal conductivity is mainly due to flow of free
electrons.
 In fluids, the free electron movement is negligibly small so conductivity mainly
depends upon the frequency of interactions between the lattice atoms.
 Thermal conductivity is highest in the purest form of a metal. Alloying of metals and
presence of other impurities reduce the conductivity of the metal e.g pure copper is
385 W/m-Kand that of nickel is 93 W/m-K while for Monel metal, an alloy of 30%
nickel and 70% copper, thermal conductivity is only 24 W/m-K
 At elevated temperatures, thermal vibration of the lattice becomes higher and that
retards the motion of free electrons. So, thermal conductivity of metal decreases with
increases of temperature except the Alluminium and uranium.
General Heat Conduction Equation
Fourier law of heat conduction is essentially valid for heat flow under uni-directional and
steady state conditions, but sometimes it is necessary to consider heat flow in other direction
as well. For heat transfer in multi-dimensional, it is necessary to develop general heat
conduction equation in rectangular, cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems.
Consideration for 3 dimensional heat flow in the Cartesian coordinate system is done as
follows:
Consider the flow of heat through an infinitesimal volume element oriented in a three
dimensional co-ordinate system as shown in figure 4

Figure 4: Cartesian Analysis of Heat

flow
Let the sides dx, dy and dz be parallel to the x, y, and z axis respectively. The general heat
conduction equation can be set up by applying Fourier equation in each Cartesian direction,
and then applying the energy conservation requirement.

If kx represents the thermal conductivity at the left face, then quantity of heat flowing into the
control volume through the face during time interval is given by:
∂t
Q x =−k x (dydz ) ∂ τ ………………………………………………… 1.5
∂x
During same time interval the heat flow out of the element will be,
∂Q x
Q x+∂ x =Q x + dx ………………………………………………. 1.6
∂x
Heat accumulated within the control volume due to heat flow in the x-direction is given by the
difference between heat influx and heat efflux
Thus the heat accumulation due to heat flow in x-direction is:
d Qx =Q x −Q x+dx ……………………………………………………………… 1.6

[
d Qx =Q x − Q x +
∂Q x
∂x ]dx ………………………………………………………. 1.7

∂ Qx
d Qx =¿- dx …………………………………………………………………… 1.8
∂x

d Qx =
−∂
∂x[¿−k x (dydz)
∂t
∂x ]
dτ dx …………………………………………. 1.9

d Qx =
∂
∂x[ ]
kx
∂t
∂x
dxdydz dτ …………………………………………………… 1.10

Likewise the heat accumulation in the control volume due to heat flow along the yand z-
directions will be:

Q y=
∂
∂y [ ]
ky
∂t
∂y
dxdydz dτ …………………………………………………. 1.11

Q z=
∂
∂z [ ]
kz
∂t
∂z
dxdydz dτ …………………………………………………. 1.12

Total heat accumulated dQ due to heat transfer is given by:

dQ=
[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
∂
∂x
kx
∂t
+
∂
∂x ∂ y
ky
∂t
+
∂
∂ y ∂z
kz
∂t
∂z
dxdydzdτ …………………………. 1.13

There may be heat source inside the control volume. If q gis the heat generated per unit volume
and per unit time, then the total heat generated in the control volume Q gequals to
Q g=q g dxdydzdτ ………………………………………………………….. 1.14
The total heat accumulated in the control volume due to heat flow along all the coordinate
axes and the heat generated within the control volume together increases the internal energy
of the control volume
Change in internal energy dU of the control volume is given by
∂t
dU =ρ ( dxdydz ) c dτ …………………………………………………….. 1.15
∂τ
According to first law of thermodynamics the sum of the heat accumulated within the control
volume due to heat flow along the co-ordinate axes and the heat generated within the control
volume is equal to the change in Internal energy of the control volume:

[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
∂
∂x
kx
∂t
+
∂
∂x ∂ y
ky
∂t
+
∂
∂ y ∂z
kz
∂t
∂z
dxdydzdτ +q g dxdydzdτ =ρ ( dxdydz ) c
∂t
∂τ
dτ ..1.16

Dividing both sides by dxdydz dτ we get;

[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
∂
k
∂t
+
∂
k
∂t
+
∂
k
∂t
∂ x x ∂ x ∂ y y ∂ y ∂z z ∂z
∂t
+ q g=ρc ……………………
∂τ
1.17

Equation 1.17 is known as general heat conduction equation for Cartesian coordinate system

Homogeneous and isotropic material: A homogeneous material implies that the properties,
i.e., density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of the material are same everywhere in the
material system. Isotropic means that these properties are not directional characteristics of the
material, i.e., they are independent of the orientation of the surface. 

For an isotropic and homogeneous material, thermal conductivity is same at every point and
in all directions. In that case and equation becomes.
∂ t ∂ t ∂ t q g ρc ∂ t
2 2 2

2
+ 2 + 2+ = ………………………………………………….. 1.18
∂ x ∂ y ∂z k k ∂τ
2 2 2
2 ∂ ∂ ∂ k
Using Laplace operator ∇ = + + 2 and taking
=α we have
2
∂ x ∂ y ∂z
2
ρc

2 qg 1 ∂ t
∇ t+ = ……………………………………………………….. 1.19
k α ∂τ
Equation 1.19 governs the temperature distribution under unsteady heat flow through a
homogeneous and isotropic material. There are different cases of heat flow:
Case 1: Steady heat flow
Where heat entering the volume element is equal to heat leaving the volume element
2 qg
∇ t+ =0 …………………………………………………………. 1.20
k
Equation 1.20 is called Poisson’s equation

Case 2: No internal heat generation

2
∇ t=0 ………………………………………………………………. 1.21
Equation 1.22 is called the Laplace equation

Case 3: Unsteady heat flow with no heat generation

2 1 ∂t
∇ t= …………………………………………………………… 1.22
α ∂τ
Is the Fourier equation
Thermal diffusivity α is the ratio of its thermal conductivity to the thermal storage capacity ρc
the storage capacity essentially represents thermal capacitance or thermal inertia of the
material or the ability of the material to store heat energy.
Thermal diffusivity signifies the rate at which heat diffuses in to the medium during change in
temperature with time. Thus, the higher value of the thermal diffusivity gives the idea of how
fast the heat is conducting into the medium, whereas the low value of the thermal diffusivity
shown that the heat is mostly absorbed by the material and comparatively less amount is
transferred for the conduction
Measurement of Thermal Conductivity (Guarded Hot Plate Method)
The essential elements of the experimental set-up as shown in figure 3 are:

Figure 3: Guarded Hot Plate Experiment

 Hm is the Main heater placed at the centre of the unit. It is maintained at a fixed
temperature by electrical energy which can be metered.
 Hg is the Guarded heater which surrounds the main heater on its ends. The guarded
heater is supplied electrical energy enough to keep its temperature same as that of
main heater.
 Function of the guarded heater is to ensure unidirectional heat flow and eliminates the
distortion caused by edge losses
 Test specimens and which are placed on both sides of the heater.
 Cooling unit plates and are provided for circulation of cooling medium. Flow of
cooling medium is maintained to keep the constant surface temperature of specimen
 Thermocouples attached to the specimens at the hot and cold faces.

Procedure and Measurements

From the Fourier’s law of heat conduction;
dt −kA
Q=−kA = (t h−t c ) ………………………………………. 1.4
dx X
i. Heat Q flows from the main heart through a test specimen; supplying half of the
total electrical input to the main heater
ii. Measure the thickness of the specimen (X) and the Temperature drop across the
specimen t h−t c; subscripts h and c refer to the hot and cold faces respectively
 iii. Area A of heat flow; the area for heat flow is taken to be the area of main heater
plus the area of one-half of air gap between it and the guarded heater
iv. For the specimen of different thickness, the respective temperature at the hot and
cold faces would be different and then the thermal conductivity is worked out from
the following relation:
Q X1 X2
k= ( + ) …………………………………………… 1.5
A ( t h 1−t c1 ) ( t h 2−t c 2 )

Where suffix 1 is for the upper specimen and 2 is for the lower specimen.  Here Q is the total
electrical input to the main heater.

Conduction through a Plane Wall

Consider one-dimensional heat conduction through a homogeneous, isotropic wall of
thickness δ with constant thermal conductivity k and constant cross-sectional area A.
The wall is insulated on its lateral faces, and constant but different temperatures t 1 and t2 are
are maintained at its boundary surfaces.

∂ t ∂ t ∂ t q g ρc ∂ t
2 2 2

2
+ 2 + 2+ = …………………………………………….. 2.1
∂ x ∂ y ∂z k k ∂τ
For steady state, one dimensional with no heat generation equation is reduced to;
2 2
∂ t d t
2
=0 or 2
=0……………………………………………………… 2.2
∂x dx
Integrate equation 2.2 with respect to x we obtain a constant
dt
=C1 and t=C 1 x +C2 ………………………………………………. 2.3
dx
The constants of integration are evaluated by using boundary conditions and here boundary
conditions are:
t=t 1 at x=0 ,∧t=t 2 at x=δ
Applying the boundary conditions to equation 2.3 we have;
t 1=0+C 2∧t 2=C1 δ+ C2 …………………………………………. 2.4
Making the constants subjects
t 2−t 1
C 2=t 1 ∧C1= ………………………………………………… 2.5
δ
But; t=C 1 x +C2 ; replacing the constants
t=t 1+ ( )
t 2−t 1
δ
x ………………………………………………………. 2.6

The temperature distribution is thus linear across the wall. Since equation does not involve
thermal conductivity so temperature distribution is independent of the material; whether it is
steel, wood or asbestos
Heat flow can be made by substitution the value of temperature gradient into Fourier equation
dt
Q=−kA
dx

dt d
=
dx dx
t1 +
[ ( )]
t 2−t 1
δ
x=
t 2−t 1
δ
………………………………………………. 2.7

Q=−kA ( t −tδ )= kA (tδ−t ) ………………………………………………

2 1 1 2
2.8

Alternatively, The Fourier rate equation may be used directly to determine the heat flow rate.

Consider an elementary strip of thickness located at a distance dx from the reference plane.
dt
Temperature difference across the strip is dt , and temperature gradient is .
dx
Heat transfer through the strip is given by:
dt
Q=−kA
dx

Figure 5: Heat Conduction through a plane wall

For steady state condition, heat transfer through the strip is equal to the heat transfer through
the wall. So integrate the equation between the limits, t=t 1 at x=0 ,∧t=t 2 at x=δ
dt
From equation Q=−kA we have
dx
Qdx=−kAdt
δ t2

Q ∫ dx=−kA ∫ dt ………………………………………………… 2.8

0 t1

Qδ=kA (t 1−t 2 )
Q=kA (t 1−t 2 ¿ ¿ δ)¿………………………………………………………….. 2.9
To determine the temperature at any distance x from the wall surface, the Fourier rate
equation is integrated between the limit x=0 at temperature t 1 and x=x at temperature t 2.
δ t
Q∫ dx=−kA ∫ dt
0 t1

Qx=kA (t 1−t)
kA ( t 1−t )
Q=
x
kA (t 1−t 2)
But Q=
δ
kA (t 1−t 2 ) kA ( t 1−t )
=
x x

t=t 1+ ( t −tδ ) x
2 1

( t 1−t 2 ) ( t1 −t )
Q=kA =kA ………………………………………………… 2.10
δ x
Rearranging the equation 2.10 we have
( t 1−t ) ( t 1−t )
Q= = …………………………………………………… 2.11
δ /kA Rt
δ
Where =R t is the thermal resistance of the material
kA
Weight of the wall W =ρAδ
Eliminating the wall thickness δ from expression
 W
Rt = 2 …………………………………………………………… 2.12
ρk A
W =¿ ……………………………………………………… 2.13
From the equation when the product ( ρk ) for a given resistance is smallest, the weight of the
wall would also be so. It means for the lightest insulation for a specified thermal resistance,
product of density times thermal conductivity should be smallest
Conduction through a Composite Wall
A composite wall refers to a wall of a several homogenous layers.
Wall of furnace, boilers and other heat exchange devices consist of several layers; a layer for
mechanical strength or for high temperature characteristics (fire brick), a layer of low thermal
conductivity material to restrict the flow of heat (insulating brick) and another layer for
structural requirements for good appearance (ordinary brick)
Figure 6 below shows a composite wall having three layers of different materials tightly fitted
to one another

Figure 6: Composite Wall of threw Layers

The layers have thickness δ 1 , δ 2 ,δ 3 and their thermal conductivities correspond to the average
temperature conditions.
The surface temperatures aret 1∧t 4 while the temperatures at the interfaces are t 2 and t 3
Under steady state conditions, heat flow does not vary across the wall. It is same for every
layer.

k 1 A ( t 1−t 2 ) k 2 A ( t 2−t 3) k 3 A ( t 3−t 4 )

Q= = = …………………………………. 3.1
δ1 δ2 δ3
Rewriting the above expression in terms of temperature drop across each layer,
Q δ1 Q δ2 Q δ3
( t 1−t 2 )= k A ; ( t 2−t 3 )= k A ; ( t 3−t 4 ) = k A
1 2 3

Summation gives the overall temperature difference across the wall

 Q δ 1 Q δ2 Q δ3
( t 1−t 2 )+ ( t2 −t3 )+( t 3−t 4 ) = + +
k1 A k2 A k3 A

(
1
1 δ
2
2 δ
3
3 δ
)
( t 1−t 4 ) =Q k A + k A + k A ………………………………………. 3.2

Making Q the subject;

( t 1−t 4 )
Q=
δ1 δ δ
+ 2 + 3
k1 A k 2 A k3 A

( t 1−t 4 )
Q= ……………………………………………………….. 3.3
Rt 1+ R t 2 + Rt 3
The total thermal resistance of the wall Rt is given by the sum
Rt ¿ Rt 1+ R t 2 + Rt 3 ……………………………………………….. 3.4
Heat Flow between Surface and Surroundings: Cooling and Heating of Fluids
When a moving fluid comes into contact with a stationary surface, a thin boundary layer
develops adjacent to the wall and in this layer there is no relative velocity with respect to
surface

Figure 7: Heat Conduction through a wall separating two fluids

In a heat exchange process, this layer is called stagnant film and heat flow in the layer is
covered both by conduction and convection processes. Since thermal conductivity of fluids is
low, the heat flow from the moving fluid of the wall is mainly due to convection.
The rate of convective heat transfer between a solid boundary and adjacent fluid is given by
the Newton-Rikhman law:

Q=hA ( t s−t f ) ……………………………………………………. 4.1

Where,
t f is the temperature of moving fluid,
t s is the temperature of the wall surface,
A is the area exposed to heat transfer and
h is the convective co-efficient and has units W /m2 K
Rearranging equation 4.1 we have;
t s−t f t s−t f
Q= =
1 R t ……………………………………………………. 4.2
hA

1
=R t is the convective resistance
hA
The heat transfer through a wall separating two moving fluids involves:
i) Flow of heat from the fluid of high temperature to the wall,
ii) Heat conduction through the wall and
iii) Transport of heat from the wall to the cold fluid.

Under steady state conditions, the heat flow can be expressed by the equations
kA ( t 1−t 2 )
Q=ha A ( t a −t 1 ) = =hb A ( t 2 −t b ) …………………………. 4.3
δ
Where
h a and h b represent the convective film coefficients,
k is thermal conductivity of the solid wall
δ is the thickness of the wall .
The equations can be written in the form:
Q Qδ Q
t a−t 1= ; t 1−t 2= ; t 2−t b= ………………………….. 4.4
ha A kA hb A
Summation of these gives
Q Qδ Q
t a−t 1+ t 1−t 2+t 2−t b= + +
ha A kA hb A

t a−t b=Q ( h 1A + kAδ + h 1A ) ……………………………………….

a b
4.5

t a−t b
Q=
1 δ 1
+ +
ha A kA hb A
t a−t b
Q=
1 δ 1 ……………………………………………………… 4.6
+ +
ha A kA hb A
1 δ 1
The denominator + + is the sum of the thermal resistances of the different
ha A kA hb A
sections
But heat through a composite section is given by;
t a−t b
Q=UA ( t a−t b ) =
1 ………………………………………….. 4.7
UA
Where, U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and it represents the intensity of heat transfer
from one fluid to another through a wall separating them.
Numerically it equals the quantity of heat passing through unit area of wall surface in unit
time at a temperature difference of unit degree. The coefficient U has dimensions of W /m2 K
1 1 δ 1
= + + =R t ………………………………………….. 4.8
UA ha A kA h b A
Therefore, heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of unit thermal resistance to heat flow.

The overall heat transfer coefficient depends upon the geometry of the separating wall, its
thermal properties and the convective coefficient at the two surfaces.

The overall heat transfer coefficient is particularly useful in the case of composite walls, such
as in the design of structural walls for boilers, refrigerators, airconditioned buildings, and in
the design of heat exchangers.

Conduction through a Cylindrical Wall

Consider heat conduction through a cylindrical tube of inner radius r 1, outer radius r 2 and
length l .
Let the inside and outside surfaces of the tube be at constant temperatures t 1and t 2 and thermal
conductivity k of the tube material is constant within the given temperature range.
If both ends are perfectly insulated, the heat flow is limited to radial direction only and if
temperature at the inner surface is greater than temperature at the outer surface, the heat flows
radially outwards
For cylindrical coordinates consider the figure below;

If we let the height of the cylinder be along the z-axis, the base area is in the x-y plane. The
The coordinates are dr , rd ∅ , dz where ∅ is the angle subtending the element at the centre of
the circular base.
The volume element dV is given by;
dV =dr rd ∅ dz

The general heat conduction equation for cylindrical co-ordinate is given by;
∂ t 1 ∂ t 1 ∂ t 1 ∂ t q g 1 ∂t
2 2 2 2

2
+ 2
+ 2 2
+ 2 2+ = …………………………………….. 5.1
∂r r ∂r r ∂∅ r ∂z k α ∂τ
For steady state;
1 ∂t
=0
α ∂τ
For unidirectional heat flow in the radial direct
2 2
1 ∂ t 1 ∂t
2 2
+ 2 2 =0
r ∂∅ r ∂z
For a case where no internal heat generation
qg
=0
k
The heat equation 5.1 reduces to;
2 2
d t 1d t
2
+ 2
=0 ………………………………………………………… 5.2
d r r dr
1 d
r
dt
r dr dr ( )
=0 ……………………………………………………….. 5.3

1
But ≠ 0, therefore
r
dt
r =C1……………………………………………………………..5.4
dr
Where C 1 is a constant.
Integrating equation 5.4 we get;
t=C 1 lnr+ C2 ………………………………………………………. 5.5
The following boundary conditions apply;
t=t 1 at r=r 1 ∧t=t 2 at r =r 2
t 1=C1 ln r 1 +C 2
t 2=C1 ln r 2 +C 2
t 1−t 2=( C1 ln r 1 +C 2 )−( C 1 lnr 2+C 2 )
t 1−t 2=C1 ln r 1−C 1 ln r 2

t 1−t 2=C1 ( ln r 1−ln r 2 )

t 1−t 2
C 1=
ln
()
r 1 ……………………………………………………..
r2
5.6

t 1−t 2
C 2=t 1 − ln r 1
r
ln 1
r2() ………………………………………….. 5.7

But t=C 1 lnr+ C2, using the constants C 1∧C2

t 1−t 2 t 1−t 2
t=t 1+ ln r 1− lnr
r
ln 1
r2() ()
r
ln 1
r2
……………………………….. 5.8
 () 1 r
( t−t 1 ) ln r =( t 1−t 2 ) ln r 1−( t 1−t 2 ) lnr
2

2
()
r
( t 2−t 1 ) l nr−( t2−t1 ) ln r 1=( t−t 1 ) ln r …………………
1
5.9

( ) r
()
( t 2−t 1 ) ln r =( t−t 1 ) ln r
1
2

1
r

t−t
=
1
ln
( r )
r
1
…………………………………………………… 5.10
()
t 2−t 1 r
ln 2
r1
From the equation it is clear that temperature distribution with radial conduction through a
cylinder is logarithmic; not linear as for a plane wall
The temperature at any point in the cylinder can be expressed as a function of radius only so
that Isotherms or lines of constant temperature are concentric circles lying between the inner
and outer cylinder boundaries

The conduction heat transfer rate is determined by utilizing the temperature distribution in
conjunction with the Fourier law:
dt
Q=−kA ………………………………………………………… 5.11
dr

[ ]
d t −t t −t
Q=−kA t 1 + 1 2 ln r 1− 1 2 lnr

() ()
dr r1 r1 …………………………… 5.12
ln ln
r2 r2

But A=2 πrl

( )
−t 1−t 2
Q=−2 πrlk lnr
rln ()
r1
r2

( ( ))
t 1 −t 2
πlk lnr
Q=¿2 r1
ln
r2
 t 1−t 2 t 1−t 2
Q= =

()
r1 Rt
ln ………………………………………………..5.13
r2
2 πlk
In an alternative approach to estimate heat flow, we may consider an infinitesimally thin
cylindrical element at radius r .
Let thickness of this elementary ring be dr and the change of temperature across it be dt .
Then according to Fourier law of heat conduction;
dt dt
Q=−kA =−k ( 2 πrl ) ………………………………………… 5.14
dr dr
dr
Q =dt
−k ( 2 πrl )
Integrate the equation within the boundary condition
r2 t2
Q dr
∫
k ( 2 πl ) r r t
=∫ −dt …………………………………………….. 5.15
1 1

Q r2
ln =t 1−t 2 ………………………………………………. 5.16
k ( 2 πl ) r 1
t 1−t 2 t 1−t 2
Q=k ( 2 πl ) =

()
r2 Rt ………………………………………….. 5.17
ln
r1

Rt =
ln
()
r2
r 1 …………………………………………………. 5.18
2 πkl
Summary of Conduction through cylindrical wall
 Heat conduction through cylindrical tubes is found in power plant, oil refineries and
most process industries.
 The boilers have tubes in them, the condensers contain banks of tubes, the heat
exchangers are tubular and all these units are connected by tubes.
 Surface area of a cylindrical surface changes with radius.
 Therefore the rate of heat conduction through a cylindrical surface is usually
expressed per unit length rather than per unit area as done for plane wall.

Logarithmic Mean Area

It is advantageous to write the heat flow equation through a cylinder in the same form as that
for heat flow through a plane wall
Let δ be the thickness of the wall of the hollow cylinder and area A be Am

δ=r 2 −r 1 …………………………………………………………… 5.20

kA k Am
Q=
δ
( t 1−t 2 )= ( t −t )…………………………………
r 2−r 1 1 2
5.21

t 1−t 2 k Am
Q=2 πkl = ( t −t )
()
But r2 r 2 −r 1 1 2
ln
r1

2 πkl k Am
=

()r r 2−r 1
ln 2
r1

2 π ( r 2−r 1 ) l
Am =
ln ( )
r2
r1
………………………………………………….. 5.22

Let Am =2 π r m l
2 π ( r 2 −r 1 ) l
Am =2 π r m l=
ln
()
r2
r1
so that;

( r 2−r 1 )
rm =
ln ( )
r 2 ………………………………………………………
r1
5.23
r m is called the Logarithmic mean radius
the Logarithmic mean area Am can also be given by
( A2− A 1 )
Am =2 π r m l=
ln ( )
A2
A1
………………………………………………. 5.24