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Mammalogy Papers: University of Nebraska State
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Museum

1993

Preserving Natural Science Collections: Chronicle

of Our Environmental Heritage
W. Donald Duckworth
Bishop Museum

Hugh H. Genoways
University of Nebraska - Lincoln, h.h.genoways@gmail.com

Carolyn L. Rose
Smithsonian Institution

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Duckworth, W. Donald; Genoways, Hugh H.; and Rose, Carolyn L., "Preserving Natural Science Collections: Chronicle of Our
Environmental Heritage" (1993). Mammalogy Papers: University of Nebraska State Museum. 271.
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 Copyright 1993, National Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Property. Used by permission.

Preserving Natural Science Collections:

Chronicle of Our Environmental He

National Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Property, Inc.

© 1 9 9 3 National Institute for the C o n s e r v a t i o n o f C u l t u r a l Property, I n c .

L a w r e n c e L . Reger
Catharine H a w k s
Kate Bussey
Ellen Cochran Hirzy
Paula Peters C h a m b e r s
President
Project C o o r d i n a t o r , C o n s e r v a t i o n a n d Preservation o f N a t u r a l Science C o l l e c t i o n s
Project Assistant, C o n s e r v a t i o n and Preservation o f N a t u r a l Science C o l l e c t i o n s
Text Editor
D e s i g n and P r o d u c t i o n E d i t o r

T h i s report is the product o f the C o n s e r v a t i o n and Preservation o f N a t u r a l Science C o l l e c t i o n s Project, undertaken

by the National Institute for the C o n s e r v a t i o n o f C u l t u r a l P r o p e r t y ( N I C ) i n partnership w i t h the Association o f
Systematics Collection s ( A S C ) and the Society for the Preservation o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y C o l l e c t i o n s ( S P N H C ) .

F u n d i n g for the report was provided by the N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n ( N S F ) , G r a n t D E B - 9 1 1 2 8 5 5 .

A n y opinions, findings and conclusions or r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s expressed i n this material are those o f the authors and
do not necessarily reflect the views o f the N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n .

T h i s report is printed on W a r r e n L u s t r o D u l l C r e a m , an acid-free paper.

July 1 9 9 3
Preserving Natural Science Collections:
Chronicle of Our Environmental He

W. Donald Duckworth
President and Director

Bishop Museum, Hawai'i State Museum of Natural and Cultural History

Hugh H . Genoways
Director
University of Nebraska State Museum

Carolyn L . Rose
Senior Research Conservator
National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution

National Science Foundation Grant DEB-9112855

National Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Property
Contents

Preface
Executive Summary 1
Chapter One 5

Chapter Two 13

Chapter Three 27
Stewardship o f C o l l e c t i o n s
P u b l i c Awareness o f C o l l e c t i o n s and C o n s e r v a t i o n
Staffing, E d u c a t i o n and T r a i n i n g
Technology Transfer
C o n s e r v a t i o n Research
Guidelines and Standards o f Practice

Bibliography 41
C a r e a n d M a n a g e m e n t o f S p e c i m e n and C o l l e c t i o ns Documentation
C o l l e c t i o n s C a r e and Preventive C o n s e r v a t i o n
C o n s e r v a t i o n Research
Education and Trainin g
E m e r g e n c y Preparedness and Response
E t h i c s , Standards and Guidelines
H e a l t h a n d Safety
H i s t o r i c a l Perspective
Pest C o n t r o l
State a n d Status o f C o l l e c t i o n s
Terminology
V a l u e and U s e o f C o l l e c t i o n s

Glossary of Selected Terms 79

Appendix A Natural Science Conservation Training Program
Appendix B Recommended Topics for Research and Technology Transfer
Appendix C Project Chronology
Appendix D Project Participants and Contributors
Appendix E Resolutions from the International Symposium
and First World Congress on the Preservation and
Conservation of Natural History Collections
Credits
Preface

I n the report from a 1 9 8 8 w o r k s h o p o n collections resources, the

Association o f Systematics C o l l e c t i o n s ( A S C ) n o t e d the need for i m -
proved collections preservation, i n c l u d i n g research o n conservation
methods and training for natural science conservators. T h a t same year,
the natural science organizations a n d institutions that are members o f the
National Institute for the C o n s e r v a t i o n o f C u l t u r a l Property ( N I C )
recommended that N I C undertake a project to address these topics.

T h e C o n s e r v a t i o n and Preservation o f N a t u r a l Science C o l l e c t i o n s

Project was established by N I C as a collaborative effort w i t h the
Association o f Systematics C o l l e c t i o n s ( A S C ) and the Society for the
Preservation o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y C o l l e c t i o n s ( S P N H C ) . T h e goal o f the
project has been to improve the care o f natural science research collec-
tions by:
• gathering and analyzing i n f o r m a t i o n from a variety o f sources
c o n c e r n i n g the care a n d preservation needs o f natural science
collections;
• synthesizing the i n f o r m a t i o n and identifying priorities;
• developing strategies to address the challenges;
• proposing c u r r i c u l a for graduate programs to train
conservators i n bioscience and geoscience collections;
• identifying t r a i n i n g method s i n preventive conservation for
collection managers a n d other professionals;
• publishing a report s u m m a r i z i n g the findings o f the project;
• disseminating the report to leaders i n the natural science and
conservation fields; and
• using the report as a basis for disseminating informatio n to
audiences i n the private and p u b l ic sectors i n order t o
stimulate n e w support for conservation initiatives.

Information o n three topics was gathered a n d analyzed for the project:

• basic problems affecting the overall care o f natural science
collections;
 • specific conservation problems i n need o f research; and
• collections care and conservation training.

W i t h assistance from A S C and S P N H C , N I C representatives met w i t h

nearly 2 0 0 research scientists, collections managers, conservators, con-
servation scientists, educators and institutional administrators to develop
an understanding o f the conservation needs o f natural science collec-
tions. Meeting s were h e l d w i t h m e m b e rs o f disciplinary organizations i n
the natural sciences to survey their views o n the preservation o f these
collections and to identify the issues c o m m o n to all the natural sciences,
as w e l l as those that may be specific to a particular discipline.

W i t h funding from the N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n ( N S F ) , N I C then

convened four m u l t i n a t i o n a l , interdisciplinary panels to discuss conser-
vation research for natural science collections. Because o f the complexity
o f the materials i n these collections, the panels i n c l u d e d specialists i n
natural and synthetic polymers, materials science, organic and physical
chemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry, m i c r o b i o l o g y and mechanical
engineering as w e l l as conservators a n d natural scientists. T h e panelists
suggested the technology transfer a n d research approaches necessary to
meet current conservation needs a n d to address the preservation o f
specimens that w i l l be collected i n the future.

F o l l o w i n g the materials conservation panels, t w o w o r k i n g groups met to

synthesize the information from previous meetings a n d r e c o m m e n d
education and training initiatives to support the conservation o f natural
science collections. Based o n the efforts o f the panels and w o r k i n g
groups, an advisory panel composed o f administrators from museums
and other collecting institutions r e v i e w e d a draft o f material for this
report and developed recommendation s and strategies.

T h i s report reflects the overall views o f the m a n y project participants and

o u r effort to integrate their ideas int o a p l a n o f action. W e hope it w i l l
serve as a catalyst for further discussion and a stimulus for collections care
initiatives in natural history institutions and i n funding organizations.

W e extend o u r sincere appreciation to o u r project staff, Catharin e H a w k s

and K a t h e r i ne Bussey, for o r g a n i z i n g the meetings, preparing transcripts
o f nearly 1 0 0 hours o f m e e t i n g tapes and assembling draft documents for
review; to E l l e n C o c h r a n H i r z y and N I C E d i t o r P a u l a Peters C h a m b e r s
for b r i n g i n g clarity a n d order to o u r ideas; a n d to A S C E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r
E l a i n e H o a g l a n d and S P N H C President G e r a l d F i t z g e r a l d for their
advice, cooperation and steadfast attendance at meetings t h r o u g h o u t the
project.

W e are extremely grateful to N I C President L a w r e n c e L . R e g e r and the

NIC board o f directors for their willingness to c o m m i t substantial
resources to this project and to the N S F D i v i s i o n o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l

ii Preserving Natural Science Collections

Biology for its generous support o f the materials science panel meetings,
the w o r k i n g group a n d advisory panel meetings, and the p r o d u c t i o n o f
this report. W e also acknowledge N S F P r o g r a m Officers D a v i d S h i n d e l
and L e o n a r d Krishtalka for their advice and assistance i n the development
o f the project.

Finally, w e are deeply indebted to the many professionals w h o have

graciously contributed their time and expertise to this effort. T h e
participation o f these m e n and w o m e n is eloquent testimony to the
importance o f natural science collections and to the breadth and depth
o f the concern for their care.

W. Donald Duckworth
President and Director
Bishop Museum, HawaiH State Museum of Natural and Cultural History

H u g h H . Genoways
Director
University of Nebraska State Museum

Carolyn L . Rose
Senior Research Conservator
National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution
Museums are in the discovery business...their central role in
the biodiversity crises arises from the fact that most of the
world's life forms have yet to be discovered.... Although
the estimates of total diversity are still crude (ranging over
an order of magnitude), it is clear that the number of
species remaining to be recognized for the first time is far
greater than the total that has been described since Carl
Linnaeus gave us our system for naming species more than
250 years ago.
—Michael Smith, 1991
Executive Summary

N a t u r a l science collections are documents o f change, the fragmentary

archive o n w h i c h w e base o u r knowledg e o f the natural w o r l d . E n c o d e d
w i t h i n these collections are the past o f o u r planet, the ledger o f o u r
interaction w i t h nature and the recor d w e decipher to ensure a future for
our o w n and other species. T h e s e vast yet incomplete reference collec- There are many reasons one can give for the
tions are the p r i m a ry source that scientists consult to understand preservation of natural history collections....
A t present, the most important reason of all is
biological diversity, explore evolutionary relationships and monitor
preserving essential information for managing
global change. A g a i n st a backdrop o f disappearing habitats, species and preserving life on earth.
extinctions and the destruction o f sites o f geological and paleontological —Frederic Verhoog, 1993
significance, the specimens i n natural science collections have become
nonrenewable resources o f vital importance to science and society.

A s scientists seek to c o m p r e h e n d the mysteries o f the natural w o r l d , each

n e w research technique they e m p l oy expands access to the w e a l t h o f
information inherent i n the natural science specimens and increases the
value o f the collections to society. Specimens have been u t i l i z e d to shed
n e w light o n the e x t i n c t i o n o f dinosaurs, trace the history o f A I D S a n d
the epidemiology o f L y m e disease, and prospect for mineral resources.
T h r o u g h exhibits and other public programs, the collections instill a
sense o f w o n d e r and an appreciation for nature i n million s o f people the
w o r l d over.

W h i l e virtually unparalleled i n their size and diversity, these collections

represent just a fraction o f the estimated 10 to 3 0 m i l l i o n species t h o u g h t
to exist. C o n s e q u e n t l y, the collections continue to g r o w , reflecting the
fundamental h u m a n desire to understand nature. V i r t u a l l y all explora-
tions d u r i n g the past 3 0 0 years, from discoveries o n earth to forays into
the solar system, have resulted i n additions to the collected resource i n
the natural sciences. T h e specimens range from fossils to living microbes
a n d — w i t h the materials used to prepare, store, e x h i b it and r e c o rd
them—they encompass every k n o w n class o f material.

1
 D u r i n g the 1 9 t h a n d early 2 0 t h centuries, the pace o f collecting was
matched by the pace o f research i n to specimen preparation and conser-
vation methods. A s time passed, h o w e v e r , the importance accorded to
preservation research d i m i n i s h e d and the resources to support it d i m i n -
ished as w e l l . T h e same scientific rigor that is expected i n research based
o n specimens has not been applied to the preparation a nd contained care
o f the specimens themselves.

T o preserve these c o m p l e x and valuable collections for our c o n t i n u e d use

a n d as a useful legacy for posterity is at once an e n o r m o u s responsibility
a n d an i n t r i g u i n g challenge. F i v e factors shape this challenge:
• the size an d diversity o f the collections an d their
documentation;
• the many unrecorded treatments specimens undergo, limitin g
o u r ability to assess the impact o f those treatments o n
preservation or specimen-based research;
Conservation is the technology by which
preservation is achieved. • the inadequate space a nd inappropriate environments in
w h i c h man y collections are housed a nd used;
—Philip Ward, 1986
• the shortage o f h u m a n resources for the care o f collections
a n d the l i m i t e d educational an d t r a i n i n g opportunities in
collections care specialties; a nd
• the lack o f scientific research to address the preservation o f
these collections a nd the lack o f interdisciplinary dialogue
between natural scientists a nd specialists i n other fields.

F u n d a m e n t a l to m e e t i n g this challenge is responsible stewardship o f

collections by all those w h o are entrusted w i t h their care. N a t u r a l science
specimens are intended to be used; p r u d e n t p l a n n i n g a nd attention to
collections g r o w t h , preparation, post-preparation care, d o c u m e n t a t i o n ,
storage, e x h i b i t i o n a n d research are crucial to their present and future
utility.

A n expanded publi c awareness o f the significance o f the collections as

information resources is also essential to m e e t i ng the preservation
challenge. B y b r i n g i n g behind-the-scenes activities i n to public view,
institutions can demonstrate that their collections are vital to the public
interest and thus w o r t h y o f support.

T h i s report r e c o m m e n ds action i n the areas o u t l i n e d below. (Strategies

for i m p l e m e n t a t i on o f each r e c o m m e n d a t i o n are presented i n chapter
three, " M e e t i n g the C h a l l e n g e: R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a nd Strategies.")

Stewardship of Collections
• C o l l e c t i n g institutions mus t mak e collections care a priority
i n their mission statements, management policies and
resource allocations. T h i s c o m m i t m e n t s h o u l d be
commensurate w i t h the inherent value o f the information the
collections c o n t a i n .

2 Preserving Natural Science Collections

 C o l l e c t i n g institutions m u s t develop strategic plans for
i m p r o v e d collections care.
Individuals whos e research results i n collections must ensure
the l o n g - t e r m preservation o f collections by p l a n n i n g for
their o n g o i n g care.
F u n d i n g agencies must support collections care initiatives i n
natural science institutions.
C o l l e c t i o n s care a n d conservation organizations must support
institutional collections care initiatives.

Public Awareness
• O n the local or regional level, collecting institutions s h o u l d
create programs to enhance public awareness o f the
significance o f their collections and the shared responsibilities
o f stewardship.
• O n the national level, public awareness initiatives m u s t be
developed to highlight the value o f collections to society and
the need for collections conservation.

Staffing, Education and Training

• A n intensive graduate p r o g r a m i n the conservation o f natural
science collections must be established immediately to train a
core group o f conservators.
• A n o n g o i n g graduate progra m i n the conservation o f natural
science collections m u s t be established to train conservators
for the future.
• Conservators from other fields shoul d be made aware o f the
special needs o f natural science collections and the areas i n
w h i c h their expertise is relevant.
• D i r e c t o r s , research scientists and collections managers m u s t
gain a fuller understanding o f their roles a n d responsibilities H i g h school students study natural science
i n collections care. collections as part o f an NSF-sponsored science-
education initiative at the Academy of Natural
• Institutions m u s t develop, support a n d encourage staff
Sciences in Philadelphia. Such programs foster
education a n d interdisciplinary professional exchange as appreciation of research collections and may
investments i n collections care. encourage the development of a new generation
of scientists.

Technology Transfer
T h e natural science c o m m u n i t y s h o u l d seek the transfer o f
information a n d technology from other conservation fields,
scientific disciplines and industry.

Conservation Research
• A n e w interdisciplinary conservation research p r o g r a m s h o u l d
be established at one or more leading institutions.
• R e g i o n a l o r centralized conservation analytical services s h o u l d
be made available.
• Agencies that fund collections care s h o u ld expand the scope
o f their support to include conservation research.

Executive Summary 3
 Guidelines and Standards of Practice
• T h e natural science c o m m u n i t y s h o u ld establish guidelines or
standards o f practice i n all aspects o f collections care.
• Specifications for materials and method s used i n preparing,
storing, labeling and e x h i b i t i n g natural science specimens
should be developed and updated routinely.
• Efficient m e t h o d s to d o c u m e n t specimen preparation,
sampling and other treatments o r use s h o u l d be developed to
ensure the research integrity o f the collections.
• Databases and network s s h o u l d be developed and maintained
to provide the widest societal access to the information
inherent i n natural science collections.

Scientists examine the saw-cut surface o f a moon rock inside a nitrogen cabinet. Lunar
samples are stored and processed under nitrogen to minimize corrosion and contamination.

4 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Chapter One
The Significance and Value
of Natural Science Collections

N a t u r a l science collections are the foundation for h u m a n understanding

o f the natural w o r l d . T h e specimens i n these collections are the means by
w h i c h scientists m o n i t o r global change, explore evolutionary relation-
ships, understand biodiversity and assess the impact h u m a n beings have
as part o f the natural e n v i r o n m e n t . W h e n coupled w i t h the library and
archival materials that are essential to their d o c u m e n t a t i o n, these collec- The collections of museums... are material
tions are o f unparalleled size and diversity. evidence o f the earth's living creatures, past and
present, o f the life style practiced by its human
inhabitants, and of the earth's structure and
N a t u r a l science collections are found i n national, state, count y or evolution.
provincial, m u n i c i p a l , university and free-standing m u s e u m s ; i n govern- —Des Griffin, 1993
ment agencies; i n research institutes and foundations; i n university
departments; i n the exhibits and educational programs o f nature reserves
and wildlife refuges; a n d a m o n g the holdings o f corporate entities and
private citizens. T h e specimens i n these collections support research i n
many disciplines, from biological fields such as botany a n d parasitology
to geological fields s u c h as petrology and crystallography. E a c h natural
science specimen is u n i q u e a n d the information that can be derived from
it multiplies w i t h the development o f n e w research techniques and as a
response to the constantly c h a n g i n g needs o f public information and
policy development.

Generations o f scientists have devoted their talents and intellects to

amass, identify, maintain a n d interpret natural science collections. L i k e
libraries, natural science collections are used heavily. L i t e r a l ly millions o f
specimens are o n l o a n t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d at any given m o m e n t . A
large national collectio n i n a single discipline may host 5 0 0 visiting
researchers a year. T h e research clientele includes government agencies
at all levels, scientists and other scholars, businesses and nonprofit
organizations ( f i g . 1 - 1 , p. 1 0 ) .

W h i l e systematics studies continue to be the primar y use o f natural

science collections, they are employed i n ever-expanding research inquir -
ies. Fossils derived from drill cores that were originally collected i n efforts

5

Oology (egg) collections languished in many
institutions until the discovery that the speci-
mens could serve as a records of environmental
change. For example, decreases in some bird
populations were linked to progressive thinning
of eggshells that resulted from widespread use o f
D D T . Eggshells are now used in many new
efforts to monitor environmental contamination.
6 Preserving Natural Science Collections
to find o i l n o w provide evidence about the boundary between the
Cretaceous an d T e r t i a r y periods, w h e n dinosaurs became extinct. A s h
samples collected before the first explosion o f atomic devices help
determine w h e t h e r p l u t o n i u m detected after the eruption o f M o u n t St.
H e l e n s volcano is a natural deposit o r a h u m a n - m a d e contaminant.
M e d i c a l researchers use m u s e u m specimens o f m a m m a l s to trace the
epidemiology o f L y m e disease a n d pathology collections to study the
history o f A I D S . B o t a n i c a l specimens are used to identify plants o f
c o m m e r c i a l importance a n d make predictions about e c o n o m ic potential,
a n d m i c r o b i a l culture collections are used to assay the purity o f drugs.
T h e collected natural science resource also supports an immense array o f
educational programs, instilling a sense o f w o n d e r a nd an appreciation
for nature i n millions o f people o f all ages the w o r l d over. N a t u r a l history
displays continue to be a m o n g the most popular exhibits i n museums.
Scientific collections are a c o n t i n u i n g investment by society i n the effort
to understand the natural w o r l d . T h e y educate n e w generations o f
scientists, enlighten the p u b l i c an d stimulate endless queries into the
e v o l u t i o n o f the solar system a n d the e v o l u t i o n an d diversity o f life. I n the
face o f disappearing habitats, species extinctions a n d the destruction o f
sites o f geological an d paleontological significance, the specimens i n
these collections have become nonrenewable resources.
W h i l e the loss o f specimens to legitimate research may be acceptable i n
some instances, the loss o f specimens to u n s o u n d preparation methods,
poor storage or e x h i b i t e n v i r o n m e n t s , or routine mishandling is not
acceptable. T h e collections m u s t be protected f r o m this preventable
deterioration that impinges o n b o t h research utility a nd preservation.
T h e collection a n d deposition o f specimens i n a public trust repository
implies a contract, w i t h science an d w i t h society, to ensure that they are
conserved for use i n furthering h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d i ng o f the earth and its
neighbors i n the solar system. F u l f i l l i n g this contract is at once an
e n o r m o u s responsibility a nd an i n t r i g u i n g challenge. T h e place to begin
is the institutional level, w i t h a strong c o m m i t m e n t o n the part o f
g o v e r n i n g authorities an d management to m a k i n g the stewardship o f
natural science collections a central part o f institutional responsibility.
Historical Perspective
A l t h o u g h natural history specimens have been collected since the begin-
n i n g o f recorded t i m e , true systematics collections began to evolve only
after L i n n a e u s and others applied classification systems to parts o f the
natural w o r l d . C o l l e c t i o n s h a d been cabinets o f curiosity, valued for their
beauty, rarity a n d ability to stimulate w o n d e r at the diversity o f the earth's
biology a n d geology. I n the late 1 8 t h century , interest i n assembling
collections that c o u l d be used for scientific research coincided w i t h the
discovery that long-live d poisons s u c h as arsenic a nd mercury could
protect biological specimens against the insects a n d other pests that had
destroyed m a n y earlier collections.
D u r i n g the 1 9 t h century, the g r o w t h o f systematics collections was a
dramatic testimony to the b u r g e o n i n g interest i n science. I n less than t w o
centuries, h u m a n beings e x p l o r e d the earth a n d v e n t u r e d into the solar
system. V i r t u a l l y all o f these explorations resulted i n additions to the
collected resource i n the natural sciences, creating large d o c u m e n t a ry
collections to support biological and geological research.

T h e pace o f collecting was matche d at first by the pace o f research into

preparation a n d preservation methods. H u n d r e d s o f publications ap-
peared describing n e w techniques. E v e n t u a l l y , however, the importance
accorded to preservation research d i m i n i s h e d , as d i d resources to support
this effort. T h u s , w h i l e n e w and sometimes highly sophisticated tech-
niques have been applied to specimen-based research, preparation and
storage techniques r e m a i n firmly rooted i n 19th-centur y traditions. T h e
same scientific rigor that is n o w expected i n the research based o n the
specimens is not applied to the preparation o f the specimens themselves.

N a t u r a l scientists have described preparation methods as being founded

o n a trial-and-error approach and not o n an understanding o f the
chemical and physical properties o f materials or materials interactions.
L u n a r sample collections and culture collections ( m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , cell
lines and plant tissues preserved i n a viable state), w h i c h are relatively
recent i n o r i g i n and rely o n m o d e r n science and technology , are the
primary exceptions. I n general, the academic transfer o f knowledg e
relating to specimen preparation has been informal, passed from profes-
sor to student i n a primarily oral tradition.

M o r e o v e r , critical assessments o f preservation quality are often l a c k i n g ,

and problematic specimens are sometimes ignore d or discarded. T h e r e
are few efforts to discover w h y a specimen has deteriorated o r w h y it has
been o f little use for a particular research i n q u i r y . I n d e e d , this k i n d o f
assessment w o u l d i n some cases be difficult, because w h i l e there m a y be
hundreds o f publications describing thousands o f preparation m e t h o d s
for the specimens i n a single discipline t h r o u g h time, there are few records
that link any o f those method s to an individual specimen.

I n addition, the early r e c o g n i t i o n o f the efficacy o f metal salts i n

protecting organic materials against pests led to a nearly complete
A n 1885 tag on a mammal specimen indicates
dependence o n chemicals. O v e r the past t w o centuries, various chemicals that the specimen was treated with an unspeci-
have w a x e d and w a n e d i n popularity, so most collections have been fied toxic chemical, probably an arsenic or a
mercury compound. Few natural science
treated w i t h several different c o m p o u n d s . Specimens sent o n loan m a y
specimens are labeled in any way to identify past
have been treated w i t h still other chemicals by the recipient institution . treatments and this information is not routinely
Because there are few records o f the chemicals used o n particular available in other collections documents.
specimens, it is extremely difficult to determine the impact o f those
chemicals o n specimen preservation o r o n the utility o f the specimens for
scientific research. C o n s e r v a t i o n research into pest c o n t r o l method s that
can be i m p l e m e n t e d at an institutional level to reduce the reliance o n
chemical treatments is especially important for natural science collections.

The Significance and Value of Natural Science Collections 7


Backlogs of unprepared herbarium specimens are
stacked on open shelves in a cold room. The
specimens are not easily accessible for research
and suffer mechanical damage from overly
crowded storage.
8 Preserving Natural Science Collections
T h e loss o f systemadcs biology courses i n universities also threatens the
health o f natural science collections and has led to an increase in the
n u m b e r o f endangered o r orphaned collections i n the biological sciences.
T h e r e has been an even greater loss o f support for geology collections at
the university level. Private and c o m m e r c i a l collections may become
endangered or orphaned i f the original custodians can n o longer main-
tain t h e m . W h e n offered orphaned or endangered collections, museums
are faced w i t h a choice between a l l o w i n g t h e m to deteriorate from
neglect or g i v i n g t h e m a more appropriate h o m e . M o s t choose the latter.
T h e result is an increasing centralization o f collections and sometimes an
increase i n the backlog o f unprocessed materials, because orphaned
collections rarely c o me w i t h resources to support curation and care. T h e
annual increases that are an inevitable part o f research-related collections
g r o w t h and the large collections that accompany biodiversity initiatives
further contribute to preparation backlogs. T h e g r o w i n g emphasis o n
biological diversity and global change may b r i n g about a renewed
appreciation o f systematics collections i n academic environments, reduc-
i n g the n u m b e r o f orphaned collections a n d p r o v i d i n g stable repositories
for n e w material.
M a n y o f the historically accepted preparation and other treatment
procedures used for natural science specimens are extremely labor
intensive. M o r e o v e r , specimen-to-staff ratios are massive, ranging from
5 0 , 0 0 0 specimens per staff m e m b e r i n vertebrate collections to several
h u n d r e d thousand specimens per staff m e m b e r i n invertebrate collec-
tions. Simila r ratios prevail t h r o u g h o u t the natural sciences. Some
research is u n d e r w a y to develop cost-effective preparation techniques
that preserve the morphological and c h e m i c a l / b i o c h e m i c a l integrity o f
specimens. T h e need for efficient means to process specimens is especially
important i n an era w h e n the institutional resources available to support
collections care are d i m i n i s h i n g . U n p r e p a r e d specimens are not readily
accessible for study a n d, i n m a n y instances, steadily deteriorate w h e n i n
an unprocessed state.
D u r i n g the past 5 0 years, many disciplinary journals i n the natural
sciences have ceased to publish articles o n collections care topics.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e n n e w i n f o r m a t i on became available that was perti-
nent to the preservation o f these collections, it often appeared i n
museology and conservation journals, w h e r e it was rarely seen by the
majority o f natural scientists. T o d a y , the newsletters o f collections-oriented
groups w i t h i n the scientific disciplinary societies and the publications o f
the n e w interdisciplinary collections care organizations are important
devices for dissemination o f k n o w l e d g e .
Increasingly, preventive conservation is b e c o m i n g an important aspect o f
the preservation o f collections. M u l t i n a t i o n a l , interdisciplinary collec-
tions care organizations s u c h as the Society for the Preservation o f
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y C o l l e c t i o n s ( S P N H C ) , the International C o u n c i l o f
Museums ( I C O M ) Conservation Committee Natural History W o r k i n g
G r o u p and the proposed W o r l d C o u n c i l o n C o l l e c t i o n s Resources are
part o f an effort to share informatio n a m o n g all disciplines. E d u c a t i o n a l
programs sponsored by the N a t i o n a l Institute for the C o n s e r v a t i on o f
C u l t u r a l Property ( N I C ) and the B a y F o u n d a t i o n , as w e l l as the w o r k o f
the Association o f Systematics C o l l e c t i o n s ( A S C ) , complement the
information provided by these groups. T h e s e national and international
initiatives share the l i m i t e d expertise available i n natural science conser-
vation and avoid the duplication o f effort that results from w o r k i n g i n
isolation. Initiatives n o w under w a y include:

• the U . S . effort to re-create a national biological survey that

w i l l result i n an influx o f v o u c h er specimens to collections
and stimulate the development o f efficient and effective
collections conservation techniques;
• national and international efforts to coordinate systematics
programs, such as Systematics Agenda 2 0 0 0 i n N o r t h America ;
• national and international collecting programs and biological
surveys, such as I n B i o , that link professionals and para-
professionals to facilitate the exploration and preservation o f
biodiversity u s i n g collections resources;
• status reports o n collections developed by the G e o l o g i c a l
C u r a t o r s ' G r o u p and the Biological C u r a t o r s ' G r o u p i n the
United Kingdom;
• the C a n a d i a n C o n s e r v a t i o n Institute's conservation research
and analytical research services units, w h i c h are models for
centralized conservation services;
• the effort o f the U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f the I n t e r i o r T a s k F o r c e The preparation of this botanical specimen
to define specimen repository standards for material collected required both skill and an understanding of
o n federal lands and to address the issue o f legal title to these potential research uses.
collections;
• efforts by A S C and some disciplinary societies to bring
endangered n o n m u s e u m collections into the m u s e u m
c o m m u n i t y a n d to track orphaned collections;
• proposed sorting centers that help expedite the h a n d l i n g o f
large collections from expeditionary biodiversity activities;
• private and public funding programs that support collections
care i n the natural sciences; and
• efforts by m u s e u m directors to approach preservation as a
museum-wide activity.

T h e r e has always been a strong interest i n collections care i n the natural

sciences. T h e disciplinary societies and groups such as A S C have prepared
numerous reports addressing general support for collections and collec-
tions-based research. T h e initiatives noted above are witness to this
abiding c o n c e r n, as is the willingness that so many have s h o w n to
participate i n this project o n collections conservation and preservation.
W h i l e the challenges are as many and diverse as the collections t h e m -
selves, none is insurmountable , especially w i t h such a h i g h level o f
interest and support from those w h o use and manage the collections.

The Significance and Value of Natural Science Collections

 Figure 1-1
Users of Natural Science Collections
Among the many academic users of natural science collections arc:
archaeologists geo-biochemists
Because knowledge of die kinds of creatures in
our world is fundamental to real understanding artists geochemists
of their interaction, the great specimen collec- biogeographers geophysicists
tions are the very cornerstones to studying, germplasm scientists
biomechanics and anatomists
comprehending and living within the world
system. biotechnologists glaciologists
climatologists materials scientists
—Conference o f Directors
of Systematic Collections, 1971 conservation biologists paleoecologists
crystallographers paleogeologists
dendrochronologists petrologists
ecologists planetary geologists
epidemiologists plant pathologists
evolutionary biologists stratigraphers
forensic scientists taxonomists
genome scientists toxicologists

The businesses, government agencies and not-for-profit organizations that

use natural science collections and the information derived from the
collections include:
agriculture
aquariums, botanical gardens, nature centers and zoos
biotechnology firms
educational institutions ( f r om grade schools t h r o u g h universities)
environmental conservation groups
environmental consultants
federal agencies
A g e n c y for International D e v e l o p m e n t
D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e : Forest Service, S o i l Conservatio n
Service
D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m m e r c e : N a t i o n a l O c e a n i c and Atmospheric
Administration
D e p a r t m e n t o f Defense
D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h and H u m a n Services: Centers for Disease
C o n t r o l , N a t i o n a l Institutes o f H e a l t h
D e p a r t m e n t o f the I n t e r i o r : B u r e a u o f L a n d Management , Fis h
and Wildlife Service, N a t i o n a l Park Service
E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection A g e n c y
gemstone and lapidary companies
germplasm companies

10 Preserving Natural Science Collections

industrial consultants
judicial bodies at all levels
land use management groups
legislative bodies at all levels
m i n i n g a n d petroleum geology companies
nature filmmakers
nature study groups a n d clubs
pest c o n t r o l specialists
pharmaceutical firms
poison c o n t r o l centers
seed and herb companies
state a n d local governmental agencies

A researcher measures eggshells to look for changes in shell quality that may signal evidence
of breeding failures in endangered bird populations.

The Significance and Value of Natural Science Collections 11

In the natural sciences, we are dealing with
collections that have an entirely different
scale from the arts—a different scale in
terms of numbers, in terms of years and in
terms of information.... I t is that scale that
quite often has led to the exclusion of
collections of this sort from general
discussion regarding how we maintain the
world patrimony in our institutions.
—Craig Black, 1989
Chapter Two
The Scope and Nature
of the Conservation Challenge

N a t u r a l science specimens are value d for the i n f o r m a d o n they embody.

Preserving t h e m enables access to this information t h r o u g h time. T h e
specimens are meant to be used, and they may be c o n s u m e d i n the course
o f research. T h u s , for natural science collections, conservation is the
effort to find a balance between preservation and m a x i m u m research
utility. C o n t r i b u t i n g to the conservation challenge are:
• the size and diversity o f the collections and their
documentation;
• the many u n r e c o r d e d treatments specimens undergo , l i m i t i n g
o u r ability to assess the impact o f those treatments o n
preservation o r specimen-based research;
Several factors have affected the
• the inadequate space and inappropriate environments i n process o f collections management in
w h i c h m a n y collections are housed and used; recent years; among them are the
• the shortage o f h u m a n resources for the care o f collections establishment o f many new kinds of
collections, the size increase of
and the l i m i t e d educational and training opportunities i n
traditional collections and the intro-
collections care specialties; and
duction of rapidly changing technolo-
• the lack o f scientific research to address the preservation o f gies that have to be mastered. Effective
these collections and the lack o f interdisciplinary dialogue collections managers are therefore
between natural scientists and specialists i n other fields. highly skilled specialists who are now
beginning to acquire the professional
status they deserve.
T h e N S F Research C o l l e c t i o n s i n Systematics and E c o l o g y P r o g r a m
— C . K . Brain, 1990
(formerly the B i o l o g i c a l Research Resources P r o g r a m ) has been the
primary source o f i m p r o v e m e n ts i n collections management and care for
U . S . biological collections. T h e p r o g r a m has stimulated institutional
c o m m i t m e n t to the maintenance o f biological collections and provided
the resources to help reduce preparation backlogs, computeriz e collec-
tions documentatio n and purchase storage equipment for m a n y impor-
tant collections. T h e p r o g r a m 's efforts have b r o u g h t an essential order to
these collections a n d made t h e m accessible to a diverse array o f users.
T h e s e initiatives have also been emulated i n collections that were n o t the
recipients o f N S F funding, resulting i n a general increase i n the overall
level o f collections c u r a t i o n. T h e successes o f the N S F p r o g r am consti-
tute an excellent foundation for a conservation initiative i n all scientific
collections.

13

A faulty seal is likely the cause o f fluid depletion
in this jar of fish specimens. A n ingress of
oxygen as the fluid evaporates will exacerbate
reactions between the specimens and the fluid,
the specimens and the container materials, and
among the specimens themselves.
14 Preserving Natural Science Collections
Size and Diversity of Collections
T h e collected resources i n the natural sciences have been estimated at 2.5
billion specimens w o r l d w i d e . I n the U n i t e d States alone, there are
hundreds o f millions o f specimens i n various public trust collections.
Despite their size, the collections still represent at best a fragmentary
record o f the natural w o r l d . T h e n u m b e r s o f species k n o w n and described
compared w i t h the n u m b e r believed to e x i s t — 1 0 m i l l i o n to 30 m i l l i o n —
has staggering implications for o u r basic understanding o f biological
diversity. F o r instance, although some 2 2 0 , 0 0 0 species o f flowering
plants and ferns are k n o w n , an additional 5 0 , 0 0 0 are believed to exist. O f
an estimated 6 m i l l i o n insect species, just 13 percent are described.
M u l t i p l e specimens are required o f a t a x o n and o f related taxa to verify
a single identification. C o l l e c t i o n s continue to g r o w i n an ever more
carefully managed fashion, generally at an estimated rate o f three to five
percent a year. Surveys o f the w o r l d ' s biota may add significantly to those
percentages. Backlogs , sometimes o n the order o f millions o f unproc-
essed specimens, already are c o m m o n in collections and are likely to
increase.
B e y o n d the size o f the collections and their obvious potential for g r o w t h ,
another conservation challenge is the immense diversity o f material, from
frozen tissue extracts to t h i n sections to complete skeletons o f large
animals, such as whales a n d dinosaurs ( f i g . 2 - 1 , p. 2 0 ) . M o r e o v e r , parts
o f a single specimen may be preserved i n four or five different forms.
T h e preparation o f a specimen is the creation o f an artifact. Nearly all
natural science specimens are prepared and thus altered i n some way
before b e c o m i n g part o f a collection. G e o l o g i c a l and paleontological
specimens are removed from often c o m p l e x matrices by a variety o f
physical and c h e m i c al means. F o r biological specimens, significant
physical and chemica l alteration may be necessary to preserve the organic
remains. E a c h material added to a specimen i n the course o f preparation
increases the complexit y o f the conservation challenge (fig. 2 - 2 , p. 2 1 ) .
Extensive research is required to determine the least intrusive and most
effective preparation techniques.
T h e diversity o f natural science collections encompasses an estimated
250 million specimens preserved i n fluids. F l u i d s are used to fix or
denature tissues; to clear, stain, o r de-stain specimens or samples; and to
serve as a storage m e d i u m that w i l l provide, at least i n theory', a reasonably
stable e n v i r o n m e n t for a specimen o r specimen part. Specimens in fluid
are found i n all natural science collections. I n the geosciences, some
paleobotanical fossils are stored i n glycerin o r i n silicone oils, and
mineralogical specimens that disintegrate w h e n exposed to air are stored
in a variety o f fluid media. I n the biosciences, i n c l u d i n g the medical
sciences, large n u m b e r s o f w h o l e o r partial specimens are fixed or stored
in fluids. F l u i d fixation and preservation are topics that have not been
adequately researched for any group o f specimens.
Microscope preparations are part o f the collections o f every discipline i n
the natural sciences. M i l l i o n s o f important specimens o r specimen parts
are prepared for microscopy . T h e preservation problems associated w i t h
these materials are exemplified by the deterioration o f H o y e r ' s m o u n t i n g
m e d i u m . T h e refractive index o f H o y e r ' s is excellent for research o n a
wide variety o f specimens, but because air and moisture can permeate the
m e d i u m over time, specimens are damaged as it shrinks and cracks. I t is
not u n c o m m o n to find 3 0 , 0 0 0 to 4 0 , 0 0 0 slides, many o f exceptional
historical o r scientific value, i n jeopardy i n a single collection .

T h e proliferation o f n e w specimen preparations, such as tissues i n liquid

nitrogen and specimens that are m o u n t e d and coated for scanning
electron microscopy, has expanded the utility o f collections w h i l e
c o m p o u n d i n g the difficulties and costs o f preservation and management.
F o r example, frozen tissue collections require special storage equipment ,
These malacology specimens suffer from the
emergency p o w e r generators and other safeguards to ensure their formation of water-soluble calcium acetate-
maintenance. Specialized d o c u m e n t a t i o n systems are also necessary to formate double salts as replacements for calcium
link the tissues to v o u c h e r specimens, w h i c h may be housed at different in the shells. T h e salts result from a reaction
between the specimens and acetic and formic
institutions. acids outgassed by storage materials. The shells
have been severely damaged in just 30 years.

Specimen and Collections Documentation

I n addition to the specimens, natural science collections include speci-
m e n and collections d o c u m e n t a t i o n considered equal i n importance to
the specimens themselves (fig. 2 - 3 , p. 2 5 ) . I n d e e d , i n some disciplines,
certain kinds o f d o c u m e n t a t i on are considered "specimens." I n herpetol-
ogy, for example, a c o l o r image or a s o u n d recording made at the time
o f capture w o u l d be considered part o f the specimen.

T h e library and archival materials that accompany scientific collections

are a vast and generally unsurveye d resource i n terms o f c o n d i t i o n and
care. T e c h n o l o g y transfer f r o m conservation disciplines that specialize i n
these materials is directly applicable i n the natural sciences and c o u l d be
fostered t h r o u g h interdisciplinary seminars and w o r k s h o p s .
I m m e n s e amounts o f data c o n c e r n i n g natural science specimens are n o w
consigned to electronic o r magnetic media , despite the nonarchival
nature o f this informatio n base and the rapidity w i t h w h i c h machine
obsolescence can impinge o n its utility. T h e preservation o f electronic or
Although a sustained and comprehensive effort
has been underway in the United States for the
past decade to preserve published materials of
importance to scholarly research, a similar
campaign has not yet been launched to ensure
that a significant portion of the archival record
will also be accessible for use in the future.

magnetic storage m e d i a is not as w e l l understood as the preservation o f —Commission on Preservation and Access,
Task Forces on Archival Selection, 1993
film- or paper-based library and archival materials. H o w e v e r , there are
o n g o i n g research a n d preservation initiatives dealing w i t h these media;
this is another area i n w h i c h the rapid transfer o f conservation informa-
tion is important to scientific collections.

T h e materials used to label specimens have the potential t o damage the

specimens or to be damaged themselves by the specimens or by the
collections e n v i r o n m e n t . L a b e l i n g materials for fluid-preserved speci-
mens are especially problematic. N e w method s o f label p r o d u c t i o n , such

The Scope and Nature of the Conservation Challenge 15


Twenty years ago this was a solid mineral
specimen. Repeated cycles of desiccation and
hydration in an unregulated storage environ-
ment have reduced it to powder.
Preventive conservation is possible only because
scientific research has given us a better under-
standing of some of the mechanisms of deterio-
ration. Although that body of knowledge
continues to grow rapidly in detail, the funda-
mental principles are well established. Deteriora-
tion is not inevitable and "aging" is only a
multiplier of known and generally controllable
causes.
—Philip Ward, 1986
16 Preserving Natural Science Collections
as p r i n t i n g , p h o t o c o p y i n g and bar code technologies, are used i n natural
science collections w i t h v a r y i n g degrees o f success. Materials for speci-
m e n labeling is another area w h e r e knowledge from other fields is
pertinent and c o u l d prevent future conservation problems.
A n especially important challenge to the future preservation and research
integrity o f natural science collections is finding efficient methods to
d o c u m e n t the treatment o f specimens that may be processed in large
groups and catalogued i n lots. T h e widespread use o f computers in
collections management provides a means to facilitate the accumulation
o f this information. H o w e v e r , the precise nature o f the necessary data and
the standardized t e r m i n o l o gy that w o u l d ensure that the data are
succinct and meaningful have not vet been d e t e r m i n e d.
Collections Environments
D e s i g n i n g appropriate collections e n v i r o n m e n t s and developing appro-
priate policies and procedures to reduce rates o f deterioration and
potential for damage constitute a preventive conservation approach to
collections care. M a n y agents o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n — i n c l u d i ng physical forces,
inappropriate temperature, inappropriate or fluctuating relative h u m i d -
ity levels, ultraviolet radiation and excessive visible light, pollutants or
contaminants, biodeterioration, vandalism and unintentional losses
b r o u g h t about by breaches o f procedure—contribute to the ongoin g
deterioration and subsequent loss o f value in scientific collections.
W h i l e the mechanisms for deterioration o f specimens and their docu-
mentation may be as diverse as the materials themselves, the basic causes
arc c h e m i c a l , physical and biological. D a m a g e from organic acid attack
is an example o f chemically induced deterioration. M e c h a n i c a l damage
from abrasion, shock, vibration or the effects o f gravity o n inadequately
supported specimens are examples o f the deterioration by physical forces.
Ineffective storage designs p e r m i t physical forces to do tremendous harm
in natural science collections. B i o l o g i c al agents o f deterioration, such as
microorganisms and insect pests, can threaten all collections, i n c l u d i n g
those in geology and paleontology. T h e role o f microorganisms in
specimen decay merits further e x p l o r a t i o n , w h i l e the role o f insects in the
destruction o f collections and their d o c u m e n t a t i o n is w e l l understood.
The lack o f climate c o n t r o l i n most natural science collections can result
in direct damage and provides a m i l i eu that is conducive to deterioration
o f materials. Inappropriately l o w levels o f relative h u m i d i t y desiccate
hygroscopic specimens and either directly cause deformation or break-
age, or increase the vulnerabilit y o f the specimens to shock and vibration.
O n the other h a n d , h i g h h u m i d i t y levels p r o m o t e biodeterioration and
chemical reactions, such as the o x i d a t i o n o f i r o n sulfides in geoscience
specimens. D u s t and soot attract and h o l d gaseous pollutants on speci-
mens, thereby serving as loci for c h e m i c al reactions, i n c l u d i n g the
conversion o f atmospheric sulfur dioxid e to sulfurous and sulfuric acids.
Ultraviolet radiation and p r o l o n g e d exposure to visible light rupture
chemical bonds i n organic materials and initiate l i g h t - i n d u c e d phase
transitions i n some minera l species.

C h e m i c a l pollutants, especially those released by reactive materials inside

closed cases, can cause damage to m a n y specimens. Volatile organic acids
released by w o o d and w o o d products attack paper labels, metals used as
labels or specimen supports, and calcareous specimens, such as shell,
eggshell and some invertebrate fossils. F u m i g a n t chemicals can generate
acidic by-products that attack acid-sensitive materials a n d , i n a d d i t i o n ,
may generate c o m p o u n d s that increase the oxidative degradation o f
inorganic and organic materials. T h e most c o m m o n container for fluid-
preserved specimens is commercial-grade , bimetallic alkaline glassware
that leaches its c h e m i c a l constituents into the fluids and can become
dangerously brittle as it ages. C o n t a i n e r seals may react w i t h the
specimens or the fluids, and poorly sealed containers permit evaporation
or hydration o f storage fluids, altering the e n v i r o n m e n t o f the specimens.
A recent survey by the staff at the C a n a d i a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r e revealed
that materials and staff time to add or replace fluids because o f p o o r l y
sealed containers cost the institution i n excess o f $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 per year.

T h e preparation, storage and use o f natural science collections present

unique h u m a n health and safety problems. S o m e specimens are inher-
ently toxic. I n geology and paleontology, specimens may be radioactive
or contain toxic minerals that pose a threat d u r i n g preparation and
handling. I n the biological sciences, specimens may be contaminate d
w i t h pathogens that are a h a z a r d d u r i n g preparation; preparation itself
may involve t o x i c chemicals such as solvents, fixatives and pesticides. Past
unrecorded treatments can complicate the design o f storage systems a n d
even o f remedial treatments o f specimens. F o r example, the m e r c u r y salts
still used o n some botanical specimens can generate hazardous levels o f
mercury vapor inside well-sealed storage cabinets and can blacken a n d
embrittle specimens i f exposed to o x i d i z i n g and r e d u c i n g agents. A crane removes a specimen storage cabinet
from a building that flooded when a water main
burst, immersing the collections in several feet of
W h i l e most institutions have emergency preparedness plans that address hot water. Many natural science institutions lack
personnel safety, few have extended those plans to include the protection plans to deal with the salvage of collections in an
or salvage o f collections. A s a consequence, a relatively m i n o r emergency emergency or disaster.

could become a disaster. T h e increasing centralization o f collections

means that a disaster c o u l d obliterate centuries o f effort i n a particular
discipline.

Space to house natural science collections is often b o t h inadequate and

inappropriate. L a c k o f appropriate space has led to the storage o f
specimens i n hallways, attics, basements, offices, laboratories and various
off-site structures. M a n y facilities lack fire protection or reasonable
security systems. Years, sometimes decades, o f deferred maintenance
have left a legacy o f aging buildings that are prone to r o o f a n d p l u m b i n g
leaks and plagued by inadequate electrical systems. Inefficient ventilatio n

The Scope and Nature of the Conservation Challenge 17


Entomology collections contain many thousands
of specimens. Despite their size, these collections
represent a small percentage of the insects
believed to exist. A series of specimens of the
same taxon, as well as comparative series of other
taxa, are necessary for systematics research.
Gaps in our training system will be filled because
thev must be filled. I t is simply no longer
possible to ignore the conservation needs of
museums of natural sciences.... Neither is it
acceptable to have curators who have no
knowledge of the physical needs of their
collections nor conservators with no understand-
ing of curatorial priorities.
—Philip Ward, 1986
18 Preserving Natural Science Collections
systems permit particulate pollutants to accumulate i n collections areas.
L o c a l exhaust ventilation systems, w h e t h e r for dusts and fumes in
geology laboratories o r for vapors and biohazards i n biological laborato-
ries, are sometimes poorly designed and sometimes nonexistent.
Staffing, Education and Training
L a c k o f collections staff at all levels is a c o m m o n problem in most natural
science institutions. T o improve collections care, both the adequacy o f
staffing and the level o f staff education and training i n collections care
need to be addressed.
T h e attrition o f university faculty results in the loss o f courses and, very
likely, the loss o f department collections. T h i s pattern o f loss increasingly
threatens the future o f systematics and other specimen-based science. I t
also reduces the potential for t r a i n i ng a p o o l o f future research and
collection staff. C o l l e c t i o n s that lack active management suffer because
they become inaccessible for use, thus losing their constituencies and the
potential to attract resources for their care.
D e v e l o p i n g the h u m a n resources necessary for g o o d collections care will
require i m p r o v i n g the in-service t r a i n i n g available to w o r k i n g profession-
als and the pre-service education available to those w h o w i s h to become
collections-based research scientists or collections managers. M o r e con-
servators and conservation scientists w h o focus o n research for natural
science collections must be trained; interdisciplinary professional ex-
changes must be fostered to facilitate the transfer o f conservation
information from other fields; and collections staff must have access to
preventive conservation i n f o r m a t i o n. T h e staff o f natural science collec-
tions need to be part o f the g r o w i n g collections care networks that
circulate information across disciplines. S u c h expanded involvement w i l l
improve staff access to the array o f informatio n resources that are the basis
for technology transfer and help t h e m compete effectively for collections
care grants.
T h e problems that accompany inadequate staffing and lack o f training are
c o m p o u n d e d by poor c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g staff i n different depart-
ments w i t h i n a single institution. I t is not u n c o m m o n to find that staff
in one discipline have spent a great deal o f effort to solve a labeling
p r o b l e m or find an appropriate specimen container, only to learn that the
same solutions have been i n use for years i n another division o f the same
institution. M a n y aspects o f collections care are not enhanced by the
constraints o n information flow across traditional, discipline-based orga-
nizational structures.
I n large m u s e u m s, curators are expected to function as research scientists,
and their performance is evaluated primarily o n activities that do not
involve collections maintenance and m a n a g e m e n t , although oversight o f
these activities may be part o f their general responsibilities. I n university
departmental collections, research scientists are often the sole profes-
sional staff. T h e y m u s t n o t o n l y teach and carry out research b u t manage
and care for the collections as w e l l . T h e graduate c u r r i c u l u m for research
scientists i n collections-based disciplines usually does not include an
introduction to research administration, basic preventive conservation or
collections management.

I n most institutions, there is an acute shortage o f technical and collec-

tions management positions and trained personnel. T h e r e is a need for
collections managers w h o have a s o u n d knowledge o f the scientific
discipline i n w h i c h they w o r k , formal training i n collections management
techniques and an understanding o f preventive conservation. T h e move-
ment to recognize collections managemen t as a profession is a significant
step i n i m p r o v i n g the care o f scientific collections.

T h e staff o f natural science collections rarely have access to conservation

services. T h e r e are o n l y three trained natural science conservators i n the
U n i t e d States and three i n C a n a d a . I n order to develop a cadre o f
conservators for the natural sciences, specialty graduate programs w i l l be
necessary. T h e conservators o n the staff o f natural history museum s are
usually part o f the anthropology staff. T h e s e conservation specialists
could offer valuable assistance to natural science staff i f b o t h parties were
aware o f the potential and i f the conservators were made aware o f the
concerns that research scientists and collections managers have about
their collections.

Bones o f beaked whales are rarely found in collections. Consolidation was used to improve
the strength of these fragile specimens.

The Scope and Nature of the Conservation Challenge 19

 Figure 2-1
Examples of Specimens in Natural Science Collection
baculi/phalli micromounts
b l o o d components m u m m i f i e d specimens
casts/molds/peels n o n - R e c e n t , sub-fossil material
cell suspensions paraffin blocks
cleared and stained specimens p i n n e d specimens
c l o n e d probes polished sections
dissected organs and other p o w d e r diffraction mounts
dissected tissues radioactive specimens
D N A / R N A ( i n c l u d i n g sequence reference sample collections
gels) (hair, feathers)
d r i e d / t a n n e d skins scats
dry shells or echinoderms sectioned teeth
educational collections seeds
eggs and nests shell ultrastructures
embryos/larvae single crystal mounts
endo- an d ectoparasites skulls a n d skeletons
exhibit collections specimens i n fluid
exsiccati (geological, biological)
fossils specimens i n packets
freeze-dried specimens specimens o r specimen parts o n
frozen tissues scanning electron microscope
frozen tissue extracts stubs
frozen w h o l e specimens specimens or specimen parts o n
genomes ( p l a s m i d , phage) microscope slides
herbaria sheets stomach contents
horns/antiers t a x i d e r m y specimens
inherently toxic specimens t h i n sections
isolated proteins tree rings an d w o o d samples
karyotypes type specimens
large specimens ( e . g . , blue w h a l e zymograms
skull; large fossils i n plaster
field jackets; complete
dioramas w i t h historical,
artistic an d scientific value)

These geological survey drill cores are stored in

individual containers. Drill core collections may
include tens or hundreds of thousands of
specimens, each several feet long. The cores van'
in weight, ranging from very light, loosely
compacted sediments to dense rock.

20 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Figure 2-2
Examples of Materials Used in the Preparation
and Care of Natural Science Specimens
abrasives (aluminum oxide, glass beads, powdered walnut shells)
acrolein (acrylic aldehyde)
acrylic polymers (dispersions, emulsions, molded products, paints,
resins)
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene polymers
agar (polysaccharide extract from algae)
albumin (purified protein from egg white)
alcohols (butanol, ethanol, glycerol, isopropanol, methanol)
aluminum acetate
alums (ammonium aluminum and/or potassium aluminum sulfate,
ammonium ferric sulfate)
ammonium hydroxide
amyl acetate
argon
arsenic compounds (trioxide, sulfide)
asbestos fibers and fabrics
barium compounds (chloride, hydroxide, sulfate)
butylated hydroxyanisole
butylated hydroxytoluene A fragile specimen of the Tasmanian wolf, a
marsupial species believed to have become
calcium compounds (carbonate, chloride, hydroxide, sulfate) extinct in the 1930s, is stored with special
carbamate insecticides (bendiocarb, propoxur) supports in a case designed to provide a
carbon microclimate to ensure preservation. Microcli-
mates can be effective approaches to special
carbon dioxide
environmental requirements.
carbon disulfide
cellulose acetate and triacetate films
cellulose ethers (ethyl cellulose, ethyl hydroxycellulose,
methyl cellulose)
cellulose nitrate (adhesives, fillers, films)
cellulosic fibers and fabrics
ceramics
chloral hydrate
chloretone
chlorocresol
chloropicrin (trichloronitromethane)
chromotrope (sodium salt of p-nitrobenzeneazochromotropic acid)
copper sulfate
cork (natural, composite)
cornmeal and ground corn cobs
creosote
cyanoacrylates
dextrose
diatomaceous earth
diethyl ether
dioxane (1,4-dioxacyclohexane)

The Scope and Nature of the Conservation Challenge 21


This herbarium specimen shows staining from
mercury salts. Past treatments o f specimens with
toxic chemicals jeopardize the preservation and
research integrity o f the specimens and can pose
health and safety problems for collections staff
and users.
22 Preserving Natural Science Collections
D M S O ( d i m e t h y l sulfoxide)
dolomite ( c a l c i u m m a g n e s i u m carbonate)
dyes and stains ( n a t u r a l , synthetic)
enzymes (amylase, papain, pepsin, trypsin )
epoxy resins
ethyl acetate
ethylene a n d polyethylene glycols
ethylene oxide
ethylene vinylacetate polymers
formaldehyde a n d paraformaldehyde ( p o l y m e r i z e d formaldehyde)
gelatin
glass fibers and fabrics
glassware (bimetallic alkaline, borosilicate)
glues (casein, fish, h i d e )
glutaraldehyde
glycerol monoacetate
gypsum cement ( p o r t l a n d cement w i t h raw g y p s u m )
hair products ( c o m m e r c i a l conditioners , dyes, setting lotions, sprays)
halogenated hydrocarbon s ( b r o m o f o r m , carbon tetrachloride, chloro-
f o r m , ethylene dichloride, m e t h y l b r o m i d e , methylene chloride,
perchloroethylene, trichloroethane, trichloroethylene,
trichlorofluoroethane)
hexamethyleneamine
h y d r o c a r b o n solvents ( b e n z e n e , cyclohexane, gasoline, heptanes,
hexanes, kerosene, m i n e r al spirits, naphtha, toluene, x y l e n e)
h y d r o g e n cyanide
h y d r o g e n peroxide
inks (ballpoint, drafting, d r a w i n g , felt-tip, p r i n t i n g , roller-ball, stamp
pad, typewriter, t o n e r )
iodine
isinglass
k a o l i n (hydrated a l u m i n u m silicate)
ketone solvents (acetone, m e t h y l ethyl k e t o n e )
latexes ( m o u l d i n g c o m p o u n d s , paints)
lead chromate
magnesium c o m p o u n d s (carbonate, c h l o r i d e , silicate)
m e r c u r i c chloride
metals ( a l u m i n u m , copper a n d copper alloys, g o l d , i r o n and iro n
alloys, lead, mercury , t i n , z i n c )
m i n e r a l acids ( b o r i c , c h r o m i c , h y d r o c h l o r i c , hydrofluoric, nitric,
osmic, phosphotungstic, p i c r i c , sulfuric, t h y o g l y c o l i c)
monoterpenes ( c a m p h o r , eucalyptol , t h y m o l , turpentine)
morpholine
mosses ( i n c l u d i n g peat)
m o t h p r o o f i n g agents (textile i n d u s t r y treatments)
naphthalene
natural gums (acacia, arabic, tragacanth)
natural resins ( C a n a d a balsam, dammar, mastic, rosin, sandarac, shellac)
n-butyl acetate
nitrogen (gas, l i q u i d )
oil-based paints (enamels and other alkyd resin coatings, artists' oils)
organic acids (acetic, carbolic, citric, ethylenediaminetetraacetic,
formic, glacial acetic, lactic, oxalic, pyroligneous, salicylic, tannic,
tartaric, trichloroacetic)
organochlorine insecticides (chlordane , D D T , lindane, heptachlor,
paradichlorobenzene)
organophosphate insecticides (chlorpyrifos, dichlorvos , m a l a t h i o n )
paper (cellulose fiber, w o o d pulp , synthetic)
papier-mache
pasteboards ( b r i s t ol board, cardboard, c h i p b o a r d )
pastes (rice starch, w h e a t starch)
pencil ( c o l o r e d , graphite, pastel, w a x )
petroleum jelly
The oral tradition emerged because the collector
phenol-formaldehyde resin ( B a k e l i t e ) was the researcher in most instances, and the
phenolic microballoons techniques and preferences that evolved were
pheromones passed from teacher to student.... Because of
this history, very few curators can at random
phosphine select a specific specimen and say, " I know
pigments ( m i n e r a l , o r g a n i c ) exactly how this specimen was treated from the
plant alkaloids ( n i c o t i n e , strychnine ) time it was collected until today...." We cannot
recapture such information, but we can begin
plant oils ( c e d a r w o o d , linseed, olive) recording it. Now.
polyamides ( i n c l u d i n g soluble n y l o n )
—Man,' H . Pritchard, 1992
polycarbonates ( m o l d e d products, resins)
polydimethylsiloxane
polyester fibers and fabrics (batting, felt, thread)
polyester resins
polyester/polytetrafluoroethylene n o n - w o v e n laminate
polyethylenes (films, foams, m o l d e d products, resins)
polyporus (fungus)
polypropylenes (films, m o l d e d products )
polystyrenes (foams, m o l d e d products, resins)
polysulfides
polytetrafluorethylenes
polyurethanes (coatings, foams)
polyvinyl acetates ( e m u l s i o n s , resins)
polyvinyl a c e t a t e / p o l y v i n y l c h l o r i d e copolymers
polyvinyl resins (acetals, alcohols, butyrals)
polyvinylchlorides (films, m o l d e d products, resins)
polyvinylpyrrolidone
potassium c o m p o u n d s (acetate, carbonate, c h l o r i d e , cyanide, d i c h r o-
mate, h y d r o x i d e , iodide, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate)
potato flour (freeze-dried)
powder paints
precipitated or fumed silica
pressure-sensitive adhesive tapes
propylene p h e n o x y t o l

The Scope and Nature of the Conservation Challenge 23

 putty (various formulations )
pyrethrins ( n a t u r a l, synthetic)
pyridine
rubber (natural , synthetic)
sal a m m o n i ac ( a m m o n i u m c h l o r i d e )
sand
seaweed
silane (tetraethoyxsilane)
silica gel
silicones (elastomers, foams, oils, resins)
silk thread and fabrics
skin o r gut (goldbeaters s k i n , leathers, parchment, pig and sheep
bladders, v e l l u m )
s o d i u m c o m p o u n d s (acetate, alginate, arsenate, bicarbonate, borate or
tetraborate, b r o m i d e , carbonate, chloride, cyanide, dithionate,
h y d r o x i d e , hypochlorite, metasilicate, metasulfate, perborate,
phosphates, silicofluoride, thiosulphate)
spices
stearin (glycerol tristearate)
s t r o n t i u m chloride
suet
sulfuryl fluoride
surfactants (detergents, soaps, w e t t i n g agents)
tetramethylthiuram disulfide
water
waxes (beeswax, C a r n a u b a , paraffin, microcystalline)
w o o d products (excelsior, masonite, p l y w o o d s , sawdust)
w o o d s ( h a r d w o o ds and softwoods)
w o o l fibers and fabrics
z i n c c o m p o u n d s ( o x i d e , sulfate)

Above, these deer mice were prepared at various dates from the early 1800s
to the 1970s (top left to bottom right). Except for the first specimen, which
was prepared as a taxidermy mount, the preparation technique appears to be
the same. Below, an X-radiograph of the same specimens shows variations on
the standard preparation method, including the placement of support wires,
location o f bones remaining in the skins, and distribution of metal salts used
in preparation.

Preserving Natural Science Collections

Figure 2-3
Forms of Documentation
in Natural Science Collections
accession records a n d p e r m i t files
annotated maps
card files o n various topics Because of the rapid proliferation of new
cassette tapes [electronic] technologies for the capture and
color slides retrieval o f information, the permanent retention
of information residing in... inherently unstable
compact discs
formats will require archival intervention in
computer printouts decisions regarding the very creation of those
computer t a p e s / d i s k s records.
correspondence —Commission on Preservation and Access,
files o f detached specimen labels Task Forces on Archival Selection, 1993

historical artifacts a n d other m e m o r a b i l i a (early microscopes,

collecting equipment, personal items from p r o m i n e n t collectors)
library resources (often i n c l u d i n g rare books and j o u r n a l s )
loan files
manuscript field notes and other manuscript research records
m o t i o n picture film
original catalogues
original sketches, watercolors and other artwork
phonographic records
photographic negatives and prints
plates or prints
radiographs
reel-to-reel tapes
reprint files
s a m p l i n g / d i s s e c t i o n records
specimen labels
videotapes

Documentation is a significant part o f the value o f this mycology specimen or

any other research specimen.

The Scope and Nature of the Conservation Challenge 25

T o be credible and to elicit a positive, fruitful response from
supporters o f museums, expressions o f financial need must
not be crisis-oriented. They must come instead as part of a
larger assertion that museums are essential national resources
which not only merit but require a system o f financial
support in which all sectors o f society participate.
—American Association of Museums,
Commission on Museums for a New Century, 1984
Chapter Three
Meeting the Challenge:
Recommendations and Strategies

Stewardship of Collections
T h e foundation for meeting the multiple challenges posed by the
conservation a n d preservation o f natural science collections is responsible
stewardship. M e m b e r s h i p i n an institution's g o v e r n i n g authority carries
w i t h it an ethical o b l i g a t i o n — a n d , increasingly, a legal obligation—for
the prudent management and oversight o f the institution's collections.
Staff members , particularly top management, are partners i n this obliga- T h e crisis we are confronting is not just a crisis
tion. W i t h the leadership o f board members and key staff, collections of funding. I t is a crisis of consciousness. It is a
crisis in understanding the purpose of our
preservation and conservation can be valued t h r o u g h o u t an institution as
institutions and the meaning of the collections
priorities central to the institution's mission. which have been entrusted to us... We must
address the needs of these collections, not only
for society today but, more important, for
S o u n d governance and management place the overall interests o f the
societies tomorrow.
institution before those o f any single organizational c o m p o n e n t . To
— P a u l N . Perrot, 1987
ensure that all needs are met, plans must be made to address t h e m i n a
strategic manner. W h e n m i s s i o n is the starting poin t for an institutiona l
plan, the institution-wide approach t o collections preservation and
conservation is emphasized, a n d research and collections needs are
integrated w i t h educational p r o g r a m m i n g a n d e x h i b i t i o n goals. T h e
formulation o f an institutional plan is an exercise i n self-analysis that helps
the institution define itself, its service to society, its strengths and
weaknesses, its base o f support and its fundin g and resource allocation
strategies.

Responsible stewardship includes the d u t y to limit the size o f collections.

N o institution c a n afford unrestrained collections g r o w t h . Specimens
that cannot be cared for properly become liabilities rather t h a n assets. N o
institution c a n responsibly allow or encourage g r o w t h that is n o t
supported w i t h adequate resources for collections care. C o l l e c t i o n s
management policies, for the institution and for individual collections,
provide mechanisms to define the appropriate scope o f each c o l l e c t i o n ,
formulate acceptable approaches to accessioning and deaccessioning,
and manage the use a n d care o f collections. S u c h policies ensure that the

27
 g r o w t h o f any collection is consistent w i t h the mission and resources o f
the institution as a w h o l e . T h e y also assign responsibility and authority
for policy implementatio n to appropriate staff.

M a n y conservation concerns ca n be addressed o n l y o n an institution-

w i d e basis o r are cost-effective o n l y w h e n coordinated throughout an
institution. F o r this reason, it is i m p o r t a nt to adopt a phased plan and
identify priorities a m o n g the concerns. A long-range conservation plan
enables an institution to integrate collections care i n t o an overall strategic
p l a n . T h e Institute o f M u s e u m Services ( I M S ) has p r o v i d e d conservation
assessment and p l a n n i n g grants to n u m e r o u s natural science museums
t h r o u g h its C o n s e r v a t i o n Project S u p p o r t ( C P ) p r o g r a m and t h r o u g h
the N I C - a d m i n i s t e r e d C o n s e r v a t i o n Assessment P r o g r a m ( C A P ) . C o n -
servation Project Support grants have also helped many o f these muse-
u m s to i m p l e m e n t various phases o f their plans.

Recommendations:
C o l l e c t i n g institutions m u s t m a k e collections care a p r i o r i t y i n their
m i s s i o n statements, m a n a g e m e n t policies a n d resource allocations.
T h i s c o m m i t m e n t s h o u l d be c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h the inherent value
o f the i n f o r m a t i o n the collections c o n t a i n .

Strategies
Storage designs based on preventive conserva-
tion principles promote specimen preservation
• D o c u m e n t at the highest organizational level the fiduciary
obligations a n d liabilities inherent i n the ownershi p o f
collections.
• D e v e l o p appropriate mission statements, policies,
administrative frameworks a n d staffing to ensure that
collections housed i n university departments and other
n o n m u s e u m agencies are cared for according to professional
m u s e u m standards.
• K e e p collections g r o w t h compatible w i t h the research goals
o f the institution and w i t h the resources available for
collections care t o ensure present and future research utility.
• R e q u i r e that collections care resources be part o f any research
proposal that w i l l result i n collections g r o w t h .
• Prepare cost estimates o f w h a t c an be accomplished i n
collections care given a specific allocation o f resources.
• Seek n e w resources by applyin g for private and public
funding for preventive care, or reallocate existing resources to
meet collections care needs.
• C o m p u t e r i z e collections catalogues to facilitate management
and u s ef collections,
Q

and facilitate access to collections.

C o l l e c t i n g institutions m u s t develop strategic plans for improved

collections care.

Strategies
• C o n d u c t a t h o r o u g h self-assessment o f collections care
policies and procedures, w i t h emphasis o n the adequacy o f
physical security, d o c u m e n t a t i o n and accessibility.

28 Preserving Natural Science Collections

 • U n d e r t a k e conservation assessment and long-range p l a n n i n g
projects, i n c l u d i n g periodic updates.

I n d i v i d u a l s w h o s e research results i n collections m u s t ensure the

long-term preservation o f collections b y p l a n n i n g for their o n g o i n g
care.

Strategies
• Prepare a m e m o r a n d u m o f understanding w i t h a suitable
repository prior to u n d e r t a k i ng any research project that w i l l
result i n collections.
Among our greatest threats are ourselves, and
• I n c l u d e collections care resources i n any research proposal
our persistence in the old ways: our wish to
that w i l l result i n collections. demonstrate our value by talking in highly
technical language and our failure to really work
F u n d i n g agencies m u s t s u p p o r t collections care initiatives i n n a t u r a l to strengthen our image in the community.
science institutions. —Des Griffin, 1993

Strategies
• P u b l i c i z e to the natural science c o m m u n i t y the c u r r e nt
sources o f funding for i m p r o v e d collections care.
• R e q u i r e that collections care resources be part o f any research
funding proposal that w i l l result i n collections g r o w t h .
• R e q u i r e and support conservation assessments a n d l o n g -
range p l a n n i n g projects, i n c l u d i n g periodic updates.

C o l l e c t i o n s care a n d conservation organizations m u s t s u p p o r t insti-

tutional collections care initiatives.

Strategies
• Provide staff and g o v e r n i n g boards w i t h information o n the
fiduciary nature o f the responsibility for public trust
collections.
• Prepare cost-benefit ratios to demonstrate that g o o d
collections care can be cost-effective i f priorities are
developed institution-wid e rather t h a n o n the basis o f
individual collections.
• Publiciz e the c u r r e nt sources o f funding for collections care,
i n c l u d i n g regional a n d local sources.
• D e v e l o p , t h r o u g h collections organizations s u c h as A S C and
S P N H C , guidelines to help natural science collecting
institutions prepare institutional plans, collections policies,
m e m o r a n d a o f understanding and other documents relating
to collections care and use.

Public Awareness of Collections and Conservation

T h e effort to cultivate increased support for collections-based research
and collections conservation must include a broad-based attempt to
improve public understanding o f the importance o f natural science
collections and the relationship o f collections conservation efforts to o u r
ability to manage, preserve and interpret o u r natural heritage. H e i g h t -
ened awareness o f the m e a n i n g and significance o f materials conservation

Meeting the Challenge: Recommendations and Strategies 29


Museums exist by virtue o f their collections. I n
fact, a collection is the hallmark o f a museum—
the criterion distinguishing it from any other
scientific, cultural or educational institution.
Deprive a museum of its collections and that
museum will cease to exist; allow the standard o f
collection care to decline and the status of the
whole museum sinks with it.
— C . K . Brain, 1990
30 Preserving Natural Science Collections
is needed n o t o n l y a m o n g those w h o w o r k professionally w i t h natural
science collections but also a m o n g those w h o benefit i n some w a y from
the scientific, historical or esthetic value o f these collections.
T h e significance o f collections a n d the value o f the information they
contain go largely u n n o t i c e d outside the natural science professions.
T h e r e is little recognition that collections are critical information re-
sources that a l l o w us to u n d e r s t a n d global change, e v o l u t i on or
biodiversity, although that recognition is g r o w i n g . Specime n conserva-
tion, too , remains a largely h i d d e n activity. T h e behind-the-scenes
components o f m u s e u m s a n d other collecting institutions are rarely seen
by or effectively explained to the p u b l i c . E x h i b i t s a n d educational
programs i n natural history m u s e u m s are often based o n research
c o n d u c t e d i n the collections, but they rarely explore this w o r k or the
effort required to create a n d m a i n t a in the collections. T h e problems are
worse for university departmental collections because they are rarely seen
by the public at all and are s e l d om central to the mission o f the institution
responsible for their care.
N a t u r a l scientists need to b r i n g their activities i n t o public view. Public
awareness efforts m u s t be r e c o g n i z ed as a legitimate and essential part o f
the w o r k o f these professionals. C o n v i n c i n g the public that collections
are vital to environmenta l conservation, global change and biotechnol-
ogy for agriculture and medicine w i l l broaden the base o f support for the
collections a n d the institutions that house t h e m .
T h e primary audiences for conservation awareness efforts include:
• decision makers i n the private a n d public sectors, w h o as
board member s o r c h i e f executives c o n t r o l the policies and
priorities o f collecting institutions, businesses, foundations
and government entities;
• e n v i r o n m e n t al conservation organizations, w h i c h represent a
different but c o m p l e m e n t a r y part o f the conservation
spectrum a n d make w i d e use o f i n f o r m a t i o n derived from
natural science collections;
• scientific disciplinary organizations, w h o s e members should
be i n f o r m e d proponents o f collections care; a n d
• the general public , whose understanding , interest and
c o m m i t m e n t are essential to secure and sustain support o f
collections conservation.
P u b l i c awareness efforts can take a variety o f forms: videos promotin g
conservation topics to be s h o w n i n schools and museums; special
television series; exhibits i n m u s e u m s , schools and less traditional venues;
newspaper and magazine articles; a n d special publications. B u t i n addi-
t i o n to advertising a n d p u b l i c relations, n e w ways must be found to create
a public awareness effort that has lasting impact. Programs such as that
recently established by the N S F t o introduce h i g h school and under-
graduate college students to research collections are an excellent means
o f instilling a lifelong interest i n science and fostering an understanding
o f collections.

A successful campaign m u s t be supported by some fundamental informa-

tion, including:
• data o n the use o f collections-based informatio n by It is also time for systematic biologists, who
government, public interest and environmental conservation traditionally go about their work quiedy and
groups and by the private sector; unobtrusively, to invite others to their "secret
garden" and explain clearly to us, their guests,
• descriptions o f w h a t the loss o f a collection means to a what it is they offer that we need.
region, particularly i n regard to education; and
— L o r d Dainton, 1993
• cost projections for collections care, i n c l u d i n g estimates o f
w h a t can be accomplished given a specific allocation o f
resources.

Recommendations:
O n the local o r regional level, collecting institutions s h o u l d create
programs to enhance p u b l i c awareness o f the significance o f their
collections a n d the s h a r ed responsibilities o f stewardship.

Strategies
• Create expanded science education initiatives that introduce
h i g h school students to specimen-based research.
• Offer behind-the-scenes tours or programs for policy makers,
and present exhibits for the general m u s e u m audience that
focus o n the value o f collections.
• U s e television and other local m e d ia to publicize the value
and use o f collections.
• D e v e l o p cost projections for collections care, i n c l u d i n g
estimates o f w h a t can be accomplished w i t h a specific
allocation o f resources a n d the costs to society i f collections
are lost.

O n the national level, p u b l i c awareness initiatives m u s t be developed

to h i g h l i g h t the value o f collections to society a n d the need for
collections conservation.

Strategies
• P r o m o t e alliances a m o n g the diverse groups that create,
m a i n t a i n , use, fund and benefit from collections.
• D o c u m e n t the use o f collections by government, business
and nonprofit organizations.
• D e v e l o p publications, videos a n d television presentations o n
the value o f collections, aimed at a variety o f audiences.

For many years this building housed geology

Staffing, Education and Training
A l l professionals w h o w o r k w i t h natural science collections—whether i n
administration, research, collections management , exhibitions or educa-
tional p r o g r a m m i n g — n e e d access to basic, substantive, up-to-date
education a n d t r a i n i n g i n collections care i n order to carry o u t their
responsibilities effectively. I m p r o v e m e n t s are needed i n three areas:
and paleontology collections. After a major
public awareness initiative, two bond issues were
passed that will contribute $20 million toward
the construction of a new complex to house
these and other collections.

Meeting the Challenge: Recommendations and Strategies 31


Many natural science specimens are preserved in
fluids; a typical collection uses a variety of jars
and tanks for storage.
32 Preserving Natural Science Collections
• the level o f knowledge a m o n g those n o w caring for and using
natural science collections;
• the professional qualifications and status o f collections
managers; and
• the n u m b e r o f trained natural science conservators i n N o r t h
America.
E d u c a t i o n and trainin g initiatives that w o u l d address these needs include
formal in-service education, informal professional exchanges and pre-
service education.
In-Service Education
A l t h o u g h there are some graduate programs i n the management o f
natural science collections, most collections management staff do not
have formal training i n this field. K n o w l e d g e o f collections management
a n d care generally is acquired o n the j o b . W o r k s h o p s , short courses,
seminars and symposia c o n d u c t ed by knowledgeable conservation pro-
fessionals are an efficient means o f disseminating information o n a variety
o f conservation topics and increasing collections care expertise as new
information becomes available. Similar in-service initiatives directed
t o w a r d conservators w h o are n o t specialists i n the conservation o f natural
science collections w i l l enable t h e m to understand the special require-
ments o f these collections, particularly i n preventive conservation.
A series o f formal short courses i n collections managemen t could be
developed t h r o u g h major natural history m u s e u m s. F o r m a l short courses
o n conservation topics can be arranged t h r o u g h major conservation
laboratories, regional conservation centers, conservation and collections
management academic trainin g programs or the conservation depart-
ments o f major museums. S y m p o s i a , w o r k s h o p s a n d seminars conducted
at meetings sponsored by conservation a n d preservation organizations
(e.g., S P N H C , A m e r i c a n Institute for C o n s e r v a t i o n o f H i s t o r i c and
Artistic W o r k s ) , by disciplinary societies i n the natural sciences and by
umbrella organizations such as A S C also help to provide up-to-date
information.
Professional Exchanges
Less formal t h a n structured in-service training initiatives, professional
exchanges—both national and international—encourage the dissemina-
t i o n o f c u r r e n t and pertinent i n f o r m a t i on a m o n g a variety o f profession-
als w o r k i n g i n areas relevant to natural science collections conservation.
D i a l o g u e a m o n g disciplines w i t h i n institutions promote s a cost-effective
exchange o f informatio n and ideas and a coordinated effort toward
collections care.
I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y dialogue can be initiated t h r o u g h :
• consolidation and dissemination o f information on pertinent
topics and existing technologies v i a resource databases,
 bibliographic databases, databases o n supplies and equipment
and lists o f conservation research projects;
• participation i n interdisciplinary collections care and
management organizations; Present conservation training programs owe
• inclusion o f collections care topics i n major interdisciplinary their origins to the needs of art galleries and
forums, s u c h as the meetings o f A S C and the A m e r i c a n history museums and are usually located in
university faculties of fine art. They may draw on
Institute for B i o l o g i c a l Sciences ( A I B S ) ;
existing courses in other faculties for such
• representation o f collections care and management subjects as chemistry, biology, and business
organizations at natural science professional society meetings administration, but course work that specifically
t h r o u g h presentations a n d resource booths; and addresses natural science collections would
require a fundamental reorientation.
• development o f interdisciplinary collections committees
w i t h i n collectin g institutions. —Philip Ward, 1986

Intradisciplinary dialogue can be initiated t h r o u g h :

• establishment o f collections committees i n scientific
disciplinary societies to help host workshops and compile
information resources;
• disciplinary newsletters that advertise the availability o f
conservation information resources and provide n e w
information i n a timely manner; a n d
• symposia and w o r k s h o p s sponsored by conservation
organizations that address natural science conservation issues
for conservators i n other specialty fields.

Pre-Service Education
A l l professionals w h o plan to w o r k w i t h collections s h o u l d have some
level o f conservation trainin g as part o f their academic training. Graduate
programs for b o t h collections managers and conservators i n the natural
sciences should be located at institutions that have strong academic
traditions i n systematics a n d affiliations w i t h conservation educators a n d
w i t h major natural history m u s e u m s. T h e training w o u l d be a c c o m -
plished t h r o u g h course w o r k and hands-on experience i n the collections.
Ideally, accredited programs w o u l d be evenly distributed t h r o u g h o u t the
country.

Research Scientists. F o r research scientists i n collections-based disci-

plines, the graduate c u r r i c u l u m s h o u l d include at least one course i n
research administration ( i n c l u d i n g organizational m a n a g e m e n t ) and one
course that covers the basic concepts o f collections management and
preventive conservation for scientific collections. T h i s preparation w i l l
contribute to a productive partnership a m o n g researchers, collections
managers and conservators.

Collections M a n a g e r s . T h e r e is a g r o w i n g need for collections manag-

ers w h o have b o t h a s o u n d k n o w l e d g e o f the scientific discipline i n w h i c h
they w o r k a n d a b a c k g r o u n d i n collections management techniques. T h e Jars containing fluid-preserved specimens were
swept off their shelves and broken during a
movement to recognize collections m a n a g e m e n t as a profession and as
flood. Restraining bars on shelves greatly reduce
a distinct p r o g r a m element and organizational responsibility is a signifi- the potential for damage during a flood,
cant step i n i m p r o v i n g the care o f scientific collections. A c c r e d i t e d earthquake or other disaster.
master's-level graduate programs for students specializing i n this field

Meeting the Challenge: Recommendations and Strategies 33


T o provide a shocking statistic, in all o f conti-
nental Amazonia, there are no more than 300
well-trained natural scientists. Worse yet, there is
not a single specialist on collections. Collection
practices are based on "oral history" and visual
remembrances of short visits to reputable
institutions.
—Guilherme M . de L a Penha, 1993
34 Preserving Natural Science Collections
s h o u l d incorporate one o r mor e i n t r o d u c t o ry courses i n preventive
conservation as part o f the c u r r i c u l u m .
C o n s e r v a t o r s . Specialized graduate programs w i l l be necessary to
develop a cadre o f conservators for the natural sciences. T h e proposed
prerequisites and c u r r i c u l u m for a p r o g r am to train bioscience and
geoscience conservators are i n c l u d e d i n appendix A .
N a t u r a l science conservators s h o u l d specialize i n either the bio- or
geosciences b u t must have a reasonable k n o w l e d g e o f b o t h areas to
enable t h e m to serve the b r o a d interests o f natural history museums or
regional conservation centers. T h e proposed c u r r i c u l u m is structured to
cover the standard topics that are the core o f any conservation training
p r o g r a m , w i t h adaptations for the special needs i n the natural sciences.
A n alternate approach to natural science conservation training programs
c o u l d be considered. A cooperative p r o g r a m w i t h courses at established
conservation programs and block courses t h r o u g h other universities
affiliated w i t h major natural history m u s e u m s is one possibility.
Publications
Several types o f publications are necessary to support education and
training initiatives and disseminate collections care informatio n through-
out the natural sciences. T h e s e publications include textbooks, guide-
lines, method s manuals, annotated bibliographies, resource directories,
critical reviews o f available literature, statements o f professional stan-
dards and conservation research reports.
Recommendations:
A n intensive graduate p r o g r a m i n the conservation o f natural
science collections m u s t be established immediately to train a core
g r o u p o f conservators.
Strategies
• M o d i f y the m u s e u m science and conservation curricula i n an
existing university p r o g r a m , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a major
natural history m u s e u m .
• Specify as prerequisites a master's degree i n a scientific
discipline, experience i n natural science collections and
extensive preventive conservation experience and training.
• Seek support for stipends, p r o g r a m costs and paid leave for
participants.
A n o n g o i n g graduate p r o g r a m i n the conservation o f natural science
collections m u s t be established t o t r a i n conservators for the future.
Strategies
• C o m b i n e the p r o g r a m w i t h a trainin g program for
ethnographic and archaeological conservators.
 • L o c a t e the p r o g r a m at a university that is affiliated w i t h a
major natural history m u s e u m and has an established
m u s e u m studies p r o g r a m .
• Seek support for stipends, fellowships and progra m costs.
• W o r k w i t h international m u s e u m and conservation
organizations to encourage participation by foreign students,
particularly students f r o m developing nations.
• D e v e l o p publications a n d other didactic materials necessary
to support the c u r r i c u l u m .

Conservators f r o m other fields s h o u l d be m a d e aware o f the special

needs o f n a t u r a l science collections a n d the areas i n w h i c h their
expertise is relevant.

Strategy
• Sponsor workshop s a n d symposia at meetings o f conservation
organizations o n natural science collections conservation
issues and opportunities.

D i r e c t o r s , research scientists a n d collections managers m u s t gain a

fuller u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f their roles a n d responsibilities i n collections
care.

Strategies
• Incorporate preventive conservation courses i n the c u r r i c u l a
o f graduate programs i n the management o f natural science
collections.
• Incorporate a course i n research administration a n d a course
i n collections management a n d preventive conservation i n
graduate programs for systematists.
• E n c o u r a g e the i n c l u s i o n o f collections care training i n
academic internships and apprenticeships for collections
managers.
• Sponsor presentations by experts from other fields ( s u c h as
paper conservation a n d p o l y m e r c h e m i s t r y ) at scientific This label identifies a botanical type specimen
collected by John Charles Fremont in 1844. The
disciplinary society meetings a n d other professional meetings.
paper and the adhesive used to attach it to the
E x p a n d the audience for these presentations t h r o u g h
herbarium sheet are inherently acidic. Informa-
teleconferencing o r other c o m m u n i c a t i o n s technology.
tion available from the field of paper conserva-
• I m p r o v e the collections care skills o f collections managers tion provides the means to preserve important
t h r o u g h in-service t r a i n i ng and professional exchange. documents and prevent future conservation
problems in collections documentation.
• D e v e l o p publications o n various aspects o f preventive
conservation i n the natural sciences.

I n s t i t u t i o n s m u s t develop, s u p p o r t a n d encourage staff e d u c a t i o n

a n d interdisciplinary professional exchange as investments i n collec-
tions care.

Strategies
• D e v e l o p a comprehensive series o f one-week courses o n the
basic principles o f collections management to provide
collections managers w i t h appropriate in-service t r a i n i n g .

Meeting the Challenge: Recommendations and Strategies 35


I would ask that there be a greater willingness
to accept change in collection care, in spite of
the difficulties of change, and...that the prob-
lems of collection care be attacked with more
imagination.
—Boyd W . Walker, 1963
36 Preserving Natural Science Collections
• Support staff participation i n interdisciplinary, international
collections care organizations a n d attendance at symposia and
workshops.
• R e q u i r e appropriate professional education a n d c o n t i n u i ng
training for all staff.
Technology Transfer
M a n y o f the conservation concerns expressed by those w h o use and care
for natural science collections have been addressed i n the bodies o f
knowledge that exist i n closely allied disciplines such as chemistry,
physics, engineering, materials science a n d various collections conserva-
t i o n fields. F o r example, concerns i n v o l v i n g specimen label papers do not
require additional research because extant paper conservation research
can be applied t o these questions. T h e literature i n organic chemistry,
medical research and forensic pathology has m u c h to offer i n regard to
the chemistry o f fixation a n d fluid preservation o f specimens.
O r g a n i z i n g the widespread i n f o r m a t i o n base o n the chemical and
physical properties o f materials a n d presenting it i n a useful format for
application to preservation problems has been a major effort o n the part
o f the conservation c o m m u n i t y for m o r e t h a n 5 0 years. Incorporatin g
additional research topics pertinent to the natural sciences and dissemi-
nating the information t h r o u g h network s that reach this constituency are
feasible undertakings that w o u l d facilitate the transfer o f technology and
the development o f focused conservation research investigations.
A p p e n d i x B contains detailed lists o f technology transfer and research
topics suggested by participants i n this project's w o r k i n g groups, mate-
rials science panels and disciplinary organization meetings.
Recommendation:
T h e n a t u r a l science c o m m u n i t y s h o u l d seek the transfer o f informa-
t i o n a n d technology from o t h e r conservation fields, scientific disci-
plines a n d i n d u s t r y.
Strategies
• E s t a b l i s h an international i n f o r m a t i o n clearinghouse to
coordinate existing information databases, disseminate
publications and prepare n e w i n f o r m a t i o n tools, including
didactic materials.
• T h r o u g h existing organizations, prepare directories o f
laboratories, corporations a n d individuals w i l l i n g to serve as
research resources for natural science conservation.
• Prepare lists o f current research investigations that can be
applied to the conservation o f natural science collections.
• Sponsor interdisciplinary a n d / o r international meetings and
workshops.
Conservation Research
T h e proliferation o f biodiversity programs to sample disappearing eco-
systems lends urgenc y to the need for scientific research, both applied and
basic, to answer fundamental questions relating to the preparation, care,
storage, e x h i b i t i o n a n d documentatio n o f natural science collections.
Analytical services to respond to straightforward inquiries, short-term
projects to solve specific problems a n d long-term research o n fundamen-
tal deterioration a n d preservation concerns are essential to protect the
scientific integrity o f collections a n d ensure their survival.

T h e nature o f m u c h o f the conservation research needed depends o n the

type o f investigation that w i l l be conducted using the specimens.
C a t e g o r i z i n g specimens by their intended e n d use, defining the aspects
that are important to preserve to support each use, a n d then d e t e r m i n i ng
the level o f deterioration that is acceptable for each aspect w i l l provide a
framework for conservation research into n e w preparation methods.
A l t h o u g h there is n o w a y to predict w h a t information i n a specimen
m i g h t be important to scientists a century or more i n the future,
reasonable projections c a n be based o n the emerging techniques i n
biology, biochemistry a n d geochemistry. Preparing specimens i n several
formats a n d developing the least interventive methods for each format
may be the o n ly feasible approaches.

T w o primary concerns cross all scientific disciplines:

• the impact o f current and past practices a n d materials o n
l o n g - t e r m preservation a n d o n the utility o f the specimens for
scientific studies, a n d
• the development o f n e w methods a n d materials for the
preservation and care o f specimens collected i n the future.

Addressing these concerns involves assessing materials interactions a n d

developing appropriate specifications for b o t h materials a n d methods.

W i t h i n these t w o broad categories, the topics for w h i c h research, coupled

w i t h technology transfer, are needed can be grouped as follows (see
appendix B for a detailed list o f research and technology transfer topics):

Specimen Preparation
• field collecting a n d preparation methods a n d materials for use
i n a variety o f climates
4000 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1B00 1600 1400 1200 1000 BOO 600

• laboratory preparation methods and materials for various uses

o f specimens
Post-Preparation Care
• methods a n d materials to c o n t r ol biodeterioration, especially
c o n t r o l o f insect pests a n d microorganisms
• techniques to m o n i t o r , assess a n d reduce observed
deterioration, i n c l u d i n g diagnostic methods for early
detection o f specimen deterioration
Infrared spectra are used to identify types of
natural organic materials that may have been
used in the preparation of specimens. Laborato
ties that routinely provide this and other
conservation-oriented analytical services.are
found in Canada but are not readily available to
conservators and collections staff in the United
States.

Meeting the Challenge: Recommendations and Strategies 37


A researcher prepares Ganoderma sp., a bracket
fungus, for storage in compact shelving.
Specimens in mycology collections may range
from microscopic to among the largest organ-
isms on earth.
Long-term research is sometimes mistakenly
regarded as a luxury, but it is, in fact, the fuel of
future knowledge.
—Philip Ward, 1986
38 Preserving Natural Science Collections
• methods and materials for specimen cleaning and restoration
o r repair
Storage and Exhibit Environments
• environmenta l conditions ( e . g . , light, temperature, relative
h u m i d i t y , inorganic a n d organic pollutant levels, and levels o f
shock and v i b r a t i o n )
• methods a n d materials for storage, e x h i b i t i o n , and shipping
and packing
Specimen Documentation
• methods and materials for specimen labeling
• methods and materials for the creation and care o f other
collections d o c u m e n t a t i o n (databases, library and archival
materials)
• methods to d o c u m e n t preparation techniques and other
specimen treatments
Recommendations:
A n e w interdisciplinary conservation research p r o g r a m s h o u l d be
established at one or m o r e l e a d i ng institutions.
Strategies
• F u n d the p r o g r a m t h r o u g h existing agencies and coordinate
it t h r o u g h existing laboratories.
• D e v e l o p the p r o g r a m i n partnership w i t h private and public
funding agencies.
• Set priorities for conservation research based o n the needs o f
multiple collections.
• F o c u s research o n the materials that comprise collections to
ensure that the results w i l l be broadly applicable i n the
natural sciences.
R e g i o n a l o r centralized conservation analytical services s h o u l d be
m a d e available.
Strategy
• U s e existing conservation laboratories, regional conservation
centers or university-amliated major natural history museums
as analytical service centers i n order to m i n i m i z e costs.
Agencies that f u n d collections care s h o u l d e x p a n d the scope o f their
s u p p o r t to include conservatio n research.
Strategies
• E n c o u r a g e private foundations to develop programs to
support conservation research.
• E x p a n d the N S F collections support p r o g r a m, or develop a
n e w N S F research p r o g r a m to support interdisciplinary
conservation research.
• E x p a n d the I M S conservation programs, or develop a small
I M S grants p r o g r a m to fund conservation research.
Guidelines and Standards of Practice
T h e development o f guidelines and standards o f practice—as w e l l as
specifications for materials a n d methods i n specimen preparation, stor-
age, e x h i b i t i on a n d d o c u m e n t a t i o n — w i l l m a x i m i z e the future research
utility o f collections a n d help clarify conservation needs. D e v e l o p i n g
specifications and standards o f practice w i l l further efforts to assess the
impact o f preparation and post-preparation treatment over time and
reduce future uncertainty about the treatment history o f specimens.

N e w approaches to specimen care w i l l require long-term multidisciplinary

research. I n the i n t e r i m , m o d i f y i ng current practices c o u l d help improve
specimen conservation. U l t i m a t e l y , the widespread acceptance o f m o d i -
There is ample opportunity for research in the
fied practices and specified materials w i l l depend o n broad-based review field of collecting and preserving specimens in
and testing processes a n d close c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h the groups the the tropics. Raw, fundamental investigations
that start very basically with the environment of
changes are intended to benefit.
the collections themselves are needed to expand
the boundaries of the standard techniques used
I n addition, an understanding o f the scope, state a n d status o f collections in Europe, the U . S . , Japan and Canada. Tropical
is essential to the effort to quantify the conservation needs o f natural conservation o f collections is a wide-open field
in all its disciplines, from microbiology to hard
science collections. T h r o u g h the sponsorship o f the N S F , the natural
chemistry and physics.
sciences have taken the first step t o w a r d identifying the scope o f the
—Guilherme M . de L a Penha, 1993
collected resource t h r o u g h the development o f c o m p u t e r i z e d collections
catalogues at many institutions. T h e s e catalogues also increase the
accessibility o f collections for research and are an important collections
management t o o l . A major effort is n o w under w a y to define data
standards i n order to create a n e t w o r k o f databases. Directories o f
collections developed by various disciplinary organizations also facilitate
collections use and ca n be e m p l o y e d to track collections over time,
allowing these groups to m o n i t o r threatened o r endangered collections.

Recommendations:
The n a t u r a l science c o m m u n i t y s h o u l d establish guidelines or
standards o f practice i n all aspects o f collections care.

Strategy
• D e v e l o p , t h r o u g h A S C and S P N H C , a multidisciplinary task
force to survey existing standards and draft preliminary
guidelines for review by the natural science c o m m u n i t y .

Specifications for materials a n d m e t h o d s used i n p r e p a r i n g , s t o r i n g ,

labeling a n d e x h i b i t i n g n a t u r a l science specimens s h o u l d be devel-
oped a n d u p d a t e d routinely.

Strategies
• F o r m multidisciplinary committees t h r o u g h the A m e r i c a n
Society o f T e s t i n g Materials, the A m e r i c a n N a t i o n a l
Standards Institute or other standards organizations.
• D e v e l o p methods to test materials supplied by vendors.
• C o n s i d e r health and safety issues i n all methods, materials
and testing techniques.

Meeting the Challenge: Recommendations and Strategies 39

 Efficient methods to d o c u m e n t specimen preparation, sampling,
a n d other treatments o r use s h o u l d be developed to ensure the
research integrity o f the collections.

Strategies
• A d a p t models used i n other disciplines, particularly for
c o m p u t e r i z e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f treatment histories.
• D e v e l o p standardized t e r m i n o l o g y for assessing the condition
o f specimens and collections.
• U r g e that preparation protocols be i n c l u d e d i n proposals for
field w o r k and i n publications o n specimen-based research.

Databases a n d n e t w o r k s s h o u l d be developed a n d m a i n t a i n ed to
provide the wides t societal access to the i n f o r m a t i o n inherent i n
n a t u r a l science collections.

Strategies
• C o n t i n u e , t h r o u g h A S C , the effort to define standards to
facilitate n e t w o r k i n g o f collections databases.
• D e v e l o p a national, publicly supported program for
c o m p u t e r i z e d collections databases and n e t w o r k i n g to
improve dissemination o f i n f o r m a t i o n to the public,
scientists, e n v i r o n m e n t al conservationists, public officials,
land and aquatic managers, industry managers and other
users.

40 Preserving Natural Science Collections

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D e p a r t m e n t o f the E n v i r o n m e n t i n Association w i t h T h e N a t u -
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Environment, London, England.

H o l l a n d , P . G . 1 9 7 5 . T h e use o f herbariu m records i n biogeography.

Professional Geographer 27(4):47S-A79.

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5 4 1 i n A Manual of Curatorship: A Guide to Museum Practice
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Oxford, England.

H o u s e o f L o r d s Select C o m m i t t e e o n Science and T e c h n o l o g y . 1 9 9 1 .

Systematic Biology Research, Volume 1 -Report. House of Lords
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England.

76 Preserving Natural Science Collections

H u i l u n , H u a , Z h o u M a n z h a n g and P . D o o l e y . 1 9 9 2 . N a t u r a l history
museums and their role i n conservation: A Chinese perspective.
Curator 35(3):206-214.

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Services and Management: A Bibliography. Special Publications
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G W r f r y 63(9):513A-515A.

M a y , R . M . 1 9 9 2 . H o w m a n y species inhabit the earth? Scientific

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N i c h o l s o n , T . D . 1 9 9 1 . Preserving the earth's biological diversity: T h e

role o f museums . Curator 34(2):85-108.

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Ricklefs. Auk 9 8 : 1 9 3 - 1 9 5 .

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Pettitt, C . 1 9 9 1 . P u t t i n g " b l o o d y m i c e " to g o o d use. Museums Journal

91(8):25-28.

Radetsky, P . T h e first case. Discover 1 2 : 7 4 - 7 5 .

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nature conservation i n S o u t h Africa. P p . 1 4 5 - 1 5 1 i n Natural
History Collections: Their Management and Value(E. Herholdt,
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S o u t h Africa.

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W i g g i n s , G . B . , S. A . M a r s h a l l and J . A . D o w n e s . 1 9 9 1 . T h e importance
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78 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Glossary of Selected Terms

accession: an object acquired by a m u s e u m as part o f its permanent

collection; the act o f r e c o r d i ng and processing an addition to the
permanent collection.

acidic: h a v i n g a p H less than 7.0.

albumen: p r i n t i n g paper w i t h egg whites added to the w h i t e base to

enhance the highlights o f the photographic prints.

ambrotype: an early type o f photograph consisting o f a glass negative

backed by a dark surface so as to appear positive, made by the
collodion process invente d i n the m i d - 1 9 t h century by F r e d e r i c k
Scott A r c h e r ( 1 8 1 3 - 5 7 ) , an E n g l i s h photographer.

archival: t e r m applied to records preserved because they are deemed to

be o f c o n t i n u i n g value; t e r m loosely used to i m p l y that products ,
particularly paper products, are suitable for preservation pur-
poses.

baculi: plural o f b a c u l u m , a bone i n the penises o f certain m a m m a l s .

bar code: variable-widt h stripes o n packaging or tags that identify the

i t e m and provide other data w h e n read by an optical scanner.

bimetallic alkaline glassware: containers produced from glass c o m p o s e d

o f silica, s o d i u m oxide and c a l c i u m oxide.

biochemistry: the study o f the chemistry o f living organisms, especially

the structure and function o f their chemical components.

biodeterioration: degradation resulting from the activity o f organisms.

biodiversity ( o r biological diversity): terms used to describe the s u m o f

the variety o f life o n earth; diversity o f ecosystems, o f species and
o f genes.

biogeographers: scientists w h o study the geographical distributions o f

organisms, their habitats (ecological biogeography) and the

79
 historical and biological factors that produce t h e m (historical
biogeography).

biomechanics: study o f the mechanics o f l i v i n g things; scientists w h o

study the mechanics o f living things.

bioscience: contractio n o f the t e r m " b i o l o g i c a l science."

biota: the c o m b i n e d flora, fauna and microorganisms o f a given region.

biotechnology: the development o f techniques for the application o f

biological processes to the p r o d u c t i o n o f materials o f use in
medicine and industry.

b l o o d components: the plasma, platelets, cells, etc., that compose the

fluid that circulates i n the principal vascular system o f verte-
brates.

botany: the study o f plants.

buffer: solution c o n t a i n i ng b o t h a w e a k acid and its conjugal weak base

whose p H changes o n l y slightly o n the addition o f acid or alkali;
used to maintain p H .

B y n e ' s disease: a reaction between calcareous specimens ( i n c l u d i n g shell

and eggshell) and the acetic and formic acids outgassed by some
storage and e x h i b i t materials, resulting i n the formation o f
water-soluble c a l c i u m acetate-formate double salts as replace-
ments for c a l c i u m carbonate.

calendered: t e r m used to describe paper w i t h a s m o o t h , glossy surface

that is p r o d u c e d by passing the paper stock between rollers.

carbohydrates: c o m p o u n d s o f c a r b o n , o x y g e n and hydrogen , o f general

formula C ( H 0 ) , i n c l u d i n g sugars (monosaccharides and d i -
x 2 v

saccharides) and their derivatives, and polysaccharides such as

starch and cellulose.

c a s t s / m o l d s / p e e l s : impressions taken o f an object w i t h a liquid orplastic

substance. A cast may also be a reproduction o f an object
produced from such an impression.

cell suspension: individual cells or small groups o f cells from microorgan-

isms or from disrupted tissues o r organs that are suspended in a
fluid.

chitin: l o n g chain p o l y m e r o f N - a c e t y l glucosamine units, the chief

polysaccharide i n fungal cell walls, also found i n the exoskel-
etons o f arthropods.

cleared and stained specimen: biological specimen o r specimen sample i n

w h i c h some parts have been rendered transparent by treatment
w i t h a clearing agent, w h i l e others have been treated w i t h
pigments and dyes to enhance detail and increase visibility.

clearing agent: c h e m i c al used to change the refractive index o f biological

materials so that they become transparent to light.

80 Preserving Natural Science Collections

climatologist: scientist w h o studies the annual composite or general
prevailing weather conditions o f a region, averaged over a series
o f years, o r the w a y these conditions are related to ecological
phenomena.

cloned probe: a population o f identical D N A molecules, or portions o f

molecules, used to select or identify complementary D N A from
a heterogeneous population o f molecules; e.g., a sequence o f
D N A can be prepared from the D N A o f a m i c r o o r g a n i s m ,
n u m e r o u s copies prepared ( c l o n e d ) , and this material ( p r o b e )
can then be used to identify the presence o f the m i c r o o r g a n i s m .

code o f ethics: formal statement o f the body o f m o r a l precepts or rules

o f c o n d u c t considered to be the standards for a profession.

collagen: a fibrous protein found i n vertebrate connective tissues and also

a m o n g invertebrates, s u c h as w o r m s and sponges.

collections documentation: preparation and maintenance o f a p e r m a n e nt

record o f the history and description o f collections and all
transactions related to t h e m .

collections care: a holistic approach to the preservation and conservation

o f collections that involves all aspects o f the collecting institu -
t i o n , from the facilities i n w h i c h collections are housed and used
to basic policies and practices and the education a n d t r a i n i n g o f
staff; collections care is the responsibility o f all staff, administra-
tors a n d trustees, and many collections care activities do not
require professional conservators for implementation.

collections management: policies and procedures involved i n the devel-

opment, processing, documentation, organization, maintenance
a n d use o f collections, particularly natural science collections;
activities related to collections management m a y be the respon-
sibility o f one o r more staff members depending u p o n the
organizational structure o f the collecting institution.

conservation: the application o f science to the examination and treat-

m e n t o f m u s e u m objects and to the study o f the environment s
i n w h i c h they are placed.

conservation assessment: a broad study o f the policies, practices and

conditions that have an impact o n the care and preservation o f
collections.

conservation awareness: an understandin g o f the value o f collections and

the need for their care.

conservation research: science e m p l o y ed to the benefit o f any o f the

functions o f conservation; may involve basic research, develop-
mental and applied research, o r analytical and technical services.

conservation scientist: a researcher specializing i n science e m p l o y ed to

the benefit o f any o f aspect o f conservation.

Glossary of Selected Terms 81

 conservator: one w h o applies science to the technical study, preservation
and treatment o f collection objects; i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , profes-
sional conservators m u s t carry out their w o r k i n accordance w i t h
formal codes o f ethics a nd standards o f practice.

consolidant: a material that can impregnate an object an d impart strength

by b i n d i n g it together.

contaminants: impurities or other undesirable components in a material.

Cretaceous: geological period from 1 3 6 to 6 5 m i l l i o n years ago, at the

e n d o f the M e s o z o i c era.

cryopreservation: the storage o f organisms an d tissue samples at ex-

tremely c o l d temperatures, usually i n l i q u i d nitrogen.

crystallography: the study o f crystals, i n c l u d i n g their g r o w t h , structure,

physical properties and classification by f o r m .

cuticular hydrocarbons: c o m p o u n d s c o m p o s e d o f carbon and hydrogen

that are foun d i n the noncellular materials covering and are
secreted by the epidermis o f many invertebrates.

daguerreotype: an early photographic process, developed in 1 8 3 7 by

F r e n c h m a n L o u i s D a g u e r r e , i n w h i c h an image is created o n a
light-sensitive, silver-coated metal plate.

database: a collection o f data ( i n f o r m a t i o n ) transported by a m e d i u m , a

data carrier such as magnetic tape, a nd stored and processed i n
an electronic device such as a computer.

deaccession: an object that has been r e m o v e d permanently from a

m u s e u m c o l l e c t i o n, t h r o u g h sale, exchange, donation to an-
other institution o r deliberate destruction; the process o f re-
m o v i n g an object permanently from the collection.

dendrochronologist: scientist w h o determines dates and chronological

order o f past events by study o f the g r o w t h rings o f trees.

desiccate: to dry

disciplinary organizations: societies, associations an d other groups o f

professionals w h o share a c o m m o n specialty field (e.g., m a m -
malogy; plant t a x o n o m y ) .

dissection: the act o f c u t t i n g apart a specimen i n order to examine the

structure or relation o f the parts, or to conduct detailed exami-
n a t i o n or analysis o f a part or parts.

D N A / R N A ( i n c l u d i n g sequence gels): d e o x y r i b o n u c l e i c acid; the

primary genetic material o f a cell; the fundamental hereditary
material o f all l i v i n g organisms.

drill core: cylindrical sample o f earth, m i n e r a l o r r o c k extracted from the

g r o u n d by means o f a h o l l o w drill tube so that the strata are
u n d i s t u r b e d i n the sample.

82 Preserving Natural Science Collections

dry shell: the exoskeleton o f a marine or freshwater m o l l u s k , preserved i n
a dry state.

echinoderm: a m e m b e r o f the p h y l u m E c h i n o d e r m a t a , such as a starfish

or a sea u r c h i n .

ecology: the study o f the relationships between organisms and their

e n v i r o n m e n t , w h i c h includes other organisms as w e l l as physical
factors such as climate and soil type.

ectoparasite: a parasite that does not completely invade the body but
w h i c h feeds superficially o n the s k i n , hair or feathers, o r sucks
blood.

educational collection: a group o f specimens designated for use i n

educational p r o g r a m m i n g .

electronic media: machine-readable records that are stored, manipulated

a n d disseminated by electronic means, such as c o m p u t e r net-
w o r k s , earth satellite relays and television broadcasting.

e m b r y o / l a r v a e : an o r g a n i s m i n the earliest stages o f its development.

emergency preparedness: the advance effort by a collecting institution to

ensure the safety o f personnel, facilities a n d collections i n the
event o f a natural disaster ( f l o o d , earthquake) or institution-
specific emergency (fire, b r o k e n water pipe, b o m b threat).

endangered/orphaned c o l l e c t i o n : systematic collection that, for any

reason, is or soon may be n o longer regarded as o f value to its
present ownershi p and thus i n danger o f b e c o m i n g lost to the
systematics research and education c o m m u n i t y .

endoparasite: a parasite that completely invades the body, i.e., the dermal
o r subdermal tissues, head cavities o r inner organs.

enzyme: a protein that acts as a catalyst i n biochemical reactions.

epidemiology: the study o f factors affecting the spread o f diseases i n

populations.

ethylene glycol: a t h i c k , l i q u i d d i h y d r i c alcohol c o m p o s e d o f c a r b o n ,

hydrogen and oxygen.

evolutionary biologists: scientists i n any n u m b e r o f disciplines that have

i n c o m m o n a focus o n the process o f change i n the genetic
composition o f a p o p u l a t i on o f organisms and any factors that
induce changes i n the genetic c o m p o s i t i o n o f a population.

exsiccati(ae): d r i e d specimens; i.e., h e r b a r i u m specimens, usually used to

indicate early b o u n d volumes o f pressed plants.

fiduciary: relating to o r i n v o l v i n g a trust.

field notes: d o c u m e n t a t i o n , often i n the f o r m o f a j o u r n a l , made

c o n c e r n i n g specimens, their habitat o r e n v i r o n m e n t , field c o n -
ditions, etc., at the time the specimens were originally collected.

Glossary of Selected Terms 83

 fixation: process o f h a r d e n i n g an d preserving biological material, particu-
larly proteins.

fluid-preservation: the fixation a n d / o r preservation o f specimens i n a

fluid such as formalin or a l c o h o l .

forensic pathology: k n o w l e d g e c o n c e r n i n g the o r i g i n , nature and cause

o f disease a nd any other deviations from n o r m a l , healthv or
efficient c o n d i t i o n o f organisms, applied to the elucidation o f
questions i n a c o u rt o f law.

forensic scientist: one w h o applies science to the elucidation o f questions

in a c o u rt o f law.

formaldehyde: gas compose d o f c a r b o n , hydrogen and oxygen; mixed

w i t h wate r or other liquids and used to fix tissues; in water
solution it is a r e d u c i n g agent, an d in the presence o f air it
oxidizes to formic acid.

fossil: an organism or a fragment, impression or trace o f an organism

preserved i n rock t h r o u g h geological t i m e , by w h i c h is usually
meant a time span o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 years or longer; may be either a
body fossil ( s u c h as a bone or shell) or a trace fossil (such as a
b u r r o w , track o r i m p r i n t )

freeze-drying: freezing i n a h i g h v a c u u m to remove moisture by sublima-

tion (direct change from ice to water vapor, w i t h o u t m e l t i n g ) ;
lyophilization.

fumigant: a c h e m i c a l smoke or vapor used to treat an object, group o f

objects or structure for e l i m i n a t i o n o f pests or m o l d .

fungi: members o f a large g r o u p o f nonvascular organisms that obtain

n o u r i s h m e n t either as saprophytes or parasites; mav be unicel-
lular or make up a m u l t i c e l l u l a r body called a m y c e l i u m consist-
i n g o f filaments k n o w n as hyphae.

gaseous pollutants: vapor-phase atmospheric contaminants that may be

harmful to collections, e.g., sulfur and nitrogen oxides, ozone
a n d organic acid vapors.

gaskets: p a c k i n g used to make the space between t w o surfaces air- or

fluid-tight.

genome: the m i n i m u m set o f n o n h o m o l o g o u s chromosomes required

for the proper f u n c t i o n i n g o f a cell; the basic ( m o n o p l o i d ) set o f
c h r o m o s o m e s o f a particular species; the gametic chromosom e
number.

geo-biochemistry or bio-geochemistry: the study o f mineral cycling and

o f organism-substrate relationships; also the studv o f the process
o f lithification o f organic material.

geochemistry: the study o f the d i s t r i b u t i on and amounts o f the chemical

elements i n minerals, ores, rocks, soils, water and the atmo-
sphere and their c i r c u l a t i on i n nature, o n the basis o f the

84 Preserving Natural Science Collections

 properties o f their atoms and ions; also, the study o f the
distribution and abundance o f isotopes, i n c l u d i n g problems o f
nuclear frequency and stability i n the universe. A major c o n c e rn
o f geochemistry is the synoptic evaluation o f the abundance o f
the elements i n the earth's crust and i n the major classes o f rocks
and minerals.

geology: the study o f the structure, processes and c h r o n o l o g y o f the

earth.

geophysicists: scientists w h o apply the principals o f mathematics and

physics to the study o f the earth's crust and interior.

geoscience: contraction o f the term "geological science."

germ plasm scientists: scientists w h o study the protoplasm o f germ cells

that c o n t a i n the units o f heredity, the c h r o m o s o m es and genes;
scientists w h o use these cells i n the regeneration o f plants and
animals, especially plant seeds i n seed banks.

glacial acetic acid: 9 9 . 9 percent pure acetic (ethanoic ) acid ; the i m p u r i t y

is mostly water.

glaciologists: scientists w h o study s n o w or ice a c c u m u l a t i o n; the forma-

tion a n d m o v e m e n t o f glaciers; the glacial features o f a r e g i o n ,
or the geological period w h e n glaciers covered more o f the earth
than at present.

glassine: l i g h t w e i g h t , highly calendered, translucent paper. F o r stability,

transparency s h o u l d be obtained from mechanical processing
rather t h a n chemical treatments or additives and p H s h o u l d be
close to neutral.

glycerin: a s y n o n y m for glycerol, a trihydric alcohol.

halogenated hydrocarbons: c o m p o u n d s composed o f carbon, hydrogen

and one o r more halogens (fluorine , c h l o r i n e, b r o m i n e , i o d i n e ) .

heavy metals: metals that have a h i g h specific gravity; used here to indicate
metals, such as m e r c u r y , or m e r c u r y c o m p o u n d s , such as
m e r c u r y chlorides used i n various specimen treatments, particu-
larly pest c o n t r o l treatments.

herbaria sheet: the support, usually paper, o n w h i c h a pressed plant

specimen is m o u n t e d for storage and use; the support w i t h the
attached pressed plant specimen.

herbarium: a collection o f d r i e d plant specimens, usually m o u n t e d and

systematically arranged for reference; a place that houses such a
collection.

herpetology: the study o f amphibians and reptiles.

histological analysis: analysis of the minute structure o f living things,

especially the structure o f tissues.

Glossary of Selected Terms 85

 holographic i m a g i n g : the use o f coherent light (laser) i n conjunction
w i t h ordinary p h o t o plates t o produce images that can be v i e w e d
i n three dimensions w i t h o u t special optical equipment.

H o y e r ' s m o u n t i n g m e d i u m : a m i x t u r e o f g u m arabic, chloral hydrate and

glycerin (glycerol) used to m o u n t specimens o n slides for
microscope e x a m i n a t i o n .

H V A C : a c r o n y m for h e a d n g , v e n t i l a t i o n , air c o n d i t i o n i n g.

hygroscopic: h a v i n g the ability t o attract o r absorb moisture from the air.

inorganic: pertaining to o r derived from nonbiological material; used o f

c o m p o u n d s that d o n o t c o n t a i n carbon as the principal element,
except carbonates, cyanides and cyanates.

i r o n sulfides: any m i n e r a l , such as marcasite or pyrite, h a v i n g the chemical

composition F e S r

isolated proteins: any purified o r separated protein.

karyotype: m o r p h o l o g i c al characteristics o f the chromosomes o f a cell; an

arrangement o f c h r o m o s o m e s o f a cell according to shape,
centromere position and n u m b e r .

keratin: a chemically c o m p l e x material (scleroprotein) o f w h i c h horns,

nails, claws, hoofs and the scales o f reptiles, birds and mammals
are formed. H a i r a n d feathers also contain m u c h keratin; it is
present i n the external layers o f the s k i n , w h e r e it develops by the
transformation o f clear granules o f keratohyalin o f lower levels.

lapidary: the art o f c u t t i n g gems; a cutter, polisher or engraver o f precious

stones, usually other than diamonds.

L E V : a c r o n y m for local exhaust v e n t i l a t i o n.

L i n n a e a n classification: the system o f hierarchical classification and

b i n o m i a l nomenclatur e established by L i n n a e u s .

loaded paper: paper i n w h i c h finely d i v i d e d , relatively insoluble white

m i n e r a l powders have been added to improve finish, ink absorp-
tion, dimensiona l stability or opacity.

magnetic media: machine-readable records i n the f o r m o f disks and tapes

o n w h i c h the i n f o r m a t i o n o r image is carried as magnetic grains
or particles suspended i n a binder o n a r i g i d or flexible substrate.

mass spectrometry: a technique used to determine relative atomic masses

and the relative abundance o f isotopes, as w e l l as for chemical
analysis a n d the study o f i o n reactions.

materials science: study o f nature, behavior a n d use o f materials applied

to science a n d technology.

m a t r i x , matrices: 1 ) the g r o u n d mass o f an igneous rock; the finer-grained

materials e n c l o s i ng the larger grains i n a sediment or sedimen-
tary rock; the r o c k o r sediment i n w h i c h a fossil is embedded; a

86 Preserving Natural Science Collections

 gemstone c u t from a m i n e r a l and the s u r r o u n d i n g rock m i n e r a l ,
e.g., opal m a t r i x ; 2 ) the intercellular substance i n w h i c h tissue
cultures are e m b e d d e d; 3 ) something w i t h i n w h i c h s o m e t h i n g
else originates or develops.

mercury salts: usually m e r c u r y chlorides , used i n the past to fix biological

tissues o r used o n specimens as a prophylactic against or as
treatment for infestations o f insects or microorganisms .

mercury vapor: gaseous f o r m o f elemental mercury.

microbiology: the scientific study o f microscopic organisms.

m i c r o c h e m i c a l test: analysis that involves the use o f m i n u t e quantities o f

chemical reagents o n microscopic amounts o f sample; typically
c o n d u c t e d u n d e r a microscope.

m i c r o m o u n t : a crystallized m i n e r al specimen that is m o u n t e d o n a small

pedestal inside a container; the container m u s t have a v o l u m e
equal to or less than one cubic i n c h , a nd magnification ( n o r m a l l y
microscopy) is required to see the specimen; also a microscope
slide w i t h a small enclosure i n w h i c h a specimen o r sample is
contained.

microscopy: use of, or investigation w i t h , a microscope.

mineralogy: the b r a n c h o f geology concerned w i t h the study o f minerals.

morphological: of, o r pertaining to, the f o r m a nd structure o f organisms,

rocks a nd sediments, w i t h special emphasis o n external features.

m o u n t i n g media: substances used to h o l d specimens or samples o n

microscope slides; a m o u n t i n g m e d i u m may enhance some
aspect o f a specimen o r sample for microscopy.

m u m m i f i e d : pertaining to a specimen that has been preserved by natural

dehydration.

museology: the systematic study o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n , management an d

function o f a m u s e u m .

nanometer: one b i l l i o n t h o f a meter.

natural science: any science, such as botany, z o o l o g y , etc., dealing w i t h

the study o f objects i n nature.

nomenclature: a system o f terms used i n a particular science o r discipline,

e.g., an international system o f standardized N e w L a t i n names
used i n biology for kinds and groups o f animals and plants.

n o n - R e c e n t : n o t o f the present, o r post-Pleistocene, geological epoch.

organic: o f o r relating to c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d s based o n carbon chains o r

rings a n d c o n t a i n i n g h y d r o g e n w i t h o r w i t h o u t o x y g e n , nitro-
gen o r o t h e r elements; derived from l i v i n g organisms; c o m -
p o u n d s c o n t a i n i n g carbon as an essential c o m p o n e n t .

Glossary of Selected Terms 87

 organic chemistry: the b r a n c h o f chemistry concerned w i t h carbon
c o m p o u n d s o f l i v i n g things an d most other carbon compounds.

o x i d a d o n : change i n a c o m p o u n d by c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h oxygen or by an
increase i n the electronegative part, or the change o f an i o n or
element from a l o w er to a higher positive valance; removal o f one
o r more electrons from an a t o m , i o n or molecule.

paleobotanical: o f or relating to ancient plants that are k n o w n today only

t h r o u g h fossil remains.

paleoecologists: scientists w h o study the relationships o f fossil organisms

to each other a nd to their environments , i n c l u d i n g study o f both
the fossils a n d the rocks i n w h i c h they are found.

paleogeologists: scientists w h o study the geologic conditions o f the earth

as i t was at some g i v en time i n the past.

paleontology: the study o f extinc t organisms, i n c l u d i n g their structure,

e n v i r o n m e n t , e v o l u t i o n an d d i s t r i b u t i o n , as revealed by their
fossil remains.

paraffin block: specimen or specimen part embedded i n paraffin w a x .

parasitology: the study o f parasites a nd parasitism.

parasite: an organism able to live o n a nd cause damage to another

organism.

particulate pollutants: atmospheric pollutants that are solid particles,

such as soot and dust.

parylene consolidation : i m p r e g n a t i o n o f the structure o f an object or

specimen u s i n g a gas phase, organic monomer—paraxylene —
that polymerizes inside the structure.

pasteboard: stiff, firm b o a rd made up o f layers o f paper or paper pulp

pressed together.

pathology: the study o f disease, particularly by laboratory methods,

i n c l u d i n g the bacteriology o f pathogenic organisms.

petrology: that b r a n c h o f geology dealing w i t h the o r i g i n , occurrence,

structure a n d history o f rocks, especially igneous and metamor-
phic rocks.

p H : an expression i n d i c a t i n g the h y d r o g e n - i o n concentration o f a

solution; the negative l o g a r i t h m o f the hydrogen-ion concen-
tration.

phage (bacteriophage): a virus that is parasitic w i t h i n a bacterium; each

phage is specific to o n l y one type o f bacterium.

phalli: plural o f phallus; penis, the male reproductive organ o f mammals.

phase transitions: transitions between h o m o g e n o us states—e.g., ice to

water ( m e l t i n g ) , m e r c u r y metal t o elemental mercury vapor
( v o l a t i l i z a t i o n ) , d i a m o n d to graphite ( p o l y m o r p h i c transition);

88 Preserving Natural Science Collections

 dissolution o f some salts by atmospheric moisture to yield other
minerals ( d e c o m p o s i t i o n d u r i n g deliquescence).

phylogeny: the o r d e r i n g o f species into higher taxa; the evolutionary

history o f an organism o r groups o f related organisms.

physical chemistry: b r a n c h o f chemistry dealing w i t h the relations

between the physical properties o f substances and their c h e m i c a l
c o m p o s i t i o n and transformations.

physiognomy: the characteristic features or appearance o f a plant c o m -

m u n i t y o r vegetation; the o u t w a r d appearance o f a n y t h i n g ,
taken as offering some insight into its character.

planetary geologists: scientists w h o study the physical features and

history o f planets other t h a n the earth, the materials o f w h i c h
they are c o m p o s e d , and the physical changes or processes they
have undergone.

plant pathologists: scientists w h o study o f the o r i g i n , nature and courses

o f diseases that afflict plants.

plasmid: a structure i n cells consisting o f D N A that c a n exist a n d replicate

independently o f the chromosomes. Bacterial plasmids are used
to produce recombinan t D N A for gene c l o n i n g .

plaster field jackets: bandages made o f Plaster o f Paris and strong w o v e n

fabric that are used to encapsulate blocks o f matrix r o c k that
contain fossils; used d u r i n g field collecting i n paleontology to
protect specimens u n t i l they can be excavated from the r o c k i n
a laboratory.

p o i n t i n g materials, o r points: materials used to make supports for s m a l l ,

dried insect specimens; points, rather than the specimens t h e m -
selves, are then p i n n e d into the base o f a storage drawer o r tray.

polarized light: l i g h t waves confined to vibratio n i n o n l y one plane

t h r o u g h the line o f propagation.

polished sections: cross sections cut from specimens o f teeth, bone, shell,
rock, minerals, etc., and then surface polished to improve the
study o f their structure and optical properties; may be t h i n
sections, i.e., sections sliced from a specimen m o u n t e d o n glass
and g r o u n d to a thickness o f three m i c r o n s to render t h e m
transparent to light for polarized light microscopy.

polymer: a macromolecule f o r m e d by the chemical u n i o n o f five or m o r e

c o m b i n i n g units called m o n o m e r s . I n m o s t cases, the n u m b e r o f
m o n o m e r s is quite large ( 3 , 5 0 0 for pure cellulose) and is often
not precisely k n o w n .

powder diffraction m o u n t : a sample containin g m a n y small crystals that

is analyzed by X - r a y diffraction i n order to identify crystals o f
different c o m p o u n d s .

Glossary of Selected Terms 89

 practicum: the part o f an academic course consisting o f practical w o r k i n
a particular field.

preservation: actions taken to retard o r prevent deterioration or damage

to collections materials by c o n t r o l o f their environmen t a n d / o r
treatment o f their structure i n order to maintain t h e m as nearly
as possible i n an u n c h a n g i n g state.

preventive conservation: the m e t h o d o l o g y by w h i c h the rate o f deterio-

ration o f collections is reduced by c o n t r o l l i ng the causes o f the
deterioration.

public trust repository: an i n s t i t u t i on i n w h i c h material is deposited, held

a n d maintained for the benefit o f the c o m m o n good.

pyrite o x i d a t i o n : c h e m i c a l reaction i n w h i c h ferrous sulfide minerals

(particularly those i n w h i c h the grain size is microcrystalline)
react w i t h o x y g e n to f o r m hydrated sulfates and sulfuric acid; the
a m o u n t o f water vapor i n the atmosphere around the specimen
is a critical factor i n the rate at w h i c h the reaction will occur;
b e l o w 3 0 percent R H , the rate is negligible.

radioactive: the property possessed by some elements (as u r a n i u m ) o f

spontaneously e m i t t i n g alpha o r beta rays and sometimes also
g a m m a rays by the disintegration o f the nuclei o f atoms.

radiograph: photographic image forme d by the use o f i o n i z i n g radiation

to produce a transmission image o f an object o n photosensitive
material (usually a f i l m ) .

rag papers: high-quality , durable papers made from cotton or other

textile fiber or rags. T h e rag content is indicated by a percentage.

reference sample collection: a group o f specimens or specimen parts that

are identified an d c a n be used for comparative purposes.

refractive i n d e x or i n d e x o f refraction: a n u m b e r indicating the speed o f

light i n a given m e d i u m , either as a ratio o f the speed o f light i n
a v a c u u m to that i n the given m e d i u m , or as the ratio o f the speed
o f light i n a specified m e d i u m to that i n the given m e d i u m .

relative h u m i d i t y ( R H ) : the ratio o f the actual vapor pressure o f air to its

saturation vapor pressure at that temperature.

research: the search, c o n d u c t e d primarily but not exclusively i n the

laboratory, for facts, conclusions and applications that were
previously u n k n o w n to o r u n t r i e d by the scientific c o m m u n i t y .

sampling: the act or process o f selecting an d r e m o v i n g some part o f an

object or specimen for testing, analysis o r other use.

sampling records: d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f the sampling o f specimen or object,

i n c l u d i n g date o f sample; nature o f sample taken; purpose o f
sampling; results o f tests, analysis or other research using
samples; a m o u n t o f sample r e m a i n i n g , etc.

90 Preserving Natural Science Collections

scanning electron microscope stub: the m o u n t o n w h i c h a specimen o r
sample is placed for examination or analysis by scanning electron
microscopy.

scat: excrement; fecal material.

serial propagation: m a i n t a i n i n g a culture o f l i v i n g cells by c o n t i n u o u s

s u b c u l t u r i n g o f a p o r t i o n o f the population to fresh g r o w t h
medium.

shell ultrastructures: samples f r o m m o l l u s k shells that p e r m i t researchers

to study the submicroscopic structure o f the shell, usually by
electron microscopy.

silver gelatin: particles o f light-sensitive silver salts suspended in a

c o m p l e x p r o t e i n (gelatin) e m u l s i o n o n paper o r film as a
photographic m e d i u m .

single crystal m o u n t : a single crystal m o u n t e d o n a small support for use

i n X - r a y diffraction analysis.

solvent: that w h i c h has the p o w e r to dissolve; a substance that dissolves

another to f o r m a s o l u t i o n.

speciation: the process o f species formation: the full sequence o f events

leading t o the splitting o f one population o f organisms i n t o t w o
o r more populations reproductively isolated from one another.

specimen: any a n i m al o r plant, o r any part, product, egg, seed or r o o t o f

any animal o r plant or geological sample.

spectroscopy: the study o f materials t h r o u g h the use o f radiant energy to

produce spectra for c h e m i c a l analysis; the science o f p r o d u c i n g
and analyzing spectra u s i n g spectroscopes.

stratigraphers: scientists w h o study the o r i g i n , composition, distribution

a n d succession o f r o c k strata.

sub-fossil: a post-Pleistocene fossil; used o f plant a n d a n i m a l remains n o t

strictly R e c e n t b u t w h i c h are not o l d e n o u g h to be regarded as
fossil.

synthetic polymer: h u m a n - m a d e polymer, as opposed to cellulose, or

others that o c c u r i n nature.

systematics: the science o f classifying all organisms, b o t h l i v i n g a n d

extinct, a n d o f investigating the relationships between t h e m ; the
field o f science concerned w i t h t a x o n o m y and phylogeny.

taxidermy: the process o f preparing animal skins a n d stuffing t h e m i n a

lifelike f o r m .

taxonomists: scientists w h o identify, name and classify organisms.

taxonomy: the science o r technique o f classification; the discipline

devoted to the identification, n a m i n g and classification o f
organisms.

Glossary of Selected Terms 91

 technology transfer: the passage o f scientific o r industrial knowledge
from one field or discipline to another.

T e r t i a r y : o f or relating to the first p e r i od o f the C e n o z o i c era, beginning

w i t h the e n d o f the M e s o z o i c era ( A g e o f Reptiles) 6 6 m i l l i o n
years ago a n d closing w i t h the start o f the Pleistocene epoch
about 2.5 m i l l i o n years ago; succeeded by the Quaternary period
(Pleistocene plus R e c e n t epochs).

t h i n section: see polished section.

tintypes and ferrotypes: photographs taken directly as positive prints o n

sensitized plates o f enameled tin o r i r o n .

toxicologists: scientists w h o study poisons, their detection and counter-

action.

tree r i n g and w o o d sample: cross sections, radial sections or other samples

f r o m the trunk s o f trees o r the stems o f w o o d y plants.

type ( h o l o t y p e) specimen: the single specimen designated as the name

bearer for a t a x o n w h e n it was established; o r the single specimen
o n w h i c h such a t a x on was based w h e n no type was specified.

ultraviolet radiation: radiation o f wavelengths shorter t h a n 4 0 0 n m ; U V

radiation from the s u n , sky and mos t artificial light sources is i n
the range o f 3 0 0 - 4 0 0 n m . I t is invisible and has a strongly
damaging effect o n m a n y collection materials. T h e proportion
o f U V emitted from a l i g ht source m a y be expressed as milliwatts
o f U V radiation per 1 0 0 l u m e n s ( m W / l O O l m ) .

visible light: that p o r t i o n o f the electromagnetic spectrum that is

perceptible to the h u m a n eye, r o u g h l y the range from 7 0 0 n m to
400nm.

v o u c h e r specimen: any specimen identified by a recognized authority for

the purposes o f f o r m i n g a reference collection; a specimen that
physically a n d permanently d o c u m e n t s data i n an archival report
by verifying the identity o f the o r g a n i s m ( s) used i n the study and
by so d o i n g ensures that a study w h i c h otherwise could not be
repeated can be accurately reviewed o r reassessed.

w o o d pulp: the mechanically o r chemically prepared mixtures o f w o o d

fibers that are used i n the manufacture o f some paper and board.

X-radiography: see radiograph.

X - r a y diffraction: the diffraction o f a beam o f X - r a y s , usually by the three-

dimensional periodic array o f atoms i n a crystal that has periodic
repeat distances (lattice d i m e n s i o n s ) o f the same order o f
magnitude as the w a v e l e n g t h o f the X - r a y s .

zoology: the study o f animals

z y m o g r a m : a visible pattern o f m o b i l i t y o f isozymes for cells from

different species.

92 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Sources of Glossary Definitions
T h e definitions provided i n this glossary have been culled largely from the
sources listed i n the Bibliograph y and the publications listed below.
M a n y terms, however, were not easily defined i n relation to the natural
sciences and required the expertise o f many project contributors, espe-
cially D a v i d V o n E n d t a n d F r a n k S i m i o n e .

Bates, R . L . , and J . A . Jackson (eds.). 1 9 8 4 . Dictionary of Geological

Terms. 3 r d edition. Prepared u n d e r the direction o f the A m e r i -
can G e o l o g i c al Institute. A n c h o r P r e s s / D o u b l e d a y , Garden
City, N . Y .

Brady, G . S . , a n d H . R . Clauser. 1 9 9 1 . Materials Handbook. 13th

edition. M c G r a w H i l l , N e w Y o r k .

B r o c k , T . D . 1 9 7 9 . Biology of Microorganisms. Prentice-Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, N . J .

Concise Science Dictionary. 1 9 9 2 . 2 n d edition. O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press,

Oxford, England.

C o n s i d i n e , D . M . , and G . D . C o n s i d i n e (eds.). 1 9 8 4 . Van Nostrand

Reinhold Encyclopedia of Chemistry. 4 t h edition. V a n N o s t r a n d
Reinhold, N e w York.

D e B l a s e , A . F . , a n d R . E . M a r t i n . 1 9 8 1 . A Manual of Mammalogy with

Keys to Families of the World. W m . C . B r o w n C o m p a n y , D u b u q u e ,
Iowa.

N a u e r t , P . 1 9 7 9 . Glossary. P p 4 0 9 - 4 1 6 i n Museum Registration Methods

( D u d l e y , D . H . , I . B . W i l k i n s o n a n d others). 3 r d edition.
A m e r i c a n Association o f M u s e u m s , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .

E a s t m a n K o d a k C o m p a n y . 1 9 8 0 . Fundamentals of Radiography. 12th

edition. E a s t m a n K o d a k C o m p a n y , Rochester, N . Y .

I l l u m i n a t i n g E n g i n e e r i n g Society. 1 9 7 0 . Lighting of Art Galleries and

Museums. I E S Technical Report N o .14. Illuminating Engineer-
i n g Society, L o n d o n , E n g l a n d .

L a w r e n c e , E . , a n d S . H o l m e s . 1 9 8 9 . Henderson's Dictionary of Biological

Terms. 1 0 t h edition. J o h n W i l e y 8c S o n s , N e w Y o r k .

L e w i s , R . J . ( e d . ) . 1 9 9 3 . Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary. 12th

edition. V a n N o s t r a n d R e i n h o l d , N e w Y o r k .

L i n c o l n , R . J . , a n d G . A . B o x s h a l l . 1 9 9 0 . Cambridge Illustrated Dictio-

nary of Natural History. C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, C a m -
bridge, E n g l a n d .

L o r d , G . D . , and B . L o r d , (eds.) . 1 9 9 1 . Manual of Museum Planning.

Manchester M u s e u m o f Science and I n d u s t r y . H M S O , L o n -
don, England.

McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific Terms. 1 9 7 8 . 2 n d edition. M c G r a w

Hill, New York.

Glossary of Selected Terms 93

 The Merck Index. 1 9 8 3 . 1 0 t h edition. M e r c k & C o . , I n c . , R a h w a y , N . J .

Phillips, W . R . 1 9 7 1 . Mineral Optics: Principles and Techniques. W. H .

F r e e m a n & C o m p a n y , S a n Francisco.

Roberts, M . T . , and D . E t h e r i n g t o n . 1 9 8 2 . Bookbinding and the Conser-

vation of Books: A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology. Library
o f Congress, Washington, D . C .

W e i n e r , R . 1 9 9 0 . Webster's New World Dictionary of Media and Commu-

nications. S i m o n & Schuster, N e w Y o r k .

W i l s o n , E . O . 1 9 9 2 . The Diversity of Life. H a r v a r d Universit y Press,

C a m b r i d g e , Mass.

94 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Appendix A
Natural Science Conservation Training Program

Prerequisites and Curriculum

C o m p l e t i o n o f this three-year p r o g r a m w i l l fulfill the requirements o f a
master o f science degree i n conservation o f natural science collections.

Prerequisites
Eligible applicants m u s t have completed a bachelor o f science degree i n
a biological or geological scientific discipline. C o u r s e w o r k i n b i o c h e m -
istry ( m i n i m u m o f three credit h o u r s ) , m i c r o b i o l o gy ( m i n i m u m o f three
credit h o u r s ) and organic chemistry ( m i n i m u m o f six credit h o u r s ) , w i t h
requisite laboratory courses, are required for students i n all disciplines.

Curriculum
Courses outside specialty. A l l students w i l l be required to have knowledge
o f natural science collections outside their specialty fields. T o this end,
students w i t h a background i n one o f the geosciences w i l l be required to take
survey courses i n one botany discipline and one zoology discipline; students
w i t h a degree i n botany w i l l take survey courses i n zoology and geology; and
so o n . S u m m e r field w o r k (see below) may be in any natural science
discipline that is not the student's specialty.

S u m m e r field w o r k . Participation i n a collecting trip will give students

experience i n field preparation techniques and an opportunity to understand
the special preservation problems occasioned by field conditions. Students
will be expected to summarize their observations i n a written report.

Directed research projects. Directed research projects w i l l permit students

to develop solutions for problems i n the conservation o f natural science
materials. T e a m projects that foster an interdisciplinary approach to research
design will be encouraged. Students will be expected to prepare their
research results i n a format suitable for publication i n a refereed journal.

Internship a n d practicums. T h e final internship will be an opportunity for

each student to complete a specific project o f mutual interest to the student

95
 and an institution that houses natural science collections. T h e internship w i l l
also permit the student to w o r k w i t h a variety o f professionals o n collections
conservation issues. M a n y courses w i l l include practicums to give students
experience i n w o r k i n g w i t h systematics collections i n a museum setting.

Natural Science Conservation Training Program

Suggested Curriculum

First Year
First Semester Credit Hours
I n t r o d u c t i o n to C o n s e r v a t i o n T h e o r y 3
I n t r o d u c t i o n to M u s e u m Studies and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 3
Systematics 3
Disciplinary Survey C o u r s e 3

Second Semester
Documentation in Conservation 3
M a n a g e m e n t o f Scientific C o l l e c t i o n s 3
Materials Science 3
Disciplinary Survey C o u r s e 3

Summer
F i e l d w o r k i n a scientific discipline 0

Second Year
Third Semester
C o n s e r v a t i o n Practice 3
Plant Materials Bloc k Course 6
Preservation o f L i b r a r y and A r c h i v a l Materials 3

Fourth Semester
Research M e t h o d s i n C o n s e r v a t i o n 3
A n i m a l Materials B l o c k Course 6
Preservation o f P h o t o g r a p h i c Materials and M a g n e t i c M e d i a 3

Summer
Research project 3

T h i r d Year
Fifth Semester
Geological Materials B l o ck Course 6
Fluid-Preserved Materials B l o c k C o u r s e 6

Sixth Semester
Internship 9

Total Credit Hours 72

Preserving Natural Science Collections

Suggested Course Topics
I n t r o d u c t i o n to C o n s e r v a t i o n T h e o r y

• H i s t o r y o f conservation
• C o n s e r v a t i o n disciplines; differing goals and approaches
• C o n s e r v a t i o n ethics and standards o f practice: formal codes o f
ethics and standards o f practice, ethics i n natural science
conservation, legal issues related to conservation
• C o n s e r v a t i o n information resources: organizations, training
programs and other t r a i n i ng opportunities, literature
• Preventive conservation: philosophical basis; conservation
assessments ( m e t h o d o l o g y , environmental m o n i t o r i n g ,
agents o f deterioration, assessment o f risks, p r a c t i c u m ) ;
facilities management ( H V A C , L E V systems, l i g h t i n g
design); storage designs and c o n t r o l o f deterioration o f
storage systems; pest managemen t (prevention, m o n i t o r i n g ,
treatment o f infestations); emergency preparedness;
conservation policies, procedures and guidelines (accessions
and deaccessions, h a n d l i n g , p a c k i n g and shipping);
collections use for research ( i n c l u d i n g d i s s e c t i o n / s a m p l i n g ) ,
e x h i b i t i o n a n d educational p r o g r a m m i n g
• Long-range planning
• Sources o f funding
• P u b l i c relations; fostering awareness o f conservation

I n t r o d u c t i o n to M u s e u m Studies and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( w i t h p r a c t i c u m )

• W h a t is a museum? A m e r i c a n Association o f M u s e u m s and

other definitions; types o f museums
• B r i e f history o f museum s
• L e g a l v i e w p o i n t : concept o f a public trust ( d u t y o f care,
accountability, l o y a l t y ) ; formation ( i n c o r p o r a t i o n , bylaws,
tax-exempt status, comparisons a m o n g university m u s e u m s ,
free-standing and h y b r i d structures); governance and role o f
board (effect o f structure o n role, set policy, oversee
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f policy, assure fiscal health, l i n k w i t h
c o m m u n i t y ) ; role o f director (day-to-day management, hire
and oversee staff, present policy suggestions to b o a r d ) ; special
situations
• F u n c t i o n s performed: collections management and
conservation; research; public p r o g r a m m i n g ( e x h i b i t i o n s ,
lectures, outreach)
• Basic policies: mission statement, collections management pol-
icy, code o f ethics, strategic plan, budget as management tool
• F u n d i n g sources and preparation o f grant proposals
• Resources: professional organizations, codes o f ethics,
bibliographies
• Practicum in a museum

Systematics

• W h a t is systematics? F o l k taxonomies; c o m m o n vs. scientific

names; L i n n a e u s and m o d e r n systematics
• H i s t o r y o f systematics; g r o w t h o f disciplines relative to
collections use; development o f t a x o n o m i c principles and
nomenclatural rules

Natural Science Conservation Training Program 97

 • H o w systematics is used; l a w , agriculture, medicine,
biological c o n t r o l , environmental conservation
• R o l e o f collections relative t o systematics a n d other
disciplines; value o f specimens for research
• Systematics literature
• Nomenclature
• Identification (keys, diagnoses, descriptions, vocabulary)
• Classifications, species concepts, speciation
• P h y l o g e ny
• Systematics problem-solving techniques; use o f equipment
• Special considerations o f different biological disciplines
• Systematics i n mineralogy

Disciplinary Survey Courses ( B o t a n y , Z o o l o g y , G e o l o g y )

T w o survey courses i n scientific disciplines ( e . g . , mineralogy and plant

physiognomy, paleontology and e n t o m o l o g y ) . E a c h course should
include:
• Taxonomy
• Terminology
• C o l l e c t i n g techniques
• C u r r e n t areas o f research, i n c l u d i n g techniques

Documentation i n Conservation (lecture/lab)

• N e e d for documentation; ethics, standards

• D o c u m e n t a t i o n techniques: technical d r a w i n g , X -
radiography, photography, digital i m a g i n g , video imaging ,
holographic i m a g i n g
• F o r m s and formats
• C o n d i t i o n reports, treatment proposals
• R e c o r d keeping ( i n c l u d i n g c o m p u t e r i z a t i on o f conservation
records)

M a n a g e m e n t o f Scientific C o l l e c t i o n s ( w i t h lab)

• I n s t i t u t i o n al context: mission statement for institution; place

o f collections w i t h i n the institution; line o f authority for
overall responsibility
• Philosophy o f collections: external parameters set by
disciplines, intrinsic value o f specimens (as v o u c h e r s ) , kinds o f
uses
• Process for developing collections management policy
• C o n t e n t o f collections managemen t policy:
scope of collection
standards of conduct, ethics
acquisitions: national and international laws; legal and
ethical issues such as t i t l e s / p e r m i t s ; documentation;
designation o f authority, responsibility; criteria and
procedures for evaluation, appraisals, authentication
use of specimens: access; education, exhibit and research;
loans; reproductions; destructive sampling or testing
specimen and collections documentation: data
management, data systems a n d data policies

98 Preserving Natural Science Collections

 disposal: reasons to deaccession; methods for disposal;
laws; ethics; d o c u m e n t a t i o n; designation o f authority;
criteria for evaluation; procedures
care and management: standards o f care; designation o f
authority, responsibility; treatment; disaster/emergency
preparedness; pest management; risk management;
insurance; security
health and safety: staff, collections
• Procedures at departmental level: resource management;
policy i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ; development o f procedural manuals
relative to discipline; standard techniques a n d variations,
staffing considerations; discussion o f responsibilities

Materials Science

• C h e m i s t r y a n d structure o f the solid state

atomic and electronic structure: atomic order i n solids,
crystallinity; atomic disorder i n solids, the imperfect solid
state (impurities , defects); the glassy state
intermodular forces and molecular solids and liquids:
solvents and solubility, w e t t i n g and surface tension,
surfactants and detergency, adhesion and types o f
adhesives
structure, composition and their relationship to the
properties of materials: mechanical properties o f materials,
chemical properties, degradation
• D e t e r i o r a t i o n processes (general p h e n o m e n a ) ; types o f
deterioration (physical, c h e m i c a l, biological); major factors
influencing deterioration processes i n m u s e u m s (physical
forces, temperature, moisture, atmospheric pollutants and
particulate matter, light, organisms)
• Specific materials: glass, metals, cellulosic materials, synthetic
polymers

Conservation Practice ( w i t h l a b )

• H e a l t h and safety i n conservation practice

• T r e a t m e n t : p h i l o s o p h i c a l / e t h i c a l basis, examination
techniques, d o c u m e n t a t i on requirements and media,
treatment proposals a n d justifications, types o f treatments
(cleaning, consolidation, pest c o n t r o l treatments, repair and
restoration)
• Research integrity o f collections: impact o f conservation
activities o n specimen-based research, such as systematics
research and nontraditional research use o f collections
• Materials identification
• T r e a t m e n t research: evaluating past treatments, developing
n e w methods

Plant Materials B l o c k C o u r s e ( l a b / p r a c t i c u m / l e c t u r e )

• Terminology
• C h e m i s t r y a n d structure
• Identification o f specimen materials

Natural Science Conservation Training Program 99

 • H i s t o r y o f preparation techniques a n d other treatments (e.g.,
pest c o n t r o l treatments)
• Identification a n d evaluation o f past a n d current techniques
a n d materials
• S p e c i m e n treatment: field preparation, lab preparation, post-
preparation treatment, research treatments
• Special considerations: m o u l d i n g a n d casting, ancillary
collections, specimen labels, applications o f documentation
• Storage, e x h i b i t i o n , shippin g a n d p a c k i n g

A n i m a l Materials B l o c k C o u r s e ( l a b / p r a c t i c u m / l e c t u r e )

• Terminology
• C h e m i s t r y a n d structure
• Identification o f specimen materials
• H i s t o r y o f preparation techniques a n d other treatments (e.g.,
pest c o n t r o l treatments)
• Identification a n d evaluation o f past and current techniques
and materials
• S p e c i m e n treatment: field preparation, lab preparation, post-
preparation treatment, research treatments
• Special considerations: m o u l d i n g a n d casting, ancillary
collections, specimen labels, applications o f documentation
• Storage, e x h i b i t i o n , shippin g a n d packing

Geological Materials B l o c k C o u r s e ( l a b / p r a c t i c u m / l e c t u r e )

• Terminology
• C h e m i s t r y a n d structure
• Identification o f specimen materials
• H i s t o r y o f preparation techniques a n d other treatments (e.g.,
pest c o n t r o l treatments)
• Identification a n d evaluation o f past a n d current techniques
and materials
• S p e c i m e n treatment: field preparation, lab preparation, post-
preparation treatment, research treatments
• Special considerations: m o u l d i n g a n d casting, ancillary
collections, specimen labels, applications o f documentation
• Storage, e x h i b i t i o n , s h i p p i n g a n d p a c k i n g

F l u i d - P r e s e r v e d Materials B l o c k C o u r s e ( l a b / p r a c t i c u m / l e c t u r e )

• Terminology
• S o l v e n t chemistry
• F i x a t i o n chemistry
• C h e m i s t r y o f clearing agents, stains and m o u n t i n g media
• Reactions between p l a n t / a n i m a l / g e o l o g i c a l materials and
fluids
• Research implications o f different preservation techniques
• M o n i t o r i n g a n d testing m e t h o ds
• Assessment o f collections a n d specimens
• Labels
• C h e m i s t r y a n d deterioration processes o f storage containers
• Storage, e x h i b i t i o n , s h i p p i ng a n d p a c k i n g

100 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Preservation o f L i b r a r y and A r c h i v a l Materials

• Paper chemistry and manufacturing processes for traditional

western papers: rag, calendered, tracing, w o o d pulp, glassine,
loaded varieties, coated stocks and pulpboards
• C h e m i s t r y o f inks and toners
• M e d i a o f w o r k s o f art o n paper
• P r i n t i n g and p h o t o c o p y processes
• B o o k b i n d i n g processes and materials
• M e t h o d s o f testing i n k s , toners, adhesives, paper a n d boards
• H a n d l i n g , storage and e x h i b i t o f paper-based archival
materials
• H a n d l i n g , storage and exhibit o f b o u n d materials
• S h i p p i n g and packing library and archival materials
• Deacidification technology
• M i n o r cleaning and repair techniques: dry cleaning; w a s h i n g
and relaxation o f paper, d r y i n g m e t h o d s ; mends and hinges;
h i n g e , tape and adhesive r e m o v a l ; l i n i n g and backing
damaged specimen labels
• L i t e r a t u r e and other resources i n book and paper
conservation

Research M e t h o d s i n C o n s e r v a t i on

• Scientific research: experimental and research design,

statistical analysis, literature searches, publication a n d
presentation o f results
• E x a m i n a t i o n techniques: measurement techniques;
i l l u m i n a t i o n techniques; microscopy m e t h o d and theory;
transmitted a n d reflected light; stereo binocular, polarized
light; X-radiograph y
• C h e m i c a l techniques: method and theory; microchemical tests
• I n s t r u m e n t a l analysis: m e t h o d and theory (spectroscopy);
emission and absorption ( I R , U V , X R D , X R F , S E M - E D S ) ;
mass spectrometry; separation techniques
• L a b o r a t o r y projects (particularly microscopy and
m i c r o c h e m i c a l tests)

Preservation o f Photographic Materials and Magnetic M e d i a

• H i s t o r i c and contemporary photographic processes:

daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, tintypes; silver gelatin, p l a t i n u m
o r a l b u m e n ; c o l or processing
• C h e m i s t r y , structure and identification o f materials
• D e t e r i o r a t i o n o f historic and contemporary photographic
materials
• H a n d l i n g , storage a n d exhibit o f photographic materials
• T r e a t m e n t s a n d techniques to m e n d tears, flatten creases
• I n f o r m a t i o n and i m a g i n g storage systems and materials
• H a n d l i n g a n d storage o f magnetic tape, optical discs,
videotape, m o t i o n picture film
• E m e r g i n g technologies i n information storage and retrieval
• E m e r g i n g technologies i n i m a g i n g systems
• S h i p p i n g and p a c k i n g techniques for photographic materials
and magnetic media
• L i t e r a t u re a n d other resources o n preservation o f
photographic materials and magnetic media

Natural Science Conservation Training Program 101

Appendix B
Recommended Topics
for Research and Technology Transfer

Representatives from natural science disciplines, gathered at their a n n u al

meetings, identified concerns to be addressed t h r o u g h technology
transfer or research. T h e s e issues w e r e supplemented by those raised at
the materials science panel meetings hel d i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C , i n
February 1 9 9 2 .

T h e topics o f c o n c e r n are grouped according to their material properties:

fluid-preserved, i n o r g a n i c / o r g a n i c , plant or animal materials. W i t h i n
these four divisions the concerns are further subdivided into specimen
preparation, specimen environments, pest control and post-preparation
care. I n addition, the c o m m o n concerns about specimen and collections
documentation are covered i n a separate section.

Fluid-Preserved Specimens
Specimens fixed or otherwise preserved i n fluids are f o u n d i n all natural
science collections, i n c l u d i n g paleontological and mineralogical collec-
tions.

Specimen Preparation
• substitute(s) for formalin i n the fixation o f plant and animal
material
• appropriate buffers for fixatives
• methods o f d e t e r m i n i n g w h e n fixation is complete
• preservation o f color i n biological specimens
• m o u n t i n g m e d ia for microscope slide preparations o f various
specimens a n d specimen parts
• methods o f r i n g i n g microscope slides to prevent deterioration
o f the m o u n t i n g media
• clearing and staining agents for use i n microscopic and
macroscopic preparations
• impact o f fixatives and clearing and staining agents o n
histological a n d biochemical analyses o f specimens

103
 Specimen Environments
• type and concentration o f storage fluids for use as long-term
storage m e d ia
• effects o n specimens o f glycerin, buffers and other additives
to storage fluids
• effects o f alcohol a n d other storage fluids on histological and
biochemical analyses o f specimens
• hydration and biodeterioration o f glycerin used as a long-
t e r m storage m e d i u m
• appropriate m i x t u r e s o f g l y c e r i n / w a t e r or g l y c e r i n / a l c o h o l
for long-term storage o f cleared a n d stained specimens and
alternative fluids for storage o f these specimens
• o p t i m u m temperature a n d relative h u m i d i t y for storage o f
fluid-preserved collections
• o p t i m u m temperature a n d relative h u m i d i t y for storage o f
microscope preparations
• effects o f visible light a n d ultraviolet radiation on specimens
stored i n fluid
• design o f storage furniture for fluid-preserved collections
• safety concerns i n the storage o f fluid-preserved collections
( f l a m m a b l e / t o x i c vapors, floor-loading capacity, etc.)
• materials specifications for jars, bottles and tanks i n fluid-
preserved collections (plastics, metals, glass)
• materials specifications for gaskets, lids and liners for use w i t h
fluid-preserved collections
• impact o f the deterioration o f curren t storage containers and
gaskets, etc., o n specimens preserved i n fluid
• specifications for cases t o store microscope slides

Post-Preparation Care
• effects o n specimens o f a d d i n g alcohol, etc., to replenish
fluids that have evaporated
• impact o f periodic changes o f storage fluids (e.g., to replace
acidified or discolored fluids) o n specimens
• impact o f c h a n g i n g to different fluids (e.g. , changing from
isopropanol to ethanol ) o n specimens
• identification o f the materials extracted from specimens by
fluid preservatives
• methods to assess the deterioration o f specimens

Inorganic/Organic Matrices
T h e specimen materials i n natural science collections that contain
i n o r g a n i c / o r g a n i c composites include bone, antler, teeth, shell, egg-
shell, the exoskeletons o f m a n y invertebrates, corals, lichens o n substrate
rocks and many vertebrate and invertebrate paleontological specimens.
I n addition, materials traditionally v i e w e d as inorganic are increasingly
s h o w n to contain organic inclusions. C o m p r e h e n d i n g the nature o f
many i n o r g a n i c / o r g a n i c specimens also depends o n an understanding o f
mineralogy. C o n s e q u e n t l y, concerns related to mineralogical specimens
and lithified paleontological specimens are i n c l u d e d here.

104 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Specimen Preparation
• impact o f methods o f r e m o v i n g flesh, fats and oils from bone
o n the long-term stability o f skeletal material
• effects o f clearing a n d staining o n the stability o f bone
• impact o f preparation chemicals such as formaldehyde, glacial
acetic acid and other acidic preparation chemicals, and
various insecticides o n the development o f soluble
efflorescent salts o n calcareous specimens
• impact o f acid preparation o n long-term stability and o n
biochemical analyses o f paleontological bone and shell
• impact o f various consolidants and adhesives o n the chemical
and physical stability o f specimens
• impact o f m o l d i n g and casting materials o n specimen
preservation a n d specimen-based research

Pest Control
• impact o f pest control chemicals o n specimen preservation
and specimen-based research
• impact o f oxygen deprivation and n o n - c h e m i c al methods o f
pest control ( l o w temperatures, heat) o n biochemical and
mechanical properties o f teeth and bone
• n e w methods o f pest c o n t r o l

Post-Preparation Specimen Care

• mechanisms o f o x i d a t i o n reactions
• techniques to clean greasy bone and specimens stained by
particulate pollutants

Specimen Environments
• proper relative h u m i d i t y for general storage or exhibit
environments
• particular relative h u m i d i t y and temperature requirements for
specific m i n e r a l species, w h e t h e r as specimens themselves or
inclusions i n other specimens
• cost-effective m e t h o d s to create microclimates for h u m i d i t y -
or temperature-sensitive materials
• impact o f storage e n v i r o n m e n t and storage materials o n
pyrite oxidation a n d o n the development o f soluble
efflorescent salts o n calcareous specimens
• standards for storage materials to mitigate the development
o f soluble efflorescent salts o n calcareous specimens
• interactions between mineral species i n s t o r a g e / e x h i b i t
environments
• visible light and ultraviolet radiation sensitivity o f various
specimen materials
• storage and m o n i t o r i n g o f radioactive material
• storage designs to mitigate shock, v i b r a t i on and abrasion
• methods for storing S E M stubs, casts, molds and peels
• specifications for storage furniture

Plant Materials
Plant materials are the basic specimens i n herbaria, although these
collections often contain nonvascular organisms such as algae a n d fungi,
whose chemistry and structure differs greatly from those o f vascular

Recommended Topics for Research and Technology Transfer 105

 plants. C u l t u r e collections usually preserve viable plant tissues by serial
propagation; however , some are preserved by cryopreservation tech-
niques. C u l t u r e collections also preserve livin g strains o f fungi and other
nonvascular organisms that traditionally have been associated w i t h
botanical collections.

Specimen Preparation
• methods o f d r y i n g plant specimens i n the field
• materials for temporary storage o f specimens awaiting
processing
• specifications for h e r b a r i u m m o u n t i n g and packet paper
(chemical a n d other properties o f the paper, i n c l u d i n g
appropriate weights for particular applications)
• methods o f testing the alkalinity, acidity and general
composition o f the papers used i n herbaria collections
• information o n paper substitutes and their potential utility i n
botanical collections
• preservation o f color i n h e r b a r i u m specimens, w h e n desired;
or standardized m e a n s / l a n g u a g e by w h i c h color can be
documented
• o p t i m u m methods o f attaching specimens to herbaria sheets
(adhesives, thread, c l o t h and paper tapes)
• impact o f current supports and adhesives o n the long-term
preservation and biochemical integrity o f botanical specimens
• cryopreservation methods for algae and slime molds
• methods o f preserving plant tissue cultures that do not
remain viable w i t h current cryopreservation techniques
• effects o f freeze-drying o n plant materials

Pest Control
• impact o f pest c o n t r o l chemicals (metallic poisons,
halogenated hydrocarbons, fumigants c o n t a i n i ng sulfur,
commercial sprays, etc.) o n botanical specimens
• impact o f o x y g e n deprivation a n d n o n - c h e m i c a l methods o f
pest c o n t r ol (freezing, freeze-drying, heat, radiation) o n
biochemical a n d mechanical properties o f botanical specimens
• n e w methods o f pest c o n t r o l
• identification o f groups o f specimens that are vulnerable to
pests and groups that are not, and investigations into the
differences between the t w o
• methods to identify pest c o n t r o l c h e m i c a l residues on
specimens

Post-Preparation Specimen Care

• techniques to clean herbaria sheets stained by pest control
chemicals, m o l d , acidic adhesives a n d particulate pollutants
• methods to mitigate the nee d to r e m o u n t herbaria specimens
• methods to assess the c o n d i t i o n o f herbaria specimens
• mechanisms by w h i c h the fragility o f botanical specimens
increases over time
• methods to deacidify herbaria sheets
• role o f mechanical damage i n the deterioration o f botanical
collections
• design o f fragment packets

106 Preserving Natural Science Collections

 • storage for herbaria sheets that m i n i m i z e h a n d l i n g and
stacking
• effects o f synthetic resins and polymers o n the preservation o f
plant materials

Specimen Environments
• proper temperature, relative h u m i d i t y , l i g h t i ng designs and
air quality for general s t o r a g e / e x h i b i t i o n o f plant collections
and other specimens traditionally f o u n d i n these collections
• specifications for materials used i n specimen storage trays and
boxes (pasteboards, especially 100-pt. board; papers and
adhesives)
• specifications for genus covers i n herbaria collections (design,
colors, materials)
• impact o f acids and alkalis o n botanical specimens
• specifications for storage furniture

Animal Materials
A n i m a l materials are here considered to be those specimens that are
preserved i n dry f o r m i n natural science collections, excluding bone,
teeth, shell, eggshell and the materials traditionally found i n botanical
collections. T h e components o f interest include materials s u c h as c h i t i n ,
keratins, collagens, e n z y m e s , carbohydrates, fats, oils, waxes a n d
noncollagenous proteins.

Specimen Preparation
• methods o f assessing the impact o f past and current
preparation techniques o n b o t h long-ter m preservation and
biochemical analyses o f specimens ( e . g . , effects o f ethylene
glycol used i n pitfall traps o n the analysis o f cuticular
hydrocarbons i n insect specimens, as w e l l as o n the
preservation o f the specimens over time)
• n e w methods o f field c a p t u r e / k i l l i n g
• specifications for materials used i n specimen preparation ( e . g . ,
metal insect pins, support wires i n m a m m a l specimens,
fibrous materials for filling b i r d and m a m m a l study skins)
• specifications for adhesives and p o i n t i ng materials for use i n
m o u n t i n g insect specimens
• methods o f d r y i n g specimens i n the field, particularly i n
tropical environments
• methods o f p a c k i n g a n d shipping field-prepared specimens
• methods o f preparing specimens for specialized uses, s u c h as
educational p r o g r a m m i n g (e.g. , parylene consolidation,
freeze-drying)
• preparation o f tissue samples for histological and biochemical
analyses

Pest Control
• impact o f pest c o n t r o l chemicals, i n c l u d i n g fungicides
(metallic poisons, halogenated hydrocarbons, carbon d i o x i d e ,
fumigants c o n t a i n i n g sulfur, e t c . ) , o n specimens a n d labels
• impact o f various o x y g e n deprivation and n o n - c h e m i c al pest
c o n t r o l methods ( l o w temperatures, heat) o n the preservation

Recommended Topics for Research and Technology Transfer 107

 and o n the research potential o f specimens (i.e., effects o n
color, a m i n o acids, D N A / R N A , cuticular hydrocarbons, fats
and oils, etc.)
• impact o f various c h e m i c a l a n d non-chemical pest control
methods o n the materials used i n the preparation and storage
o f specimens
• effects o f naturally present microorganisms o n specimen
preservation

Post-Preparation Specimen Care

• methods o f m o n i t o r i n g specimen c o n d i t i o n over time
• methods for r e p a i r / r e s t o r a t i on o f damaged specimens and
the impact o f interactive conservation treatments o n the
scientific utility o f the specimens

Specimen Environments
• methods o f assessing the impact o f currently used storage
materials ( w o o d , w o o d products, acidic paper and boards,
paints and varnishes, various plastics) o n the preservation and
scientific utility o f specimens ( e . g . , impact o f the organic
acids, peroxides a n d other materials released by various
w o o d s a n d w o o d products o n aging, color and biochemical
information)
• specifications for storage case designs
• specifications for storage containers for d r y proteinaceous
materials (paper products, metals, plastics, glass) i n various
climates
• o p t i m u m environments (temperature, relative humidity, air
quality) for the s t o r a g e / e x h i b i t o f dry proteinaceous
materials
• effects o f visible light and ultraviolet radiation o n color,
aging, biochemical i n f o r m a t i o n , etc. i n dry proteinaceous
materials
• methods o f storing: S E M stubs; casts, molds and peels; and
paraffin blocks, m i c r o m o u n t s a n d other ancillary materials

Specimen and Collections Documentation

T h e estimated 2 . 5 billion natural science specimens w o r l d w i d e are
d o c u m e n t e d i n a variety o f ways, i n c l u d i n g labels, catalogues, electronic
databases, maps, field records, correspondence, film and photographic
m e d i a , s o u n d recordings a n d art w o r k s . M u c h o f the research value o f the
collections is vested i n this d o c u m e n t a t i o n.

General Concerns
• informatio n o n paper substitutes and their potential utility for
specimen labeling a n d other specimen or collections
documentation
• clarification o f t e r m i n o l o g y used i n paper chemistry and in
the description o f paper stocks
• methods to test p H , and other testing methods to verify the
quality o f paper stock

108 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Collections Documentation
• general guidelines for the care and h a n d l i n g o f a variety o f
field records a n d other manuscripts, photographs, negatives,
color slides, maps, origina l catalogues, radiographs, m o t i o n
picture films, videotapes, s o u n d recordings, electronic media
databases, original artworks, etc.
• proper environments for the storage and display o f archival
and library materials

Specimen Labels and Labeling

• specifications for materials used i n specimen labeling,
i n c l u d i n g durable r e d inks for use i n designating type
specimens and materials for use i n labeling fluid-preserved
specimens
• standards for equipment a n d materials used to produce laser-
printed labels or to produce labels v i a photocopy processes
• use o f bar codes to label specimens (nature o f support and
adhesive, a n d potential for technological obsolescence)
• appropriate adhesives to attach labels to a variety o f substrates
i n c l u d i n g paper, glass and plastics
• impact o f current labeling materials ( i n k s , toners, plastics,
metals, p i g m e n t e d labels, bar code labels) o n specimens
• deterioration o f labeling materials, i n c l u d i n g pigmented
labels, a n d inks a n d toners
• effects o f fats, oils, and preparation and pest contro l
chemicals o n the preservation o f specimen labels
• impact o f storage e n v i r o n m e n t o n specimen labels
• techniques to clean specimen labels stained by pest c o n t r o l
chemicals, m o l d , fats and oils, acidic adhesives and particulate
pollutants
• conservation treatments to deacidify or repair specimen labels

Recommended Topics for Research and Technology Transfer

Appendix C
Project Chronology

20 May 1989 Preliminary discussion w i t h m u s e u m directors and

representatives o f selected organizations, in
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h A S C meeting, L i n c o l n , N e b .

16 O c t 1 9 8 9 Preliminary meeting w i t h conservators and collections

managers, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .

06 Feb 1991 S u b m i s s i o n o f project proposal to N a t i o n a l Science

Foundation

12 F e b 1 9 9 1 M i n e r a l M u s e u m s Advisory C o u n c i l discussion group,

Tucson, Ariz.

14 M a r 1 9 9 1 MeetingwithU.S.FederationofCultureCollections
board, Washington, D . C .

19 M a r 1 9 9 1 M e e t i n g and tour, A m e r i c a n T y p e C u l t u r e C o l l e c t i o n ,
Rockville, M d .

17 J u n 1 9 9 1 A m e r i c a n Society ofMammalogist s discussion g r o u p ,

Manhattan, K a n .

19 J u n 1 9 9 1 A m e r i c a n Society oflchthyologists and Herpetologists

discussion g r o u p , N e w Y o r k

01 Jul 1991 C o u n c i l o f Systematics Malacologists/American

Malacological U n i o n discussion g r o u p , B e r k e l e y ,
Calif.

03 A u g 1991 A m e r i c a n Institute o f B i o l o g i c a l Sciences discussion

group, San Antonio, T e x .

05 A u g 1 9 9 1 M y c o l o g i c a l Society o f A m e r i c a / B r y o l o g i c a l and
Lichenological S o c i e t y / A m e r i c a n F e r n Society
discussion g r o u p , San A n t o n i o , T e x .

111
 07 Aug 1991 A m e r i c a n Society o f Parasitologists/Society o f
Nematologists discussion group, M a d i s o n , Wise.

16 A u g 1 9 9 1 A m e r i c a n O r n i t h o l o g i s t s ' U n i o n discussion group,

Montreal, Quebec, Canada

20 Oct 1991 Paleontological Society/Society o f Vertebrate

Paleontologists discussion group, S a n D i e g o , Calif.

22 Oct 1991 M i n e r a l o g i c a l Society o f A m e r i c a discussion group,

San D i e g o , Calif.

07 Dec 1991 Entomology Collections Network/Entomologica l

Society o f A m e r i c a discussion group, R e n o , N e w

1 4 - 1 6 F e b 1992 Materials Science panel meetings, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .

10 M a r 1 9 9 2 G r a n t awarded by N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n
(DEB-9112855)

2 1 - 2 2 M a r 1992 W o r k i n g G r o u p 1 meeting, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .

25 Mar 1992 M e e t i n g w i t h U S F e d e r a t i o n o f C u l t u r e Collection s

board, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .

4 - 5 Apr 1992 W o r k i n g G r o u p 2 meeting, Washington, D . C .

13 M a r 1 9 9 2 Presentation o f p r e l i m i n a r y findings to the

I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m and W o r l d Congress o n
the C o n s e r v a t i o n and Preservation o f N a t u r al Science
C o l l e c t i o n s , M a d r i d , Spain

04 Jun 1992 Presentation o f preliminary findings to the Society

for P r e s e r v a t i o n o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y C o l l e c t i o n s
meeting, L i n c o l n , Neb .

24 Jul 1992 A d v i s o r y Pane l meeting, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .

05 Dec 1992 M e e t i n g w i t h m e m b e r s o f E n t o m o l o g y Collections

N e t w o r k , Beltsville, M d .

14 D e c 1 9 9 2 Editorial meeting to review draft report, Washington, D . C .

12 Apr 1993 Editorial meeting to review final report, Washington, D . C .

Jul 1993 S u b m i s s i on o f project report to National Science

F o u n d a t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i on o f report to participants
a n d other interested parties

112 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Appendix D
Project Participants and Contributors
Advisory Panel
Peter B e n n e t t
W. Donald Duckworth
Alan R . Emery
H u g h H . Genoways
James G o o d i n g
Charles G r u c h y
R o b e r t S. H o f f m a n n
Patricia K . H o l m g r e n
Philip S. H u m p h r e y
Working Group on Conservation
Paisley C a t o
H u g h H . Genoways
Terrance M . Gosliner
K . Elaine Hoagland
Jacquelyn K a l l u n k i
Ronald J . McGinley
Sievert R o h w e r
Carolyn L . Rose
Working Group on Education and Training
L y n n Barkley
Paisley C a t o
Gerald R . Fitzgerald
H u g h H . Genoways
Jim Hanlan
Jerome K r u g e r
Meredith A . Lane
Lloyd F . Kiff
Scott M . L a n y o n
M i c h a e l A . Mares
Kathryn K . Matthew
Lorin I . Nevling
Dennis M . Power
C a r o l y n L . Rose
R o b e r t L . Stevenson
Philip M . T h o m p s o n
R i c h a r d Rosenblatt
A m y Y . Rossman
K i e r a n Shepherd
Frank P . Simione
John Simmons
James C . S o l o m o n
Robert Waller
Stephen L . W i l l i a m s
Marie Malaro
Gordon M . Nishida
C h a n d r a Reedy
C a r o l y n L . Rose
George D . Schrimper
David V o n Endt
113
 Materials Science Meeting Participants
P. Bruce Adams A n n Pinzl
Mary T . Baker M a r y H . P r i t c h a rd
George M . D a v i s C a r o l y n L . Rose
W. Donald Duckworth H . Catherin e W . Skinner
M a r y - L o u Florian T o d o r Stambolov
H u g h H . Genoways R o b e r t L . Stevenson
William Ginell R o b e r t W . Stoddart
Betty Haines Norman Tennant
Edward Hare Giorgio Torraca
Peter V . H a u s c h k a Linda Trueb
D a v i d N . S. H o n Season T s e
C . Velson Horie David V o n Endt
Frank M . P. Howie Robert Waller
Jerome K r u g e r John C . Williams
Paul Marcon D . Scott W o o d
C a r l e t o n J . Phillips Gregory Y o u n g

Project Contributors
T h e f o l l o w i n g is an alphabetical listing o f all individuals w h o assisted w i t h
this project. T h e i r time and expertise were invaluable aids.

P. Bruce Adams Mary T . Baker

Executive Scientist Research Scientist
Product Safety, Glass Technology Conservation Analytical Laboratory
Precision Analytical Smithsonian Institution
Watkins Glen, N.Y. Washington, D . C .

Vernon Ahmadjian Robert J . Baker

Department of Biology Director
Clark University Natural Science Research Laboratory
Worcester, Mass. Museum of Texas Tech University
Lubbock

Christine Allen
Sales and Marketing Manager Richard C . Banks
University Products Zoologist
Holyoke, Mass. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Katherine J . Andrew
Washington, D . C .
Conservation Consultant
Great Barr
Birmingham, England L y n n Barkley
Collections Manager
Section of Ornithology and Mammology
David Armstrong
Natural History Museum
Director
of Los Angeles County
University of Colorado Museum
Los Angeles
Boulder

George F . Barrowclough
Donald Azuma
Chairman
Collection Manager
Department of Ornithology
Department of Entomology
American Museum of Natural History
Academy of Natural Sciences
New York
Philadelphia, Pa.

114 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Joel A . Bartsch D a v i d Bridge
Curator Chief
California State Mining Information Management Unit
and Mineral Museum National Museum of Natural History
Mariposa Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .

Deborah Bell
Assistant Collections Manager
Department of Botany
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .
Daniel R . Brooks
Professor
Department of Zoology
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Peter B e n n e t t Gregory W . Brown

Director Chief Preparator
Florida Museum of Natural History University of Nebraska State Museum
University of Florida Lincoln
Gainesville

Richard L . Brown
Barbara Bentley Director
Professor Mississippi Entomology Museum
Department of Ecology and Evolution Mississippi State, Miss.
State University of New York
Stony Brook
Lucy Bucowski
Programs Coordinator
Riidiger Bieler Field Museum of Natural History
Head Chicago
Division of Invertebrates
Field Museum of Natural History
Robert C . Bullock
Chicago
Professor of Zoology
University of Rhode Island
Elmer C . Birney Kingston
Curator of Mammals
Bell Museum of Natural History
Brooks M . Burr
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis Professor and Curator
Department of Zoology
Southern Illinois University
Craig Black Carbondale
Director
Natural History Museum
George C . Carroll
of Los Angeles County
Los Angeles Department of Biology
University of Oregon
Eugene
Alice M . Blount
Curator of Earth Science
Paisley C a t o
Newark Museum
Collections Manager
Newark, N.J.
Virginia Museum of Natural History
Martinsville
Eugenia B . Bohlke
Museum Specialist
Charles M . Chambers
Academy of Natural Sciences
Philadelphia, Pa. Executive Director
American Institute of Biological Sciences
Washington, D . C .
Thomas E . Bolton
Geological Survey of Canada
D o n a l d S. C h a n d l e r
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Associate Professor and Curator
Entomology Department
University of New Hampshire
Durham

Project Participants and Contributors 115

 D a n S. C h a n e y William Culberson
Museum Specialist Botany Department
Department of Paleobiology Duke University
National Museum of Natural History Durham, N . C .
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .
Bruce Danielson
President
Jerry R . C h o a t e Delta Designs Ltd.
Director Topeka, Kan.
Fort Hays State Museum
Fort Hays State University
George M . Davis
Hays, Kan.
Pilsbry Chair of Malacology
Academy of Natural Sciences
C h a r l e s S. C h u r c h e r Philadelphia, Pa.
Department of Zoology
University of Toronto
Jean F . D e M o u t h e
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Senior Collections Manager
California Academy of Sciences
Paul Clifford San Francisco
Curator
Cleveland Museum of Natural History
Melinda F . Denton
Cleveland, Ohio
Professor and Chair
Department of Botany
Daniel M . Cohen University of Washington
Chief Curator Seattle
Life Sciences Division
Natural History Museum
Anna Domitrovic
of Los Angeles County
Assistant Curator
Los Angeles
Earth Sciences
Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum
Bruce B . Collette Tucson
Director
NMFS Systematics Laboratory
Octave J . D u Temple
National Museum of Natural History
Executive Director
Smithsonian Institution
American Nuclear Society
Washington, D . C .
La Grange Park, III.

Frederick J . Collier
W. Donald Duckworth
Invertebrate Paleontology
President and Director
Museum of Comparative Zoology
Bishop Museum
Harvard University
Hawai'i State Museum
Cambridge, Mass.
of Natural and Cultural History
Honolulu
Chris Collins
Geological Conservation Unit
William E . Duellman
Department of Earth Sciences
Professor and Curator
University of Cambridge
Museum of Natural History
Cambridge, England
University of Kansas
Lawrence
James R . C r a i g
Professor and Chairman
Stan J . D y l I I
Department of Geological Sciences
Curator
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
A. E . Seaman Mineralogical Museum
and State University
Michigan Technological University
Blacksburg
Houghton

Maria Luisa Crawford

Robert F . Dymek
Professor and Curator
Professor of Geology
Department of Geology
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Bryn Mawr College
Washington University
Bryn Mawr, Pa.
St. Louis, Mo.

116 Preserving Natural Science Collections

William K . Emerson Robert Fogel
Curator Associate Curator
Department of Invertebrates Herbarium
American Museum of Natural History University of Michigan
New York Ann Arbor

Alan R Emery C a r l A . Francis

Director Curator
Canadian Museum of Nature Mineralogical Museum
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Harvard University
Cambridge, Mass.

Susan C . Eriksson
Curator and Assistant Professor Darrel Frost
Museum of Geological Sciences Assistant Curator
Virginia Polytechnic Institute Department of Herpetology
and State University American Museum of Natural History
Blacksburg New York

Dorothy Ettensohn David G . Furth

Collections Manager Curatorial Associate
Department of Entomology Entomology
Natural History Museum Museum of Comparative Zoology
of Los Angeles County Harvard University
Los Angeles Cambridge, Mass.

Ellen W . Faller Wayne K . G a l l

Collections Manager Associate Curator
Mineralogy Buffalo Museum of Science
Peabody Museum of Natural History Buffalo, N Y .
Yale University
New Haven, Conn.
William B . Gallagher
Registrar
Rodney M . Feldmann Bureau of Natural History
Professor and Assistant Chairman New Jersey State Museum
Department of Geology Trenton
Kent State University
Kent, Ohio
Alfred L . Gardner
Wildlife Biologist
William L . Fink U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Associate Curator Division of Mammals
Museum of Zoology National Museum of Natural History
University of Michigan Smithsonian Institution
Ann Arbor Washington, D . C .

Robert D . Fisher Scott L . G a r d n e r

Collection Manager
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .
Assistant Professor and Curator
Department of Nematology
University of California
Davis

Kimball L . Garrett
Gerald R Fitzgerald Collection Manager
Program Director for National Heritage Section of Ornithology and Mammalogy
Canadian Museum of Nature Natural History Museum
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada of Los Angeles County
Los Angeles

Mary-Lou Florian
Conservation Scientist-Emeritus Jon K . Gelhaus
Royal British Columbia Museum Assistant Curator
Victoria, British Columbia, Canada Department of Entomology
Academy of Natural Sciences
Philadelphia, Pa.

Project Participants and Contributors 117

 H u g h H . Genoways M a r k S. H a f n e r
Director Curator
University of Nebraska State Museum Museum of Natural Science
Lincoln Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge

Sarah B . George
Director Betty Haines
Utah Museum of Natural History Leather Chemist
University of Utah Leather Conservation Centre, Heston
Salt Lake City Hounslow, Middlesex, England

Carter R . Gilbert Winnie Hallwachs

Curator of Fishes Biologist
Florida Museum of Natural History Department of Biology
University of Florida University of Pennsylvania
Gainesville Philadelphia

William Ginell Jim Hanlan

Head
Architecture and Monuments
Conservation Research Section
Getty Conservation Institute
Marina del Rey, Calif.
Associate Professor
Art Conservation Programme
Queen's University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Eric Hansen
Brian F . Glenister Interim Chair
Professor Research and Technical Studies Subgroup
Department of Geology A I C Conservation Research Project
University of Iowa Getty Conservation Institute
Iowa City Marina del Ray, Calif.

Dale M . Gnidovec Jerry H a r a s e w y c h

Collections Manager
Orton Geological Museum
Columbus, Ohio
James G o o d i n g
Lunar Sample Curator and Manager
Office of the Curator
NASA Johnson Space Center
Houston, Tex.
Curator
Department of Invertebrate Zoology
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .
Edward Hare
Geophysical Laboratory
Carnegie Institute of Washington
Washington, D . C .

Terrance M . Gosliner
Director of Research
Department of Invertebrates
California Academy of Sciences
San Francisco
George E . H a r l o w
Chairman and Curator
Department of Mineral Sciences
American Museum of Natural History
New York

Charles G r u c h y
Director General Karsten E . Hartel
Canadian Conservation Institute Collection Manager
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Museum of Comparative Zoology
Harvard University
Cambridge, Mass.
David J . Hafner
Curator
Vertebrate Zoology Peter V . H a u s c h k a
New Mexico Museum of Natural History Associate Professor of
Albuquerque Oral Biology and Pathophysiology
Enders Pediatric Research Laboratories
Children's Hospital
Boston

118 Preserving Natural Science Collections

David L . Hawksworth C . Velson Horie
Director Keeper of Conservation
International Mycological Institute Manchester Museum
Egham, Surrey, England University of Manchester
Manchester, England

S h e r m a n S. H e n d r i x
Professor Frank M . P. Howie
Department of Biology Health and Safety Adviser
Gettysburg College Natural History Museum
Gettysburg, Pa. London, England

Donald Heyneman Terry E . Huizing

Associate Dean of Health Sciences Adjunct Curator
Department of Epidemiology and Cincinnati Museum of Natural History
Biostatistics Cincinnati, Ohio
University of California
San Francisco
P h i l i p S. H u m p h r e y
Director
K . Elaine Hoagland Museum of Natural History
Executive Director University of Kansas
Association of Systematics Collections Lawrence
Washington, D . C .

Eric P. Hoberg
Zoologist
Biosystemic Parasitology Laboratory
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Beltsville, Md.
Eric Hochberg
Curator
Department of Invertebrate Zoology
Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History
Santa Barbara, Calif.
R o b e r t S. H o f f m a n n
Assistant Secretary for the Sciences
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .
Noel H . Holmgren
Curator
New York Botanical Garden
Bronx, N.Y.
Patricia K . H o l m g r e n
Director of the Herbarium
New York Botanical Garden
Bronx, N.Y.
D a v i d N . S. H o n
Professor and Director
Wood Chemistry Laboratory
College of Forest & Recreation Resources
Clemson University
Clemson, S.C.
Peter R . H o o v e r
Director
Paleontological Research Institution
Ithaca, N.Y.
Jennie H u n t e r
BIONEC
El Cerrito, Calif.
James F . H u r l b u t
Research Associate
Denver Museum of Natural History
Denver
J. Howard Hutchison
Research Paleontologist
Museum of Paleontology
University of California
Berkeley
K i m Igoe
Director
Accreditation and Museums Standards
American Association of Museums
Washington, D . C .
Daniel H . Janzen
Professor
Department of Biology
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia
M a r i o n Jenkinson
Adjunct Curator of Ornithology
Museum of Natural History
University of Kansas
Lawrence
S u s a n L . Jewett
Co-Collection Manager
Division of Fishes
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .

Project Participants and Contributors 119

 Roger L . Kaesler Thomas E . Lovejoy
Director Assistant Secretary for External Affairs
Museum of Invertebrate Paleontology Smithsonian Institution
University of Kansas Washington, D . C .
Lawrence

Jacquelyn K a l l u n k i
Assistant Director of the Herbarium
New York Botanical Garden
Bronx, N.Y.
Marie Malaro
Director
Museum Studies Program
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
George Washington University
Washington, D . C .

Anthony R Kamp f
Curator of Mineralogy Anita Manning
Natural History Museum Assistant Director
of Los Angeles County Collections Management
Los Angeles Bishop Museum
Hawai'i State Museum
of Natural and Cultural History
Lloyd F . Kiff
Honolulu
Director
Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology
Camarillo, Calif. Paul Marcon
Conservation Scientist
Canadian Conservation Institute
Jerome K r u g e r
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Professor
Department of Materials Science and
Engineering Michael A . Mares
Johns Hopkins University Director
Baltimore, Md. Oklahoma Museum of Natural History
University of Oklahoma
Norman
Meredith A . Lane
Director
R. L . McGregor Herbarium Stephen A . Marshall
University of Kansas Associate Professor
Lawrence Department of Environmental Biology
University of Guelph
Guelph, Ontario, Canada
Scott M . L a n y o n
Chairman
Department of Zoology Kathryn K . Matthew
Field Museum of Natural History Director
Chicago New Mexico Museum of Natural History
Albuquerque

J . R a l p h Lichtenfels
Research Leader
Biosystematic Parasitology Laboratory
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Beltsville, Md.
Cliff McCawley
I C O M Conservation Committee
Canadian Conservation Institute
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

David R . Lindberg Jackie M c C o n a c h i e

Assistant Director Biosciences Collection Manager
Museum of Paleontology New Mexico Museum of Natural History
University of California Albuquerque
Berkeley

Natalie L i n d e r
Assistant Curator
Cranbrook Institute of Science
Bloomfield Hills, Mich.
Roy W. McDiarmid
Curator of Amphibians and Reptiles
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .

120 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Ronald J . McGinley
Chairman
Department of Entomology
National Museum of Natural History-
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .
John C . Morse
Professor and Director
Arthropod Collection
Department of Entomology
Clemson University
Clemson, S.C.

Suzanne B . M c L a r e n Gregory M . Mueller

Collection Manager Assistant Curator, Mycology
Edward O'Neil Research Center Department of Botany
Carnegie Museum of Natural History Field Museum of Natural History
Pittsburgh Chicago

William Metropolis Jack A . M u r p h y

Assistant Curator Curator
Minerological Museum Department of Geology
Harvard University Denver Museum of Natural History
Cambridge, Mass. Denver

Charles Meyer Joe N a g e l

Associate Curator Curator
Planetary Science M. Y. Williams Geological Museum
NASA Johnson Space Center University of British Columbia
Houston, Tex. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

Glenn A . Miller Lorin I . Nevling

Curator Chief
Arizona Mineral Museum Illinois Natural History Survey
Phoenix Champaign

Norton G . Miller Alfred F . Newton, Jr.

Chief Scientist Associate Curator
Biological Survey Division of Insects
New York State Museum Field Museum of Natural History
.Albany Chicago

Scott E . M i l l e r
Chairman
Department of Entomology
Bishop Museum
Hawai'i State Museum
of Natural and Cultural History
Honolulu
G o r d o n M . Nishida
Collections Manager
Department of Entomology
Bishop Museum
Hawai'i State Museum
of Natural and Cultural History
Honolulu

Francis Molina Barry M . O'Connor

Assistant Staff Scientist Curator and Professor
American Type Culture Collection Insect Division
Rockville, Md. Museum of Zoology
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor
Burt L . Monroe, Jr.
Chairman
Department of Biology R o b i n M . Overstreet
University of Louisville Head
Louisville, Ky. Parasitology Section
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
Ocean Springs, Miss.
Nancy Morin
Editor
Herbarium News L a w r e n c e M . Page
Missouri Botanical Garden Director
St. Louis, Mo. Center for Biodiversity
Illinois Natural History Survey
Champaign

Project Participants and Contributors 121

 James J . P a p i k e F . H . Pough
Director Mineralogist
Institute of Meteoritics Reno, Nev.
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque
Dennis M . Power
Executive Director
D a n n y B . Pence Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History
Professor of Parasitology Santa Barbara, Calif.
Department of Pathology
Texas Tech University Health Science
Gregory Pregill
Center
Curator
Lubbock
Department of Herpetology
San Diego Natural History Museum
D o n a l d H . Pfister San Diego, Calif.
Director
Gray Herbarium
Mary H . Pritchard
Harvard University
Professor and Curator
Cambridge, Mass.
Division of Parasitology
Manter Laboratory
Carleton J . Phillips University of Nebraska State Museum
Professor and Chairman Lincoln
Department of Biology
Hofstra University
Richard Prum
Hempstead, N.Y.
Curator of Ornithology
Museum of Natural History
T h e o d o r e W . P i e t s ch University of Kansas
Professor and Curator of Fishes Lawrence
College of Ocean and Fishery Sciences
University of Washington
Scott R e d h e a d
Seattle
Biosystematics Research Institute
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
A n n Pinzl
Curator
William G . Reeder
Nevada State Museum
Director
Capitol Complex
Texas Memorial Museum
Carson City
University of Texas
Austin
Steven P . P l a t a n i a
Research Associate
Chandra Reedy
Department of Biology
A I C Art Conservation Research Project
Museum of Southwestern Biology
University of New Mexico Art Conservation Department
Albuquerque University of Delaware
Newark

Thomas R Piatt
D o n Reynolds
Associate Professor
Section of Botany
Department of Biology
Natural History Museum
Saint Mary's College
of Los Angeles County
Notre Dame, Ind.
Los Angeles

J o h n Pojeta , J r .
George Robinson
Chief
Curator of the Mineral Sciences Division
Branch of Paleontology and Stratigraphy
Canadian Museum of Nature-
U.S. Geological Survey
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Reston, Va.

Stuart G . Poss T h o m a s E . Rogers

Director of Technical Services
Senior Ichthyologist and Curator
Redd Pest Control
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory Museum
Jackson, Miss.
Ocean Springs, Miss.

122 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Sievert R o h w e r
Curator of Birds
Thomas Burke Memorial
Washington State Museum
Seatde
John Simmons
Collections Manager
Division of Herpetology
Museum of Natural History
University of Kansas
Lawrence

Jose P . R o s a d o
Curatorial Associate
and Collection Manager
Museum of Comparative Zoology
Harvard University
Cambridge, Mass.
Kristin B . Simpson
Research Specialist & Collections Manag
Department of Entomology
University of Missouri
Columbia

Carolyn L . Rose H . Catherine W . Skinner

Senior Research Conservator Research Associate
National Museum of Natural History Kline Geology Laboratory
Smithsonian Institution Yale University
Washington, D . C . New Haven, Conn.

Richard Rosenblatt Gerald R . Smith

Professor Curator
Scripps Institute of Oceanography Museum of Zoology
University of California, San Diego University of Michigan
La Jolla, Calif. Ann Arbor

June R . P. Ross Alexandra Snyder

Professor Collection Manager
Department of Biology Fisheries Teaching and Research
Western Washington University University of Washington
Bellingham Seattle

Malcolm Ross James C . S o l o m o n

U.S. Geological Survey Curator of the Herbarium
Reston, Va. Missouri Botanical Garden
St. Louis, Mo.

Amy Y . Rossman
Research Leader S o r e n a S. Sorense n
Systematic Botany Curator-in-Charge
and Mycology Laboratory Department of Mineral Sciences
U.S. Department of Agriculture National Museum of Natural History
Beltsville, Md. Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .

George D . Schrimper
Director Richard A . Souza
Museum of Natural History Curator
University of Iowa Section of Minerals
Iowa City Carnegie Museum of Natural History
Pittsburgh

Kieran Shepherd
Collection Manager M i k e Spilde
Earth Sciences Research Associate
Canadian Museum of Nature Institute of Meteorirics
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada University of New Mexico
Albuquerque

Frank P . Simione
Associate Director for Operations T o d o r Stambolov
American Type Culture Collections Conservation Scientist
Rockville, Md. Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Project Participants and Contributors 123

 Frederick W . Stehr Linda Trueb
Professor & Director of Insect Collection Curator
Department of Entomology Division of Herpetology
Michigan State University Museum of Natural History
East Lansing University of Kansas
Lawrence

R o b e r t L . Stevenson
Director Season T s e
American Type Culture Collection Conservation Scientist
Rockville, Md. Canadian Conservation Institute
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Robert W . Stoddart
Department of Pathological Sciences F . A . Uecker
University of Manchester Medical School Research Mycologist
Manchester, England Systematic Botany and Mycology
Laboratory
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Arnold Suzumoto
Beltsville, Md.
Collection Manager
Bishop Museum
Hawai'i State Museum Dale H . V i t t
of Natural and Cultural History Department of Botany
Honolulu University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Norman Tennant
Conservation Consultant Janet R Voight
Department of Chemistry Assistant Curator
University of Glasgow Department of Zoology
Glasgow, Scodand Field Museum of Natural History
Chicago

David Thayer
Curator David V o n E n d t
Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Senior Organic Chemist
Tucson Conservation Analytical Laboratory
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .
Margaret K . Thayer
Research Associate
Division of Insects Janet W a d d i n g t o n
Field Museum of Natural History Curatorial Assistant
Chicago Invertebrate Paleontology
Royal Ontario Museum
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Fred Thompson
Curator of Mollusks
Florida Museum of Natural History H . J . Walker, Jr.
University of Florida Senior Museum Scientist
Gainesville Scripps Institute of Oceanography
University of California, San Diego
La Jolla, Calif.
Philip M . T h o m p s o n
Director
Museum of Northern Arizona Robert Waller
Flagstaff Chief
Collections Division
Canadian Museum of Nature-
Raymond H . Thompson
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Director
Arizona State Museum
University of Arizona James D . Webster
Tucson Assistant Curator
Department of Mineral Sciences
American Museum of Natural History
Giorgio Torraca
New York
Arcotech Studio Associate
Rome, Italy

124 Preserving Natural Science Collections

D a v i d P . Whistler Donald L . Wolberg
Curator Paleontologist
Vertebrate Paleontology New Mexico Bureau of Mines
Natural History Museum and Mineral Resources
of Los Angeles County Socorro
Los Angeles

D . Scott W o o d
John C . Williams Associate Curator
Technical Consultant Section of Birds
Alexandria, Va. Carnegie Museum of Natural History
Pittsburgh

Stephen L . Williams
Collections Manager T e r r y Yates
and Adjunct Professor Curator of Mammals
Natural Science Research Laboratory Museum of Southwestern Biology
Museum of Texas Tech University University of New Mexico
Lubbock Albuquerque

D o n E . Wilson
Director
Biodiversity Programs
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D . C .
Gregory Y o u n g
Conservation Scientist
Canadian Conservation Institute
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Project Participants and Contributors

Appendix E
Resolutions from the International Symposium
and First World Congress on the Preservation
and Conservation of Natural History Collections
Preamble
We cannot even estimate the number of species of organisms on earth to an
order of magnitude, an appalling situation in terms of knowledge and our
ability to affect the human prospect positively. There are clearly few areas of
science about which so little is known, and none of such direct relevance to
human beings. —Peter H. Raven, 1992

T h e following issues and r e c o m m e n d e d actions are made understanding

full w e l l that burgeoning w o r l d population g r o w t h and the associated
exponential increase o f industrial exploitation o f natural resources and
energy use is causing an ever-increasing destruction o f the w o r l d ' s
biodiversity. K n o w l e d g e and understanding o f biodiversity is essential
for the conservation, management, and sustained use o f ecosystems.
Recent research demonstrates that our catalogues o f biodiversity are
seriously inadequate (as m u c h as 9 0 percent o f species diversity is
u n k n o w n to science) and urgently need to be i m p r o v e d , so that science
can place proper value o n o u r natural resources and provide models to
predict the consequences o f l o w e r e d biodiversity. T h u s , natural history
collections are important for the study o f biodiversity.

Issue 1
The Central Purposes of Collections: Recommendations
to Aid and Monitor Worldwide Collections Concerns
T h e central purposes o f natural history collections are to record t h r o u g h
specimens and related data the existence o f species o n the earth along
w i t h their supporting geological structures, to carry o u t research on the
interrelationships o f plants, animals, a n d minerals, and t o c o m m u n i c a t e
this knowledge to serve the needs o f society.

T h e preservation a n d conservation o f natural history collections tran-

scend local or national concerns. N a t u r a l history specimens and associ-

127
 ated data, h o u s e d i n m u s e u m s , d o c u m e n t the existence o f species i n time
and space. M u s e u m s , then, are libraries o f life and supporting geological
structures. T h e s e resources are essential for expanding knowledge through
research and education. E a c h biological species is an encyclopedia o f
genetic information ; specimens i n m u s e u ms represent volumes o f each
different encyclopedia. Reference and type specimens w i t h i n these
collections are essential for precise identification o f species and strains.
V o u c h e r specimens serve to validate biological research by ensuring that
it can be replicated or compare d w i t h future research. M u s e u m holdings
cannot be replaced, they are priceless archives. C o n t r i b u t i o n s emanating
from natural history collections contribute significantly to diverse fields
such as conservation, agriculture, medicine, toxicology , epidemiology,
biochemistry, archeology, ethnology, economics, c o m m e r c e , food and
mineral resources, and law enforcement. M o d e r n biotechnology is
dependent o n biological collections.

Action:
1-1 — T h e C o n g r e s s , first a n d foremost, recognizes that the biological
species o f each country s h o u l d be considered and respected as cultural
resources o f inestimable value for the entire w o r l d .

1-2 — A s this first W o r l d C o n g r e s s o n the C o n s e r v a t i o n and Preservation

o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y C o l l e c t i o n s , c o n v e n e d i n M a d r i d , S p a i n , in 1 9 9 2 ,
clearly demonstrated the need for international coordinatio n o n numer-
ous issues, a W o r l d C o u n c i l o n C o l l e c t i o n s Resources ( W C C R ) s h o u l d
be formed by the O r g a n i z i n g C o m m i t t e e o f the 1 9 9 2 Congress. T h e
W C C R s h o u l d consist o f representatives from those w o r l d - w i d e organi-
zations that are concerne d about the preservation and conservation o f
natural history collections. T h e W C C R w o u l d be established for the
following purposes:
( 1 ) to m o n i t o r the activities a n d results o f initiatives arising from
this conference;
( 2 ) to p r o m o t e exchange o f information and technology relating
to the preservation a n d conservation o f natural history
collections;
( 3 ) to w o r k internationally to establish treaties so that i n times o f
conflict, collections o f natural history specimens are accorded
equal protection w i t h c u l t u r a l artifacts. T h e y must not be
t a k e n for trophy o r r a n s o m ; a n d
( 4 ) to collect d o c u m e n t a t i o n o n the uses a n d benefits derived
from natural history collections, and to update this
d o c u m e n t a t i o n o n a regular basis.

1-3 — T h e W C C R is to p r o m o t e international standards established by

the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n o n Z o o l o g i c a l N o m e n c l a t u r e ( I C Z N ) ,
International C o m m i s s i o n o n B o t a n i c a l N o m e n c l a t u r e ( I C B N ) , Asso-
ciation o f Systematics C o l l e c t i o n s ( A S C ) , Society for the Preservation o f
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y C o l l e c t i o n s ( S P N H C ) , A m e r i c a n Society for M i c r o b i o l -
ogy ( A S M ) , etc., and similar organizations to ensure placement and long-
t e r m preservation o f type and other v o u c h e r natural history specimens i n
appropriate institutions.

128 Preserving Natural Science Collections

1-4 — T h e W C C R w i l l w o r k w i t h international organizations such as the
International C o u n c i l o f M u s e u m s ( I C O M ) to p r o m o t e h i g h profes-
sional standards and establish educational programs for collection m a n -
agers and conservators. T h i s process w i l l be aided by:
( 1 ) p r o v i d i n g m u s e u m s and similar institutions w i t h qualified
consultants;
( 2 ) helping w i t h development o f proposals for programs and
funding;
( 3 ) arbitrating conflicting opinions; and
( 4 ) p r o v i d i n g recommendations .

1-5 — T h e W C C R , w o r k i n g w i t h established organizations such as A S C

and the B i o l o g y C u r a t o r s ' G r o u p o f the U n i t e d K i n g d o m , w i l l establish
a n e t w o rk to m o n i t o r , assess, and assist collections at risk.

1-6 — T h e W C C R w i l l w o r k w i t h national organizations to help society

understand the mission and value o f natural history collections and the
needs for professional care o f collections, large and small, i n perpetuity.

1- 7 — T h e W C C R w i l l organize a meeting every four years for the

purpose of:
( 1 ) r e v i e w i n g progression o f the W C C R t o w a r d i m p l e m e n t i n g
the mandates o f its mission ;
( 2 ) r e v i e w i n g international progress t o w a r d preservation and
conservation o f natural history collections;
( 3 ) p r o v i d i n g a f o r u m for presenting and discussing n e w
conservation and storage techniques, and c o m m o n problems,
and m a k i n g strategies to solve international problems; a n d
( 4 ) givin g a prestigious a w a r d , a medal , u n d e r the patronage o f
the F u n d a c i o n C u l t u r a l B a n e s t o , to recognize outstanding
contributions o f individuals or organizations to the
preservation and conservation o f natural history collections
and related issues.

Issue 2
Facility and Resource Needs for Conserving Collections
As o n l y approximately 10 percent o f biological diversity is k n o w n t o
science o f the 10 plus m i l l i o n species estimated to live o n earth, and as
efforts intensify to inventory earth's biological diversity due to the rapidly
increasing species extinctions caused by m a n , collections are g r o w i n g ,
and w i l l continue to g r o w i n size at a considerable rate. T h e tasks o f
conserving these collections i n perpetuity likewise w i l l increase. C u r -
rently there are insufficient collection spaces or facilities w i t h appropriate
environmental controls.

Action:
2- 1 — T h e Congress calls for rapid and focused surveys and inventories
o f the earth's biota r e a l i z i ng that the rate o f man-related extinctions
significantly decreases the diversity each year, and knowledge o f the biota
is the first step i n understanding the function o f biodiversity i n ecosys-
tems and its value to the h u m a n species.
 2 - 2 — T h i s Congress and the W C C R e n c o u r a g e institutional and societal
policies that p r o m o t e selective collecting o f organisms, recognizin g
legitimate research needs and b o t h the problems o f the impact o f
collecting o n species survival, a n d the problems o f appropriate space for
storage o f specimens i n perpetuity. T h e W C C R w o r k i n g w i t h organiza-
tions such as the Sociedad para el D e s a r r o l l o de la H i s t o r i a N a t u r a l w i l l
encourage the development o f mechanisms to facilitate interactions
between natural history collectors and those striving for the conservation
o f nature. T h e W C C R advocates salvaging o f carcasses as a source o f
collection materials, selecting specimens w h e r e they are abundant, and
establishing breeding stations ( i n situ o r ex situ) as examples.

2-3 — T h e W C C R w i l l contact a n d interact w i t h appropriate interna-

tional bodies ( I C O M , the U n i t e d N a t i o n s ( U N ) , the W o r l d B a n k , n o n -
governmental organizations ( N G O s ) , the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y ( E C ) ,
multinational corporations) to gain support to b u i l d , enlarge, and
recondition natural history m u s e u m s , a n d to provide appropriate facili-
ties and resources based o n a professional assessment o f needs and long-
range plans. H e l p is especially needed i n developing countries.

2 - 4 — T h e Congress r e c o m m e n d s that a pan-tropical conference be

convened to define a strategic plan for small tropical museums and
equivalent institutions, r e c o g n i z i n g that such m u s e u ms face extremely
difficult physical and financial conditions as w e l l as a g r o w i n g need and
responsibility to care for the rapidly increasing tropical natural history
collections.

2-5 — A s national m u s e u m s o f natural history provide leadership for each

c o u n t r y ' s efforts to understand its biological diversity and the sustainable
use o f its natural resources for their cultura l a n d economic value, this
Congress encourages countries w i t h o u t s u c h institutions to form them.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the Congress resolves that the W C C R w i l l assist i n
p r o v i d i n g models o f organization a n d mission statements for new
national museums.

2 - 6 — T h e W C C R w i l l aid regional and national collections care

organizations t o make national g o v e r n m e n t al agencies, N G O s , founda-
tions, and the public aware o f the need for n e w a n d / o r enlarged/
upgraded buildings, facilities, a n d resources for m a i n t a i n i ng and preserv-
i n g natural history collections i n perpetuity.

Issue 3
Museums and Educational Needs in Developing Countries
T h e largest and longest established m u s e u ms w i t h collections housing
millions o f biological specimens from t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d are situated
i n n o r t h e r n industrialized countries. T h e greatest p r o p o r t i on o f biologi-
cal diversity is f o u n d i n developing countries w i t h tropical rain forests.
A l s o , there are other great centers o f biological diversity and rich historic-
cultural materials i n developing countries. T h e r e are special needs to

130 Preserving Natural Science Collections

develop and m a i n t a in m u s e u ms i n developing countries. Scientists,
scholars, and collection managers i n developing countries require access
to the large established collections. Considerable international coopera-
tion is needed w i t h regard to collections access, training, data exchange,
and technology transfer.

Action:
3-1 — T h e W C C R w i l l promote efforts to establish regional t r a i n i ng
centers i n one o r m o r e developing countries, particularly i n tropical
regions, to train natural history m u s e u m collection managers and
conservators to properly m a i n t a i n collections i n tropical regions. Suppor t
for such programs s h o u l d be solicited from international organizations
such as the U N , the W o r l d B a n k , N G O s , and multinational corporations.

3-2 — A i d is needed to provide scholarships and fellowships for students

o f developing countries to gain education i n systematics, collection
management and conservation i n advanced centers i n developed c o u n -
tries. Courses must be taught w i t h recognition o f the tools and technol-
ogy that w i l l be available to students w h e n they return .

3-3 — I n d u s t r i a l i z e d a n d developing countries s h o u l d be encouraged to

form partnerships to b u i l d programs i n collection management, and
research o n materials a n d methods for preservation. A l l countries s h o u ld
share information and improv e access to scientific and w o r l d - w i d e
cultural and natural resources.

3-4 — International support s h o u l d be sought to fund research o n

problems particular to specimen deterioration i n tropical h u m i d regions
and to develop appropriate c o n t r o l measures.

3-5 — I n establishing partnerships between institutions o f industrialized

and developing countries, this Congress calls for bilateral cooperative
programs that include technical , in-sit u training . M a n a g e r i al aspects
should be carried o u t w i t h great sensitivity and understanding o f local
conditions and constraints i n the developing countries.

3 - 6 — A s most nations have little knowledge o f their o w n flora and fauna,

and as conservation managers a n d users o f natural products require mor e
complete inventories, w e urge national governments to establish N a -
tional Center s for Biodiversity that w i l l set priorities, survey, study,
document, a n d provide the public and policy makers w i t h information
about their national heritage. T h e s e centers s h o u l d integrate existing
efforts and support existing m u s e u m s .

3-7 — T h e Congress calls for greatly increased coordinatio n a m o n g

m u s e u m and other collection centers to provide a u n i t e d thrust o n the
biodiversity crisis, i n c l u d i n g data a n d technology exchanges.
 Issue 4
The Need to Escalate Research and Development
of Preservation and Conservation Techniques,
and Research in Collections Curation Issues
Increasingly, n u m e r o u s types o f organisms, minerals and cultural mate-
rials may not ever be sampled again due to habitat destruction, restric-
tions o n collecting endangered species or species from certain habitats,
a n d cultural change. F u r t h e r m o r e , collections already contain records
and specimens o f species an d populations that n o longer exist. A c c o r d -
ingly, there is a need to escalate research and development i n manage-
ment and preservation techniques, as w e l l as to provide a considerable
increase i n collectio n management education.

Action:
4 - 1 — T h e Congress calls for an increase i n educational courses and
training programs at the undergraduate, graduate a nd postgraduate
levels for the following: collectio n management, specimen preparation
and conservation, research i n applied material science t o w a r d preserva-
tion a n d conservation o f specimens, and t o w a r d industrial development
o f materials an d containers for the treatment and long-term storage o f
specimens. I n education a nd t r a i n i n g programs, existing methodologies
m u s t be adapted to local conditions i n developing countries based on an
understanding o f the limitations a n d constraints i n such countries.

4 - 2 — T h e W C C R w i l l w o r k w i t h national collections care organizations,

agencies, and private f u n d i n g organizations to provide competitive
program support for the educatio n programs g i v e n above.

4 - 3 — T h e C o n g r e ss urges the W C C R to develop international coopera-

t i o n , an d to coordinate national an d international initiatives aimed at
specimen conservation w i t h special reference to: preparation techniques,
long-term storage techniques, repair a nd treatment techniques, disposal
a n d destruction protocols, an d condition s for loans an d exchanges.

4 - 4 — T h e C o n g r e s s calls for increased application o f technology that

allows for extraction o f data from specimens for research yet m i n i m i z e s
destruction o f specimens.

4 - 5 — T h e n e w molecular techniques are n o w o f immense importance

in systematics studies, thus the C o n g r e ss calls o n all curators, preparators,
and collections managers to prevent the use o f treatments that w o u l d
irreversibly alter o r destroy D N A content. G u i d e l i n e s mus t be established
to preserve useful D N A ( a n d other genetic a nd biochemical materials) in
n e w collections.

4 - 6 — T h e Congress calls for increased research o n collections to provide

accurate identifications a nd to systematically update the collections,
u n d e r t a k i n g the steps necessary to provide accurate data to the user
community.

132 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Issue 5
The Need for Trained Systematists, Collections Managers
and Conservation Specialists
As approximately 9 0 percent o f biological species diversity is u n k n o w n to
science, and as collection management for systematic research requires
individuals w h o are authoritative c o n c e r n i n g the systematics, t a x o n o m y
and nomenclature o f genetically allied groups o f species and genera, and
as today there are too few experts for many groups, especially i n taxon-
rich developing countries, it is clear that there is an immediate need for
the education and training o f systematists w i t h emphasis o n studying the
most poorly k n o w n group o f organisms w i t h the greatest economic and
cultural value.

Action:
5-1 — T h e Congress calls o n universities to upgrade or establish
programs i n systematics a n d to f o r m cooperative programs w i t h free-
standing museums and other collections centers i n order to create strong
programs for systematic research and for the training o f systematists,
collections managers a n d conservators, as w e l l as administrators.

5- 2 — T h e W C C R is encouraged to w o r k internationally to i n f o r m and

educate pertinent national agencies and organizations about this press-
ing need and to w o r k w i t h t h e m to f o r m strategies for p r o b l e m solving .

Issue 6
The Need for Databases
T h e r e are pressing demands for collections-based data. C o l l e c t i o n m a n -
agement today requires c o m p u t e r i z e d data management. Increasingly,
collections-based data includes information o n h o w the specimens were
prepared, the conservation status o f the specimens, and actions taken to
correct deterioration and damage problems. Effort is needed n o w to
establish data standards a n d efficient exchange o f data throug h networks
w i t h i n and between institutions.

Action:
6- 1 — T h e W C C R w i l l help facilitate exchange o f information that builds
o n existing and successful data management systems, realizing that there
have already been t w o decades o f experience i n computerizatio n o f
m u s e u m collections.

6-2 — T h e C o n g r e ss calls for all natural history museums to w o r k w i t h i n

existing programs to attain uniformity i n data standards, to enhance data
standards, to rapidly increase c o m p u t e r i z a t i on o f specimen-based data,
and to establish protocols and safeguards for data exchange. I t is
necessary to establish linkages w i t h other systems s u c h as G l o b a l I n f o r -
m a t i o n Systems, G e n B a n k , the C o n s e r v a t i o n I n f o r m a t i o n N e t w o r k
( C I N ) , and other networks .
 6- 3 — T h e Congress calls for immediate action to rapidly create
databases o f all k n o w n species, i n c l u d i n g range a n d ecological data. T o
facilitate the process, the catalogue o f the k n o w n biota o f the w o r l d is to
begin w i t h m i n i m a l data ( a n d thus w i l l be necessarily c r u d e ) . T h e
estimated m a n p o w e r for this task is 1.5 t h o u s a n d person years at a cost
o f some 6 0 m i l l i o n pounds sterling. T h i s provides for w h a t is k n o w n o f
species diversity an d numbers .

Issue 7
Education and Public Awareness
M u s e u m s a n d other collection centers m u s t become highl y visible i n the
public eye i f the energy o f the people is to impel governments to act
p r o m p t l y to save the w o r l d ' s biota. M u s e u m s are ideally suited to
establish strategies to create p u b l i c a nd private awareness about the
biodiversity crisis a nd the linkage between collections and o u r knowledge
and understanding , use, an d preservation o f nature.

Action:
7- 1 — T h e Congress calls u p o n m u s e u m s to change to an active outward-
l o o k i n g m o d e , an d to b u i l d a solid contract w i t h the public t h r o u gh
relevant public education programs a n d exhibits using cultural values
appropriate to the audience.

7- 2 — T h e Congress calls o n m u s e u m s to engage our systematics

expertise and collection resources to address the crises o f our day that
endanger all the w o r l d ' s species. R e l e v a n t issues include the quality o f
e n v i r o n m e n t , public health, useful g e n e s / g e n e products, global data-
bases o n species an d habitat diversity, t r a i n i ng specialists from developing
countries, an d p r o v i d i n g a reference base for the inventory o f flora and
fauna o f protected areas.

Issue 8
Postal Systems: Rules and Regulations
M u s e u m s today are faced w i t h an ever-increasing b u r d e n o f national and
international rules a n d regulations that hinder the efficient and rapid flow
o f specimens a nd data for research an d educational purposes. Frequentl y
such rules a nd regulations cause considerable delays i n delivery o f 7

specimens causing deterioration or destruction o f the specimens.

Action:
8- 1 — T h e Congress calls for the W C C R to take the initiative to w o r k
a n d n e t w o r k internationally to derive agreements, conventions, and
treaties that w i l l enhance the speed a n d efficiency o f specimen and data
flow, a nd enhance h a n d l i n g procedures for specimen care.

134 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Issue 9
Endorsements: UNESCO, UNCED-RIO
As these issues are o f great importance to the g o o d o f the h u m a n species,
and as there is a biodiversity crisis and a crisis i n managing rapidly g r o w i n g
collection resources, the C o n g r e s s requests that these issues and resolu-
tions be carried to U N E S C O to receive its endorsement. I n so d o i n g the
Congress recognizes U N E S C O ' s multiple mandate i n the fields o f
education, science, culture and c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , and its long-standing
experience i n p r o v i d i n g solutions to problems i n e n v i r o n m e nt and
development, as w e l l as its c o n t r i b u t i o n to the protection and preserva-
tion o f biological diversity. T h e s e resolutions are also to be carried to the
U n i t e d N a t i o n s Conference o n the E n v i r o n m e n t and D e v e l o p m e n t
( U N C E D ) to be h e l d i n R i o de Janeiro i n June 1 9 9 2 to i n f o r m the
Conference o f these issues and actions deemed necessary, a n d to attain
the endorsement o f the Conference . T h i s d o c u m e n t is also to be carried
to the W o r l d C o n s e r v a t i o n U n i o n ( I U C N ) to obtain its endorsement.

Collections have been assembled over several centuries, in many parts of the
world, where they often document regionally characteristic organisms.
Collections can document invasive species that increase in abundance or
range over time. Likewise, collections can document the decline in so many
species, and may even come to be the only places where extinct species exist.
—Peter H. Raven, A u s t r a l i an B i o l o g i s t 5, no. 1 (1992)

R e s o l u t i o n s from the I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m a n d F i r s t W o r l d
C o n g r e s s o n the P r e s e r v a t i on a n d C o n s e r v a t i o n o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y
C o l l e c t i o n s , adopted 1 5 M a y 1 9 9 2 i n M a d r i d , S p a i n , are r e p r i n t e d
here w i t h the p e r m i s s i o n o f the R e s o l u t i o n s C o m m i t t e e .
Credits

Cover P h o t o g r a p h by M a r k M a r c u s o n and B r e t t C . Ratcliffe,

U n i v e r s i t y o f Nebraska State M u s e u m

Page iv S m i t h , M i c h a e l . 1 9 9 1 . C i t e d i n an article by T . D . N i c h o l s o n ,
"Preserving the earth's biological diversity: T h e role o f
m u s e u m s . " Curator 34(2):85-108 (p. 9 4 ) .

Page 1 V e r h o o g , F r e d e r i c . I n press. O p e n i n g remarks. I n Current

Issues, Initiatives, and Future Directions for the Preservation
and Conservation of Natural History Collections. (C. L.
R o s e , S. L . W i l l i a m s a n d J . Gisbert, eds.) International
S y m p o s i u m a n d F i r s t W o r l d Congress o n the Preservation
and C o n s e r v a t i o n o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y C o l l e c t i o n s , M a d r i d ,
1 0 - 1 5 M a y 1 9 9 2 . V o l u m e 3. Consejeria de E d u c a c i o n y
C u l t u r a , M a d r i d , Spain.

Page 2 W a r d , P h i l i p . 1 9 8 6 . The Nature of Conservation: A Race

Against Time. G e t t y C o n s e r v a t i on Institute, M a r i n a del
R e y , Calif, (p. 1 ) .

Page 3 P h o t o g r a p h by J o h n C . A n d e r s o n , A c a d e m y o f N a t u r a l
Sciences

Page 4 P h o t o g r a p h courtesy N A S A J o h n s o n Space C e n t e r , # S 8 2 -

26777

Page 5 G r i f f i n , D e s . I n press. P l a n n i n g for the 21st century and

preparing for the next 5 0 0 years. I n Current Issues, Initiatives,
and Future Directions for the Preservation and Conservation
of Natural History Collections. ( C . L . R o s e , S. L . W i l l i a m s
a n d J . G i s b e r t , eds.) International S y m p o s i u m and F i r s t
W o r l d Congress o n the Preservation and C o n s e r v a t i on o f
Natural History Collections, Madrid, 1 0 - 1 5 M a y 1992.
V o l u m e 3 . Consejeria de E d u c a c i o n y C u l t u r a , M a d r i d ,
Spain.

137
 Page 6 Photograp h by C l a r k S u m i d a , W e s t e r n F o u n d a t i o n of
Vertebrate Z o o l o g y

Page 7 P h o t o g r a p h by Catharin e H a w k s

Page 8 Photograp h by M a r c i a Stevens, N e w Y o r k Botanical Garden

Page 9 P h o t o g r a p h by A l l e n R o k a c h , N e w Y o r k Botanical G a r d e n

Page 10 Conference o f D i r e c t o r s o f Systematic Collections. 1 9 7 1 .

I n The Systematic Biology Collections of the United States: An
Essential Resource. Parts I and II. The Great Collections
Their Nature, Importance, Condition and Future. Report to
the N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n . N e w Y o r k Botanical
G a r d e n , B r o n x , N . Y . (p. 4 ) .

Page 1 1 P h o t o g r a ph by C l a r k S u m i d a , W e s t e r n F o u n d a t i o n of
Vertebrate Z o o l o g y

Page 12 B l a c k , C r a i g . 1 9 8 9 . C o n s e r v a t i o n i n the natural sciences:

C o l l e c t i o n s , sites a n d environments. In Collections,
Monuments and Architecture at Risk: A Forum for Southern
California Decision Makers ( C . Segal, ed.). National
Committee to S a v e A m e r i c a ' s C u l t u r a l C o l l e c t i o n s .
Washington D . C . (p. 2 2 ) .

Page 13 B r a i n , C . K . 1 9 9 0 . F o r e w o r d . I n Natural History Collections:

Their Management and Value ( E . H e r h o l d t , e d . ) . Special
Publication N o . 1 . T r a n s v a a l M u s e u m , Pretoria, S o u t h
Africa.

Page 14 P h o t o g r a p h courtesy M S C M o v e Office, S m i t h s o n i an

Institution, M O V - 6 2 7

Page 15 P h o t o g r a p h by H e n r y W . C h a n e y , Santa Barbara M u s e u m

of Natural History

C o m m i s s i o n o n Preservation a n d Access, T a s k Forces on

A r c h i v a l Selection. 1 9 9 3 . T h e preservation o f archival
materials. The Commission on Preservation and Access
Newsletter ( 5 6 , Insert):l-7 (p. 1).

Page 16 P h o t o g r a p h by R o b e r t W a l l e r

W a r d , P h i l i p . The Nature of Conservation (p. 1 4 ) .

Page 17 P h o t o g r a p h by D a n i e l H . F o l e y , D e p a r t m e n t o f Wildlife
a n d Fisheries Sciences, T e x a s A & M U n i v e r s i t y

Page 18 P h o t o g r a p h courtesy M S C M o v e Office, S m i t h s o n i a n

Institution, M O V - 6 8 7

W a r d , P h i l i p . The Nature of Conservation (p. 6 4 ) .

138 Preserving Natural Science Collections

Page 19 P h o t o g r a p h by Katherine B l o o d , B i s h o p M u s e u m

Page 2 0 P h o t o g r a p h by Paisley C a t o

Page 2 1 P h o t o g r a p h by C a r l a K i s h i n a m i , B i s h o p M u s e u m

Page 2 2 P h o t o g r a p h by Margaret R . B o l i c k , U n i v e r s i t y o f Nebrask a

State M u s e u m

Page 2 3 P r i t c h a r d , M a r y H . 2 1 F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 2 . L e t t e r to Catharine
Hawks.

Page 2 4 Photographs by Stephen L . W i l l i a m s

Page 2 5 C o m m i s s i o n o n Preservation and Access, T a s k Force s o n

A r c h i v a l Selection. T h e preservation o f archival materials
(pp. 2 - 3 ) .

P h o t o g r a p h by Barbara T h i e r s , N e w Y o r k Botanical G a r d e n

Page 2 6 American Association o f Museums, Commission on

M u s e u m s for a N e w C e n t u r y . 1 9 8 4 . Museums for a New
Century: A Report of the Commission on Museumsfor a New
Century. A m e r i c a n Association o f M u s e u m s , W a s h i n g t o n ,
D . C . (p. 109).

Page 2 7 Perrot, P a u l N . 1 9 8 7 . R e m a r k s. I n Invest in the American

Collection ( J . S. L o n g , ed.). Proceedings from a R e g i o n a l
F o r u m o n the C o n s e r v a t i o n o f C u l t u r a l Property. N a t i o n a l
Committee t o Save A m e r i c a ' s C u l t u r a l Collections,
W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . (p. 5 ) .

Page 2 8 PhotographcourtesyDeltaDesigns,Ltd.,andUniversityof
Kansas M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y

Page 2 9 G r i f f i n , D e s . P l a n n i n g for the 21s t century. I n Current

Issues, Initiatives, and Future Directions.

Page 3 0 B r a i n , C . K . F o r e w o r d . I n Natural History Collections:

Their Management and Value.

Page 3 1 L o r d D a i n t o n . I n press. Systematic biology research: A n

outsider's visit to the secret garden. I n Current Issues,
Initiatives, and Future Directions for the Preservation and
Conservation of Natural History Collections. ( C . L . R o s e , S.
L . W i l l i a m s and J . G i s b e r t , eds.) Internationa l S y m p o s i u m
and First W o r l d Congress o n the Preservation and
C o n s e r v a t i o n o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y Collections, M a d r i d , 1 0 -
15 M a y 1 9 9 2 . V o l u m e 3 . Consejeria de E d u c a c i o n y
C u l t u r a , M a d r i d , Spain.

P h o t o g r a p h courtesy A r c h i v es C o l l e c t i o n o f the O k l a h o m a
M u s e u m o f Natural History, University o f Oklahoma

Credits 139
 Page 3 2 Photograp h by Paisley C a t o

Page 3 3 W a r d , P h i l i p . The Nature of Conservation (p. 4 0 ) .

P h o t o g r a p h by D a n i e l H . F o l e y , D e p a r t m e n t o f Wildlife
and Fisheries Sciences, T e x a s A & M U n i v e r s i t y

Page 34 de L a P e n h a , G u i l h e r m e M . 1 9 9 3 . I n press. Opening

remarks. I n Current Issues, Initiatives, and Future Directions
for the Preservation and Conservation of Natural History
Collections. ( C . L . R o s e , S. L . W i l l i a m s and J . Gisbert, eds.)
International S y m p o s i u m and F i r st W o r l d Congress on the
Preservation and Conservation of Natural History
Collections, M a d r i d , 1 0 - 1 5 M a y 1 9 9 2 . V o l u m e 3. Consejeria
de E d u c a c i o n y C u l t u r a , M a d r i d , Spain.

Page 35 P h o t o g r a p h by A l l e n R o k a c h , N e w Y o r k Botanical G a r d e n

Page 3 6 W a l k e r , B o y d W . 1 9 6 3 . T h e curator as a custodian o f

collections. Curator 6 ( 4 ) : 2 9 2 - 2 9 5 (p. 2 9 3 ) .

Page 3 7 P h o t o g r a p h courtesy M i c h e l e D e r r i c k , G e t t y Conservation

Institute

Page 38 P h o t o g r a p h by Charles M e y e r s , B i s h o p M u s e u m

W a r d , P h i l i p . The Nature of Conservation (p. 3 2 ) .

Page 39 de L a P e n h a , G u i l h e r m e M . O p e n i n g remarks. I n Current

Issues, Initiatives, and Future Directionsfor the Preservation
and Conservation of Natural History Collections.

140 Preserving Natural Science Collections

NIC
National

Institute

for the

Conservation

of Cultural

Property

3299 K Street, NW

Suite 403

Washington, DC

20007

Tel: 202/625-1495

Fax: 202/625-1485

It is no small thing to outwit time.