Water: Rivers of Life;

Seas of Sorrow
 Density
Why doesn’t oil mix with water, and why it floats on
top of it?
Density is defined as the
amount of matter in a given
amount of space.
d = m/V
The density of copper is
8.94 g/cm3.

Q: Calculate the density of a metal sample with a

mass of 18.96 g and a volume of 4.31 cm 3.
A: d = m/V = 18.96 g/4.31cm3 = 4.40 g/cm3
2
COVALENT BONDS

Many nonmetallic elements react by sharing

electrons rather than by gaining or losing
electrons.

When two atoms share a pair of electrons, a

covalent bond is formed.

Atoms can share one, two, or three pairs of

electrons, forming single, double, and triple
bonds.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY

Electronegativity is a measure of an atom’s

attraction for the electrons in a bond.
 POLAR COVALENT BONDS
When two atoms with differing electro-
negativity form a bond, the bonding electrons
are drawn closer to the atom with the higher
electro-negativity. Such a bond exhibits a
separation of charge and is called a polar
covalent bond.

Polar likes polar and nonpolar likes nonpolar

 Hydrogen bonds

Hydrogen bonds: When a

hydrogen atom is covalently
bonded to a highly
electronegative atom such
as nitrogen (N), oxygen (O),
or fluorine (F), it can exhibit
an additional polar
attraction. This attraction is
called a hydrogen bond.
Water: Some Unique Properties
Expands when it freezes.
Water: Some Unique Properties
High Heat of Vaporization
Water has a very high heat of vaporization for a
liquid.

Therefore, a large amount of heat is required to

vaporize a small amount of water.
Water: Some Unique Properties
High Specific Heat
Specific heat is the amount of heat energy
necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water 1 oC.
 Water in Nature
75% of Earth’s surface is covered with water.
Nearly 98% of that is seawater.

About 2% of Earth’s water is frozen in the polar

ice caps.
The Water Cycle and Natural
Contaminants
The Water Cycle and Natural
Contaminants
Natural contaminants in water include:
• Gases including radon, nonmetal oxides, and
others.
• Dissolved minerals including cations and
anions. Calcium, magnesium, and iron salts
cause hard water.
• Organic Matter: Bacteria, microorganisms,
and animal wastes are all potential
contaminants of natural waters.
The Water Cycle and Natural
Contaminants
 Chemical and Biological
Contamination
Waterborne Disease
Contamination of water by pathogenic
organisms was a serious problem. The EPA
estimates that 30 million people in the U.S. are
threatened by bacterial contamination of water
supplies. It is estimated that 80% of all illness in
the world is caused by water contamination.
 Chemical and Biological
Contamination
Acid Rain
Sulfur and nitrogen oxides (SOx and NOx) are
deposited as acid rain. Acidic precipitation
damages the environment by lowering the pH of
soil and lakes and streams. Acid rain also can
corrode metals and dissolve limestone and
marble.
 Chemical and Biological
Contamination
Sewage and Dying Lakes
The release of sewage into waterways increases
the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and
leads to eutrophication (aging) of a lake.

Eutrophication is a natural process that is

accelerated by the presence of human waste
and runoff from farms, lawns, and other human
activity.
 Groundwater Contamination
Nitrates
Nitrate contamination of groundwater is
particularly a problem in rural areas. Agricultural
activity contributes fertilizers and animal wastes
to water sources. Nitrates are very soluble. They
are therefore difficult to remove from water
supplies. Nitrates are a problem with infants
usually less than one year old. They metabolize
nitrate to nitrite. Nitrite ions then complex heme
and the baby can turn blue and die. This
condition is known as methemoglobinemia
(blue baby syndrome).
 Groundwater Contamination
Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs)
VOCs can contaminate groundwater and add
undesirable odor to drinking water. Also, many
are carcinogenic. Sources include: industrial
activity, oil and brine wells, landfills, leaking
underground storage tanks, and illegal dumping
of organic wastes.
 Measurement of Water Contamination

Parts per Million (ppm)

1 ppm = 1 g solute
106 g solution

Parts per Billion (ppb)

1 ppb = 1 g solute
109 g solution
 Water Treatment Plants
The first step in water treatment is to add slaked
lime and alum to the water:

The slaked lime and alum form the gelatinous

aluminum hydroxide, which coagulates colloidal
particles with bacteria. These are then removed by
filtering through sand and gravel filters. Charcoal is
often present in the filtering process to remove
odors and the water is aerated to improve taste.
 Water Treatment Plants
Chemical Disinfection
Chlorine is added to kill any
remaining bacteria. Municipal
drinking water often contains
residual chlorine so that the
water can be free from bacteria
at any point in the distribution
system.
Ozone can also be used for
bacterial disinfection and has the
added advantage of killing many
viruses.
 Wastewater Treatment
Before wastewater can be returned to the
environment, it should be treated to remove
harmful contaminants. Municipal wastewater
treatment is considered to involve up to three
levels of processing.
 Wastewater Treatment
Primary sewage treatment involves holding the
sewage in settling ponds to allow heavier solids
to precipitate out as sludge.
 Wastewater Treatment
Secondary sewage treatment involves passing
the effluent from the primary treatment through
sand and gravel filters. During this process,
aerobic bacteria can break down much of the
organic matter.
 Wastewater Treatment
Another form of secondary treatment is called
the activated sludge method. The sewage is
placed into tanks and aerated with large
blowers.
 Wastewater Treatment
Tertiary treatment involves further treating the
sewage, such as charcoal filtration to absorb
organic molecules, reverse osmosis, further
filtration, distillation, etc.
Alternative Sewage Treatment
Systems
Sludge from municipal sewage treatment
systems can be used as fertilizer.

A number of communities allow primary

treatment in settling ponds. The effluent is then
allowed to flow into marshes that filter the
sewage and use the nutrients.

Toilets have been developed that compost

wastes. Composting toilets use no energy or
water.
We Are the Solution to Water
Pollution
Water is essential to our
quality of life. We must
do what we can to
maintain the quality of
our water sources.