Engineering Chemistry

CHY1701

Dr. Krishnendu Biswas, SAS, #2, I Floor Annex,

AB1, #1245, krishnendu.biswas@vit.ac.in
 Syllabus
Module-1 Water Technology
Characteristics of hard water - hardness, DO, TDS in water and their
determination – numerical problems in hardness determination by
EDTA; Modern techniques of water analysis for industrial use -
Disadvantages of hard water in industries.
Module-2 Water Treatment
Water softening methods: - Lime-soda, Zeolite and ion exchange
processes and their applications. Specifications of water for
domestic use (ICMR and WHO); Unit processes involved in water
treatment for municipal supply - Sedimentation with coagulant-
Sand Filtration - chlorination; Domestic water purification – Candle
filtration- activated carbon filtration; Disinfection methods-
Ultrafiltration, UV treatment, Ozonolysis, Reverse Osmosis; Electro
dialysis.
Module-3 Corrosion
Dry and wet corrosion - detrimental effects to buildings, machines,
devices & decorative art forms, emphasizing Differential aeration,
Pitting, Galvanic and Stress corrosion cracking; Factors that enhance
corrosion and choice of parameters to mitigate corrosion.
Module-4 Corrosion Control
Corrosion protection - cathodic protection – sacrificial anodic and
impressed current protection methods; Advanced protective
coatings: electroplating and electroless plating, PVD and CVD.
Alloying for corrosion protection – Basic concepts of Eutectic
composition and Eutectic mixtures - Selected examples –Ferrous
and non-ferrous alloys.
Module-5 Electrochemical Energy Systems
Brief introduction to conventional primary and secondary batteries;
High energy electrochemical energy systems: Lithium batteries –
Primary and secondary, its Chemistry, advantages and applications.
Fuel cells – Polymer membrane fuel cells, Solid-oxide fuel cells-
working principles, advantages, applications.
Solar cells – Types – Importance of silicon single crystal,
polycrystalline and amorphous silicon solar cells, dye sensitized
solar cells - working principles, characteristics and applications.
Module-6 Fuels and Combustion
Calorific value - Definition of LCV, HCV. Measurement of calorific value
using bomb calorimeter and Boy’s calorimeter including numerical
problems.
Controlled combustion of fuels - Air fuel ratio – minimum quantity of
air by volume and by weight-Numerical problems-three way catalytic
converter- selective catalytic reduction of NOX; Knocking in IC
engines-Octane and Cetane number - Antiknocking agents.
Module-7 Polymers
Difference between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics;
Engineering application of plastics - ABS, PVC, PTFE and Bakelite;
Compounding of plastics: moulding of plastics for Car parts, bottle
caps (Injection moulding), Pipes, Hoses (Extrusion moulding), Mobile
Phone Cases, Battery Trays, (Compression moulding), Fibre
reinforced polymers, Composites (Transfer moulding), PET bottles
(blow moulding); Conducting polymers- Polyacetylene- Mechanism
of conduction – applications (polymers in sensors, self-cleaning
windows)
Module 8 Lecture by Industry Experts
Text books 1. O. G. Palanna, Engineering Chemistry, Tata McGraw-Hill
Education, 2009.
Reference 1. Sivasankar, Engineering Chemistry, Tata McGraw-Hill
books Education, 2008.
2. O.V. Roussak and H.D. Gesser, Applied Chemistry-A Text Book
for Engineers and Technologists,
Springer Science Business Media, New York, 2nd Edition, 2013.
3. R. Gowarikar and N.V. Viswanathan and J.Sreedhar, Polymer
Science, John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
4. Peter Atkins and Julio De Paula, Atkins’ Physical Chemistry,
Oxford University Press, 2011.
5. David Linden, Hand Book of batteries, McGraw Hill Publishers,
4th Edition, 2010.
 Module-1
• Types of impurities in water

– Physical, chemical and biological

including hardness causing impurities;

– pH, DO, TDS, COD and BOD in water;

– Alkalinity of water and its estimation;

– Estimation of hardness by EDTA

method-numerical problems
 Water

Unique natural resource
which all life depends on.

There is no life without
water in earth and there is
no alternate for water

Abundant?

3/4th of earth surface is water!
High latent heat of

H2O-M.Wt. -18 -
Universal solvent, colorless,
odorless and tasteless.

Liquid between 0-100 °C.

Highest specific heat
capacity
vaporization

Good carrier of nutrients
and dissolved oxygen

High surface tension and
cohesion – easily rise to
greater heights.

Anomalous expansion
behavior - sustain aquatic
organism in extreme cold.

Rain water - Purest water- natural distillation

Hydrological cycle - endless cycling of water we use through
the environment.

Every year 1.4 inch thick layer evaporates from the oceans by
solar energy and more than 90% of it return to the ocean.

Transpiration of plants plays vital role in hydrological cycle.

River water - Considerable amount of dissolved and
suspended impurities; Eg. Cl-, SO42-, HCO3- of Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+,
organic matter, sand and rock etc.

Lake water - Constant chemical composition, contains less
amount of dissolved minerals, contains more amount of
organic matter

Sea water - Most impure of all forms of natural water

Under ground water - Part of rain water, percolate into earth
during its downward journey in comes in contact with many
minerals

Spring and well water - Clear appearance due to filtering
action, Contains more amount of dissolved minerals-more
hardness, almost free from organic matter
 Classification of Impurities

Water
Impurities

Suspended Dissolved

Dirt Organics Hardness

Bacteria Grease/Oil Nitrates
Silica

Water - essential for life. Nutrient up take, distribution,
regulation of temperature and removal of waste
mediated through water.

Water Uses

Transportation

Coolant for thermal power plants

Regulates our climate

Drinking

Irrigation

Washing

Sources - Surface water (river, lakes, ponds, ocean etc.)

Rain water

Underground water

Spring water

Glaciers, Snow
Physical impurities - Dissolved Solids/Salts

Color

Due to presence of Fe, Mg salts, humus, tannins, peat,
algae, weeds, industrial effluent. Eg. Yellowish tinge – Cr
salt, red-brown – peat matter etc.

Turbidity

Due to colloid, extremely fine suspension clay, slit, plankton

Turbidity depend on qty, size, shape, reflectivity index.

It can be eliminated by sedimentation, followed by
coagulation and filtration.

Taste

Due to dissolved minerals.

Bitter taste – Fe, Al, Mn, SO42-, CaCO3

Soapy taste – NaHCO3

Palatable taste – CO2, NO3-

Odor

Undesirable for domestic and industrial purpose

It is due to presence of living organism, decaying vegetation,
sulphides, putrefaction of proteins, aldehydes, esters,
phenols etc.
Chemical Impurities - Inorganic & Organic Chemicals

Chemical impurities from various industries such as dye, paint, varnish,
drug, insecticide, pesticide, detergent, pulp, textile, tannery etc.

Acidity - more hydrogen ion concentration

Ground and surface water becomes acidic by industrial wastes

Acidity caused by presence of CO2, H2SO4, HNO3, HCl.

Gases

CO2 and O2 dissolved in water – concentration depends on
temperature, pressure and salt content in water.

Dissolved CO2 has no significance but dissolved O2 induces corrosion.

Dissolved NH3 arises from decomposition of nitrogenous organic
matter.

Minerals – originated from rocks and industrial effluent.

Eg. Mineral acid, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Fe2+, Mn2+, NO3- , SO42-, F-,
Cl-, HCO3-, SiO2.

Biological impurities-Algae, pathogenic bacteria, fungi, virus, worms etc.

Micro-organisms – less in deep-well water - 20-35 °C

Chlorination controls the growth of micro-organism

Hardness causing impurities - prevents lathering of soap
and form white scum due to certain salts of Ca2+, Mg2+ and
other heavy metals.

Soap - Na+ or K+ salt of palmitic, stearic and oleic acid

Hardness
1.00 Å 1.02 Å Fajan’s rule
Ionic Covalent
Large cation Small cation
Temporary Permanent Low charge High charge
hardness hardness Small anion Large anion

Temporary hardness due to dissolved HCO3- of Ca2+, Mg2+
and other heavy metals.

Temporary hardness is mostly destroyed by boiling of
water.

insoluble

insoluble

Permanent hardness is due to Cl- and SO42- of Ca2+,

Mg2+ and other heavy metals - cannot be removed by
boiling .

Substances which do not contribute to hardness
Eg. NaCl, KCl, SiO2, Na2SO4, Fe2O3, K2SO4 etc.
Estimation of hardness of water by EDTA
method

Estimation of hardness of water is of great importance
to chemical industry.

EDTA – Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid (H4Y) –

limited solubility – not used for estimation of hardness.

Tetrasodium salt of EDTA (Na4Y) – extensive hydrolysis

make the solution highly alkaline - not used for
estimation of hardness.
 Disodium salt of EDTA (Na2H2Y) – used for estimation of hardness.
 Eriochrome Black–T (EBT) indicator.
 Ammonia buffer (NH4Cl+NH4OH)

Ca2+ / Mg2+ in water + EBT → [Ca / Mg –EBT] less stable wine red
complex
[Ca / Mg –EBT] + EDTA → [Ca / Mg –EDTA] + EBT
(Wine red/less stable) (more Stable) (Steel blue)
 Calculation of hardness

Expressed in terms of CaCO3 equivalents, as a matter of
convention and convenience.

Concentration of hardness causing salts like Ca(HCO3)2,
Mg(HCO3)2 , CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4

Non-hardness causing salts like NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4 etc.

Why is CaCO3 chosen to express hardness as it
equivalents?

CaCO3; M.wt = 100, Equiv. wt. = 50

Most insoluble salt in water - ppts during water
treatment.

Eg. Expressing . Mg(HCO3)2 in terms of CaCO3
equivalent
Mg(HCO3)2; M. wt = 146
So, 146 g = 100 g of CaCO3 ; 1g of Mg(HCO3)2 =
100/146
Formula
Units

Parts per million (ppm) - 1 ppm = 1 part of CaCO3 eq. in
106 parts of water

Milligrams per liter (mg/L) - 1 mg/L = 1 mg of CaCO3
eq. of 1 L of water

Clarke’s degree - 1° Cl = 1 part of CaCO3 eq. per 70,000
parts of water

Degree French - 1° Fr = 1 part of CaCO3 eq. per 105
parts of water
Relationship between the units

1 ppm = 1 mg/L = 0.1° Fr = 0.07 ° Cl

1° Cl = 1.433 ° Fr = 14.3 ppm = 14.3 mg/L

1° Fr = 0.7 ° Cl = 10 ppm = 10 mg/L
Bureau of Indian Standard BIS

A water <150 ppm of hardness are classified generally as
“good”

Those containing 150 to 300 ppm as “fair”

Those >300 ppm as “bad”
 Problems on Hardness
Q1.Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness
of a
water sample, having the following analysis.
Mg(HCO3)2 – 73 mg/l
Ca(HCO3)2 – 162 mg/l M.Wt
CaSO4 – 136 mg/l Ca(HCO3)2 = 162
Mg(HCO3)2 = 146
MgCl2 – 95 mg/l
CaSO4 = 136
CaCl2 – 111 mg/l MgCl2 = 95
NaCl – 100 mg/l CaCl2 = 111
NaCl = 58.5

Answer
Total hardness = 450 ppm
Temporary hardness = 150 ppm
Permanent hardness = 300 ppm
Q2. The following chemicals are dissolved in a
litre of water. Calculate the total hardness of
this sample of water.
CaSO4 = 20 mg; Mg(HCO3)2 – 14.6 mg;
MgCl2 = 12.5 mg
A. 37.8 ppm

Q3. An analyzed sample of water containing

only Ca(HCO3)2 is found to contain 150 ppm
of hardness. Calculate the amount of
Ca(HCO3)2 dissolved in that water sample.
A. 243 ppm
 Disadvantage of hard water
Domestic

Washing - doesn’t produce lather cause wastage of

soap, white scum formed adheres to fabric giving
spots and streaks.

Bathing - cleansing quality of soap is depressed.

Cooking - boiling point of water increased so fuel

and time wasted. Tea or coffee unpleasant taste. Salt
deposition in heating utensils.

Drinking – affect digestive track, form stones in

urinary track.
Industry

Textile – during dyeing dissolved salts cause poor
quality shades and give spots.

Sugar – crystallization becomes difficult, sugar so-
produced is deliquescent.

Paper – affects smoothness and glossiness of paper.

Concrete making - affects hydration of cement and
strength of concrete.

Steam generation and boilers – wastage of fuel, scale
and sludge formation, priming and foaming, corrosion
and caustic embrittlement.
Scale and sludge formation
 Steam generation in boilers increases concentration of
salts.
 When concentration reaches saturation point salts
thrown out and precipitates deposit on inner wall of
the boiler.
 Estimation of hardness in Lab
 Standard Hard Water (SHW) 1g of CaCO3 in 1L of water. So
standard water has 1mg per mL.
 Pipette out 20 mL of SHW, add 10 mL ammonia buffer
(NH4Cl+NH4OH), add 3 drops of Eriochrome Black–T (EBT)
indicator, titrate it against EDTA, till wine-red changes to
blue
 Note down volume (V1)
20mL of SHW = V1 mL of EDTA
20 x 1mg of CaCO3 = V1 mL of EDTA
1mL of EDTA = (20/V1) mg of CaCO3 eqvt.
 Pipette out 20 mL of unknown hard water, add 10 mL
ammonia buffer (NH4Cl+NH4OH) - add 3 drops of Eriochrome
Black–T (EBT) indicator, titrate it against EDTA, till wine-red
changes to blue
 Note down volume (V2)
• 20ml of given hard water = V2 mL of EDTA
= V2 X 20/V1 mg of CaCO3 eqvt.
1000 mL = V2 x 20 x 1000/V1 x 20 mg of CaCO3 eqvt.
(Total hardness)
 Boil unknown hard water 250 mL to 50 mL
 Pipette out 20 mL of boiled hard water
 Add 10 mL ammonia buffer (NH4Cl+NH4OH)
 Add 3 drops of Eriochrome Black–T (EBT)
indicator
 Titrate it against EDTA, till wine-red changes
to blue
 Note down volume (V3)
 20ml of given hard water = V3 mL of EDTA
= V3 X 20/V1 mg of CaCO3
eqvt.
∴ 1000 mL = V3 x 20 x 1000/V1 x 20 mg
of CaCO3 eqvt. (Permanent hardness)
 Numericals
Q1. 50 mL of a standard hard water containing 1 mg of pure CaCO3 per 1 mL,
consumed 20 mL of EDTA. 50 mL of a water sample consumed 25 mL of
EDTA solution using EBT indicator. Calculate total hardness of the water
sample in 1L.
A. 1250 ppm
Q2. A SHW contains 15 g of CaCO3 per liter. 20 mL of this required 25 mL of
EDTA solution (i) 100 mL of sample water required 18 mL of EDTA
solution (ii) the same sample after boiling required 12 mL of EDTA
solution. Calculate the temporary hardness of the given sample of water in
terms of ppm in a liter of water.
A. Total hardness = 2160 ppm
Permanent hardness = 1440
Temporary hardness = 720 ppm
Q3. 0.28 g of CaCO3 was dissolved in 1 liter of water. 100 ml of this water on
titration required 28 mL of EDTA. 100 mL of unknown hard water sample
required 33 mL of same EDTA. After boiling and cooling 100 mL of this
sample required 10 mL of EDTA. Calculate the temporary and permanent
hardness
A. Total hardness = 330 ppm
Permanent hardness = 100 ppm
Temporary hardness = 230 ppm
 Important terms
• pH – determines the water to be acidic is <7 or
alkaline if >7.
• DO – Dissolved Oxygen – Amount of oxygen present in
water - H2O contains 8 mL of dissolved O2 per litre
at RT.
• BOD – Biochemical Oxygen Demand - measure of O2
(mg/L) needed by micro organisms to oxidize the
organic matter present in water sample.
• COD – Chemical Oxygen Demand – measure of O2
(mg/L) needed/required to oxidize any oxidizable
impurities in a sample of water.
• COD always greater than BOD – some cellulose cannot
be oxidized by micro-organisms.
• Total Solids = Total dissolved solids (TDS – can pass
through filter) + Total suspended solids (TSS – cannot
pass through filter)
 Dissolved Oxygen
• Freely available oxygen in water – expressed in mg of
O2/litre or ppm.

• Important for aquatic life – more DO healthy water

body (5-6 mg O2/l)

• Oxygen concentration – photosynthesis, aerobic

respiration, nitrification and chemical oxidation,
exchange of oxygen with atmosphere.

• Factors affecting – temperature, aquatic plant

populations, water discharge, human activities, organic
waste
 BOD determination
• Difference in DO before (D1) and after 5 days (D2) – BOD
= (D1-D2)/P(percentage of dilution in decimals)
• DO - Winkler’s method or Iodometric technique
• Procedure - An excess of manganese(II) salt, iodide (I−) and
KOH is added to a water sample causing a white precipitate
of Mn(OH)2 to form. This precipitate is oxidized by the DO
into a brown manganese precipitate (Mn4+ oxy hydroxide).
In the next step, a strong acid (Eg. H2SO4) is added to
acidify the solution (Mn4+). The brown precipitate then
converts the iodide ion (I−) to iodine while Mn4+ is reduced
back to Mn2+.
• Liberated I2 is titrated with Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3)
The amount of DO is directly proportional to the moles of
thiosulfate consumed.
• 1 mole of O2 → 2 moles of MnO(OH)2 → 2 mole of I2 → 4
moles of S2O32−
 COD determination
• COD – O2 (mg/l) required to oxidize impurities in
water using strong oxidizing agents
• Known volume of sample water refluxed with known
amount of K2Cr2O7 (acidified in H2SO4) + HgSO4
(catalyst) and Ag2SO4 (avoid interference of halides)
• Remaining amount of K2Cr2O7 titrated with FAS
(Ferrous ammonium sulfate) using ferroin indicator till
colour changes from blue green to reddish brown
• COD = (A – B) x 8 x 1000 x M/V mg/l
• A – FAS (ml) used for blank
• B – FAS (ml) used for sample
• M = Molarity of FAS
• V = volume of sample (ml)
 TDS
• Total dissolved solids
are completely dissolved
in water – filterable –
survive 2 µm pore.
• Affects - Displeasing
odor and taste,
carcinogen, scaling,
corrosion in boilers –
estimation vital
• Residue upon
evaporation of filterable
sample
• Estimation –
gravimetry (more
accurate) and
conductivity
• Dissolved ions lead to
conductance.
 Disadvantages of hard water in industries -
Boiler troubles due to Hard Water
• Steam generation – used
for many purposes, viz.
fabric, power generation,
agriculture, domestic etc.
• Salts dissolved in water
precipitate out when their
concentration increase
• Troubles
– Scale and sludge formation
– Priming and foaming or
carryover Low pressure, moderate
– Boiler corrosion pressure,
high pressure and
– Caustic embrittlement supercritical pressure
 Sludge
Slimy loose precipitate
called sludge suspended in
water

water

Boiler wall

Sludge is a soft, loose and slimy precipitate formed within the
boiler. It can be easily scrapped off with a wire brush.

It is formed by substances which have greater solubility in hot
water than in cold water, e.g. MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4 etc.,

It is formed at comparatively colder portions of the boiler and
collects in areas of the system, where the flow rate is slow or at
bends.
Effects

Wastage of fuel

Sludge entrapped in scale and become a hard deposit

Disturbs the working of boiler, eg. chocking of the pipes
Prevention of sludge formation

Sludges can be removed using wire brush or mild acid

By using well softened water

Blow-down operation (i.e) drawing off of the concentrated
water

If the precipitate is hard deposit – Scale

Scale, very difficult to remove, even with hammer and chisel.
 Scale

Hard adherent coating

on inner walls of boiler

water

Boiler wall

Scales are hard substances which sticks very firmly to the inner
surfaces of the boiler wall.

Scales are difficult to remove even with the help of a hammer and
chisel.

Examples: CaSO4, CaCO3, Mg(OH)2
 Disadvantage of scale formation

Wastage of fuel
Thickness of scale (mm) 0.325 0.625 1.25 2.5 12
Wastage of fuel 10% 15% 50% 80% 150%

Lowering of boiler safety - Over-heating of boiler to be done for

constant supply of steam - makes boiler material softer and
weaker especially in high pressure boilers. This makes boiler
unsafe.

Danger of explosion - When thick scale cracks, due to uneven
expansion, water comes in contact with over-heated iron plates
cause formation of large amount of steam suddenly – high
pressure developed, may cause explosion

Removal - for soft scales - Scraper or piece of wood or wire
brush.

For brittle scales - Thermal shocks (heating and sudden cooling
with cold water)

For hard scales - CaCO3 dissolved by 5-10% HCl and CaSO4 by
EDTA.
 Reasons for formation of scale
1. Presence of Ca(HCO3)2 in low pressure boilers

Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 In high pressure boilers, CaCO is

3
(scale) soluble by forming Ca(OH)2

2. Presence of CaSO4 in high pressure boilers

To C Solubility of CaSO4 4. Presence of SiO2
15 3200 ppm It forms insoluble
230 15 ppm hard adherent CaSiO3
Cold water soluble and MgSiO3 as scales

Super heated water Insoluble (scale)

3. Presence of MgCl2 in high temperature boilers

MgCl2 + 2 H2O Mg (OH)2 + 2HCl

Magnesium chloride scale

Mg(OH)2 can also be generated by thermally decomposing Mg(HCO3)2

 Priming
 When a boiler is steaming rapidly, some particles of
liquid water carried along-with steam. This process
of ‘wet steam’ formation is called priming.

 Reasons for priming

 Presence of large amount of dissolved solids.
 High water level in the boiler
 High steam velocities
 Excessive foaming
 Sudden boiling
 Improper boiler design
 Sudden increase of steam-production rate.
 Foaming

Foaming – formation of small but persistent bubbles at the water
surface.

These bubbles are carried along with steam leading to priming.
Reasons for foaming

Difference in concentration of solute in surface film and bulk
solution.

Substances which increases viscosity of the surface film favors
production of foam.

Any substance which lowers surface tension of water favors
production of foam.

Presence of oils or grease and finely divided scale and sludge
particles also cause foam.
Priming and Foaming – occur together and their formation is
undesirable

Wet steam carry dissolved salt to turbine blades and reduces its
efficiency.

Dissolved salts in the wet steam may enter the parts of other
machinery.
III. Priming and foaming

Foaming
It is the production of continuous
foam or hard bubblers in boilers.
Foaming is due to the presence of
substance like oil in boiling water.

Priming
Foaming It is the process in which some
Normal bubble
particles in water are carried along
with the steam. The resulting
process is called as wet steam or
carry over. The process of
formation of wet steam in boilers
is called as priming.

Priming
Carry over bubble Causes of Priming,
1. Presence of dissolved salts
2. High velocity steam due to sudden boiling
3. Improper boiler design
 Reduction of Priming and Foaming
Priming can be avoided by
 Fitting anti-priming pipes and spiral baffle plates near
steam outlets
 Maintaining low water levels in boilers
 Efficient softening and filtration of the boiler-feed
water.
 Maintaining uniform heat distribution
 Avoid rapid change in steaming rate
Foaming can be avoided by
 Adding anti-foaming chemicals like castor oil.
 Removing oil from boiler water by NaAlO2
 Continuous blow-down operation to reduce salt
concentration
 III. Caustic embrittlement
 Excess sodium carbonate used up for removing hardness can also
result in the formation of NaOH in high pressure boilers.
NaOH has better mobility and can percolate into fine cracks
present in boiler walls. Particularly stressed parts (bends, joints,
rivets, etc. ) are affected

Na2CO3 + H2O → 2 NaOH + CO2

Sodium Ferroate
A concentration cell corrosion is established between the conc.
NaOH and dilute NaOH solution in contact with boiler walls.
 Concentrated NaOH region behaves as anode thus resulting in
corrosion of boiler leading to the formation of sodium ferroate.

Remedies: (i) Use phosphate salts instead of sodium carbonate

(ii) use Na2SO4 or agar-agar gel compounds to fill the fine cracks.
 IV. Boiler corrosion

Degradation or destruction of boiler materials (Fe) due

to the chemical or electrochemical attack of dissolved
gases or salts is called boiler corrosion
Boiler corrosion is of three types

1. Corrosion due to dissolved O2

2. Corrosion due to dissolved CO2
3. Corrosion due to acids formed by dissolved salts
A. Corrosion due to dissolved oxygen (DO)]
2 Fe + 2 H2O + O2 2 Fe(OH)2
4 Fe(OH)2 + O2 2 [Fe2O3.2H2O]
Ferrous Rust
hydroxide
 Removal of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
1. By the addition of chemicals
The dissolved oxygen present in the boiler feed water can be removed
by the addition of sodium sulphite or hydrazine
2 Na2SO3 + O2 2 Na2SO4
Sodium DO Sodium
sulphite sulphate Water feed
Na2S + 2O2 Na2SO4

N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O
Hydrazine
O2 To vacuum

2. By mechanical deaeration

It comprises of a tall stainless tower with Steam jacket
Steam jacket
different layers capped with baffles to
facilitate multiple equilibration.

The entire chamber is vacuumized and Perforated

also maintained at high tempt using plate

perforated heating plates on the walls. Perforated plate

Principle: High tempt and low pressure
favors lower solubility of gases in water Deaerated
water

(Henry’s law)
 II. Corrosion due to dissolved CO2
Presence of bicarbonate salts of either magnesium or calcium also causes
the release of CO2 inside the boiler apart from the dissolved CO2

Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3 + H2O + CO2

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (causes slow corrosion)
Removal
1. It can be removed by the addition of ammonia
2 NH4OH + CO2 (NH4)2CO3 + H2O

III. Corrosion due to dissolved salts

MgCl2 + 2 H2O Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl

Fe + 2 HCl FeCl2 + H2

FeCl2 + 2 H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl

 Modern techniques of water analysis for
industrial use

Examples : Lab-on-a-chip, Ion selective electrodes, E-tongue, E-nose ,

Lab-on-a-chip (LOC) - A device that integrates one or several
laboratory functions on a single integrated circuit (commonly called
a "chip") of only millimeters to a few square centimeters to achieve
automation and high-throughput screening - can handle extremely
small fluid volumes down to less than pico liters.

Advantages :
•Low fluid volumes consumption (less waste, lower reagents
costs,andfewer sample volumes)
Faster analysis and response time due to short diffusion distance &
•Faster
high surface to volume ratio.
•Better process control because of a faster response of the system
compactness of the systems due to the integration of much
functionality and small volumes
•Lower fabrication costs, allowing cost-effective disposable chips,
fabricated in mass production
•Safer platform for chemical, radioactive or biological studies
because of integration of functionality, smaller fluid volumes,and
stored energies
Applications
• Importance in Water Analysis - water quality depends on its
end use - much less expensive and offers higher accuracy,
because of the small volumes analyzed and the possibility of
eliminating the sampling process, which reduces the human error
• Limitations of Traditional Methods of Water Analysis -
Colorimetry, spectrometry, chromatography, and atomic
absorption-most of them are highly accurate-they require
sampling, expensive devices, and manpower; besides, they are
time-consuming and difficult to conduct onsite.
Analysis Techniques Used in Lab-On-A-Chip Systems
• Chromatography, electrochemical analysis, mass spectrometry,
fluorescence, and laser.
Components of Lab-On-A-Chip Systems
• A liquid delivery system (injector and fluidic transporter), mixer,
reactor, separator, and power supply.
• The Injector is used to deliver precise volumes into the chip. The
most common types of the injectors are syringe pumps and
robotic pipets.
• Transporters control all aspects of the flow. They can be active,
which need an energy source, or passive, which are achieved by
manipulating the geometries of the channels and do not require
any energy source. The choice between the active and passive
types is based on the application – Eg. microsyringe pumps.
• Mixers are used to mix different fluids into the channels. Similar
to the transporters, the types of mixers are divided into passive
achieved by design manipulation, and active, which require power.
• The Reactor is where the reaction takes place. There are three
types of reactors used in lab-on-a-chip systems: gas phase, liquid
phase, and packed-bed reactors.
• Controllers are used for controlling all types of activities in the
chip as well as data acquisition and signal processing.
• Power supplies, such as batteries, are essential to run the lab-on-
a-chip systems. Many research studies focus on finding more
advanced power supplies because some types of lab-on-a-chip
systems require high voltage.
End of module 1