WATER TREATMENT

ENGINEERING

For 4th year civil engineering

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1. Introduction to water treatment process

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 1.1 Introduction
 Pure water is composed of two elements (hydrogen and
oxygen), But most of the time pure water is never found in nature
and contains a number of impurities in varying amounts.
Therefore ,treatment is required in order to purify the water.
The process of removing the impurities from water up to certain
extent so that, it may not be harmful to the public health is called
water treatment.

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 Common words on water treatment
• Contaminated: water having microorganisms, chemicals or substances
making the water unsafe.
• Safe; water free from microorganisms and chemicals.
• Clean: water free from suspended solids and turbidity.
• Potable; water suitable for drinking i.e safe and pleasant taste.
• Whole same water: potable water having sufficient minerals which are
essential for our life.
• Impurities: are substances which make less pure or contaminate the water.

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 Objective of water treatment

To remove the impurities of raw water & bring the quality of

water to the required standards
To provide potable water that is chemically and biologically safe
for human consumption.
To prevent Disease Transmission
To protect distribution systems from corrosion and deposition
Making the water acceptable

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 Lay out of water treatment schemes

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 cont..
But, all these treatment methods described on the lay out above may not be necessarily used in
one treatment plant.
The degree and method of treatment plant is depend up on;
Factors affecting the choice of treatment schemes
a) Raw water quality
b) Availability and reliability of water supply
c) Site suitability and Land availability
d) Limitation of capital
e) Availability of skilled and unskilled labor
f) Availability of equipment, construction material, and water treatment chemicals
g) drinking water standards
h) Proximity to consumers and the purpose for which it is used
i) Environmental impact assessment
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 Recommended treatment for specific impurities

Parameter Treatment process

Floating matter Coarse screens, fine screens
Suspended matter Micro screens
Algae Micro screens, pre-chlorination, carbon adsorption, rapid filtration
Turbidity Coagulation, sedimentation, post-chlorination
Color Flocculation, coagulation, filtration
Taste and odor Activated carbon
Hardness Coagulation, filtration, lime softening
Iron and manganese
>1 mg/L Pre-chlorination
<1 mg/L Aeration, coagulation, filtration
Pathogens, MPN/100 ml
< 20 Post-chlorination
20-100 Coagulation/filtration/post-chlorination
>100 Pre-chlorination
Free ammonia Post-chlorination, adsorption

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 L
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Near to the town to which the water to be supplied

Near to the source of supply
Away from any source of pollution
Away from any border of other country & should be
announced as a protected area
At higher elevation if the natural topography is permit

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 1.2 Source of Water Pollution and Water impurities
water pollution
Is any chemical , biological & physical changes in water quality that has
harmful effect on living organisms.
Is the water which have an impurities
There are two kinds of water pollution sources
A. point source
Contamination can be traced to specific location.(sewer line, ditches & )
from industries, from waste water treatment plant etc
B. Non-point source
Cannot be treated to a single site of discharge (surface run off, agricultural
run off, air pollution, atmospheric deposition)
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 Water impurities
The impurities which are presented in water may be classified into 3
categories
Dissolved impurities: organic or inorganic molecules that are dissolved into
the aqueous phase.
Example salts of Ca, Mg, Na, I
Suspended impurities: are particles Neither settle down nor dissolve but
remain in suspension.
Example silt, clay, algae, fungi etc.
Colloidal impurities: are finely divided particles which are neither in
suspension nor in solution.
Only removed by coagulation

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Cont..

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 Raw water impurities

Physical Chemical Biological

Dissolved Suspended Inorganic Organic Plant Animal Protista

Coarse Fine Colloidal

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 Some raw water quality parameters
Physical Chemical Biological

• Suspended solids – Oxygen demanding • Total coliforms

• Color organics (BOD) • E.coli
• Turbidity – Dissolved oxygen (DO) • Plants and animals
• Conductivity – pH
• Taste – Alkalinity
• Odor – Hardness
– Metals
• Temperature
– Nutrients
– TDS

Discuss the significance of various water quality parameters

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 Physical characteristics
a. Suspended Solids
Source
– inorganic or organic particles or immiscible liquids
– Inorganic solids clay, silt, and other soil constituents
– Organic material plant fibers and biological solids (ageal cells, bacteria, etc)
Impacts
– Aesthetically displeasing and adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents.
b. Turbidity
is a measure of the extent of which light is either absorbed or scattered by suspended
material in water.
Turbidity is a cloudy appearance of water caused by small particles suspended therein.
Source
 the erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt, rock fragments, and metal oxides from the soil. Vegetable
fibers and microorganisms
Impact
 aesthetically displeasing
 adsorption sites for chemicals and biological organisms
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Turbidity

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 c. Color
Dissolved organic matter from decaying
vegetation or some inorganic materials such as
colored soils, may impart color to water. The
excessive growth of algae also may impart
color to the water.
The presence of color in water is not
objectionable from health point of view, but
may spoil the color of clothes being washed in
it
Color of water is measured by platinum cobalt
scale.
 It should not exceed 20 and should be less
than 10
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 d. Taste And Odour
The dissolved organic matter, inorganic salts, or dissolved gases may
impart tastes and odours to the water, which generally occurs together.
Taste and odour may be due to presence of dissolved gases such as H2S,
CH4, CO2, O2, etc.. Some mineral substances like Iron, sulphates, may
impart taste to water.
For drinking purpose water should not contain any undesirable taste and
odour.
Taste of water should be agreeable to the consumers
odour of water is measured in terms of threshold odour number.
For public supplies threshold odour no should be 1 and should not exceed
3.

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 e. Temperature

Temperature of water should be above 10

0
c while temperature above 25 0C are
considered as objectionable.

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 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

Water has been called the universal solvent, and chemical parameters are
related to the solvent capabilities of water.
1. PH
• PH is an indicator of the existence of biological life as most of them
thrive in a quite narrow and critical pH range.
• PH is most important in determining the corrosive nature of water.
• Lower the PH value higher is the corrosive nature of water.
Factors to increase PH
• The reduced rate of photosynthetic activity
• the assimilation of carbon dioxide and bicarbonates
• the low oxygen values
• high temperature
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 2. DO (Dissolved oxygen)

 DO is one of the most important parameter

 Its correlation with water body gives direct and indirect information
e.g. bacterial activity, photosynthesis, availability of nutrients, stratification etc. represents
availability of DO
 (In the progress of summer, dissolved oxygen decreased due to increase in temperature and also
due to increased microbial activity.
DO is essential for aquatic life. A low DO (less than 2mg/l) would indicate poor water quality
and thus would have difficulty in sustaining many sensitive aquatic life.
3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• BOD is a measure of organic material contamination in water, specified in mg/l.
• BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen required for the biochemical decomposition of organic
compounds.
• BOD is a measure of organic pollution to both waste and surface water.
• High BOD is an indication of poor water quality.

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4. Hardness
The presence of multivalent cations, particularly calcium and magnesium, is
referred to as water hardness.
Problems associated with hardness:

 Results in use of excessive soap and detergents

 May have taste and odor problems
 Shorten the life of materials when washed with them

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 Microbiological Parameters

It Includes various microorganisms i.e. bacteria, virus,

protozoa, worms, present in water it may be pathogenic or
non pathogenic.

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 1.3 water quality analysis
 Is examining or identifying the chemical, physical, and biological
characteristics of water, usually in respect to its suitability for a particular
purpose.
 It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements human
need or purpose.
 It is carried out before and after treatment
Need of water quality analysis
Before treatment
To evaluate and classify raw water quality
To identify sources of pollution
To select the required treatment scheme for beneficial uses
After treatment
To check whether the required water quality standard is achieved or not
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 Laboratory methods for WQ analysis
• Gravimetric methods
- Weighting solids obtained by evaporation, filtration or precipitation (e.g. Total solids,
Total suspended solids, etc.)
• Volumetric (titrimetric) methods
• Requires a liquid reagent of known strength and indicators (e.g. alkalinity, acidity, DO,
chloride, etc.)
• Spectrometric (colorimetric) methods
• Relation between electromagnetic waves and chemicals concentration (e.g. Nitrate,
nitrite)
• Chromatographic methods
• Can separate individual components from a complex (e.g. volatile organic compounds,
disinfection by-products, etc.)
• Electrochemical methods
• Relates electric potential, current or resistance to concentration of ions (e.g. pH,
anions and cations, metals, conductivity etc.).
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 1.4 Safe water and public health
Some facts
• 88% of diarrhoeal disease is attributed to unsafe water supply, inadequate sanitation and
hygiene.
• 1.8 million people die every year from diarrhoeal diseases (including cholera); 90% are
children under 5, mostly in developing countries.
• Every 8 seconds a child dies from drinking contaminated water (that is 10,000 a day).
• In Bangladesh, between 28 and 35 million people consume drinking water with elevated
levels of arsenic.
• Over 26 million people in China suffer from dental fluorosis due to elevated fluoride in their
drinking water.

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 Waterborne diseases
Microorganism Diseases
Viruses Hepatitis, poliomyelitis
Bacteria Cholera, Gastroenteritis, Leptospirosis, Paratyphoid fever, Salmonellosis,
Shigellosis, Typhoid fever
Protozoa Amebiasis, Giardiasis, Crptosporidiosis
Worms Ascariasis, Guinea worm, Lung fluke, Schistosomiasis

Reported waterborne diseases in Ethiopia, 1998-1999

Diseases No. of diagnosed cases in 1998 No. of diagnosed cases in
1999
Bacillary dysentery (Shigellosis) 39810 70125
Helminthes 179398 296696
Amebiasis 20541 26123
Typhoid fever 3759 3109
Unspecified dysentery 39289 100114

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 1.5 Drinking water quality standards

Describes the quality parameters set for drinking water.

The guidelines for drinking-water quality in order to the
protection of public health.

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Indian standard specifications for drinking water is:

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 cont.....

A safe & potable drinking water should confirm the ff water

Quality characteristics
• Free from pathogenic organisms
• Clear
• Not saline
• Free from offensive taste or smell
• Free from compounds that may have adverse effect on
human health
• Free from chemicals that cause corrosion of water
supply systems
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 2. Preliminary Treatment

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 Pre-treatment

Is any physical, chemical or mechanical processes used before main water

treatment processes.
May include the following processes
– Removal of debris
– Control of algal growth
– Pre-sedimentation
– Aeration to remove dissolved gases or to enhance oxidation
– Chemical oxidation of iron and manganese and other taste- and odor-
producing gases
– Adsorption for removal of tastes and odors

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 cont….

Generally pre treatment technologies are employed to

 Remove larger size floating and suspended material
 Reduce turbidity so as coagulation will be effective and Slow
Sand Filters require raw water turbidity below 30NTU
 To lighten the load on subsequent treatment processes
 To reduce the chemical needed for coagulation

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 2.1 Types of preliminary treatment
Intakes
Screens
Aeration
Plain sedimentation
Storage
Roughing filter
Infiltration galleries
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 a) Intake
Is a structure which locates to prevent rolling debris at the
bottom from entering via the intake.
Bar screens are provided to screen out larger size floating
debris & suspend material
Consists of the opening, strainer, or grating through which
the water enters

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Cont..

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 River intake

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 Reservoir intake

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 Canal intake

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 Lake intake

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 Example 1

Design a bell mouth intake for a city of 80,000 person drawing

water from the a channel which runs for 10 hrs. with a depth of
1.8m? Also calculate the head loss in the intake conduit if the
treatment plant is 0.5km away? Assume average consumption per
person is 150l/c/d & assumed the velocity through the screen & bell
mouth to be less than 16cm/sec & 32cm/sec respectively?

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 b) Screen

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 Cont..
• It is done passing through closely spaced bars or perforated plates
• Removes floating and suspended matter
• Does not change the chemical & biological quality of water
Location of screen
Intake structure
Raw water pump station
Water treatment plant
 Types of screen
Coarse screening
Fine screening
Micro strainer
Depending on method of cleaning types of screen are classified as manual bar
cleaning and mechanical bar cleaning.
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Characteristic of bar screen

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Head loss through bar screen

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 Cont…
Alternatively an orifice equation is often applied to the velocity through the screen

Where Q- is flow discharge

A- area of openings
Cd- is supplied by the manufacturer or experimental

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Design of the bar screen channel (approach channel)

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Cont…

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EXAMPLE

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 C) Aeration
• Involves bringing of air or other gases in contact with water
• Processes: volatilization, oxidation
• Purposes:
– Reduce concentration of taste and odor causing substances
– To oxidize iron and manganese
– To oxidize humic substances
– Dissolve a gas in water (e.g O2 in groundwater, CO2 after softening)
– Remove compounds that may interfere with subsequent treatment processes

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Types of aerator

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 Types of aeration
Gravity (cascade aerator) Spray aerator

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Types of aerator
Mechanical aerator Diffused air aerator

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 Plain Sedimentation

•Is a process of removing solids by gravity without any

addition of chemicals.
• This is achieved through allowing untreated water to pass
into large tank that provides a low velocity flow.
•Suitable in tropics which provides a low viscosity as a result
of high temperature
•Effectiveness depends on detention time and nature of
suspended material.

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 Plain Sedimentation: Design Parameters

Parameters Range of Values

Detention Time (hrs.) 0.5 to 3.0
Surface loading (m/day) 20 to 80

Depth of the basin (m) 1.5 to 2.5

L/W Ratio 4:1 to 6:1

L/D Ratio 5:1 to 20:1

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 Storage

It is in the form of ponds or lagoons which are naturally or

excavated in the ground.
As its detention time is greater than for plain sedimentation it is
very effective for high turbid water greater than 1000NTU.
Advantages:
– Natural sedimentation
– Decrease of sudden water quality fluctuation
– Reduction in the number of pathogenic bacteria
– Improved reliability of supply
–Excessively turbid water can be diverted away.
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 Infiltration gallery

• It is underground tunnel which have holes on its sides, used for

tapping underground water near river, lakes and stream.
•This type of treatment is used when the water depth is very small
and difficult to construct weir or dam to store water due to the
seepage of the water. Sedimentation of silt is the main problem.

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Infiltration gallery

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 Roughing filtration
•Allows a deep penetration of filter layer and holds a large
silt storage capacity
•It uses greater than 2mm diameter of sand
•It have a capable of reducing turbidity to 5NTU

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 Silt trap

• A silt trap is a basin device that is set upstream of a soak away

and its purpose is to prevent any kind of silt, soil, sediment,
metals or pesticides from entering your water storage system by
containing water in the trap.
• Some time allowing these unwanted materials to settle to the
bottom of the bucket and separate from the water.
• It essentially works like a filter.
• Is box like structure to remove particles that have higher density
than density of water.

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 OU
K Y
A N
; T H
N D
E E
T H

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 Quize
Determine the building up of head loss though a bar
screen when 25% of the flow area is blocked off by the
accumulation of coarse solids. Assume the following
conditions are applied.
Approach velocity = 0.6m/s
Velocity though a clear bar screen=0.9m/s
Open area for flow though clean bar screen = 0.19m2

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3. Coagulation and flocculation

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 3. Coagulation and flocculation
Coagulation indicates the process through which colloidal particles and very
fine solid suspensions are destabilized so that they can begin to agglomerate.
Coagulation is the addition and rapid mixing of a coagulant to achieve,
• destabilization of the colloidal and fine suspended solids
• initial aggregation of the destabilized particles
Flocculation is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into a large size
particles known as floc which can be effectively removed by sedimentation or
flotation.
Flocculation is the slow mixing or gentle agitation to
• aggregate the destabilized particles
• form a rapid settling floc
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The need of coagulation and flocculation

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 Purpose of coagulation/flocculation

The primary purpose of the coagulation/flocculation process is the removal of

Turbidity(colloidal particles)
Color, taste and odor
Heavy metals and
Organic compounds

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 Principle of coagulation/flocculation
The principle of coagulation/flocculation can be explained from the following
two conditions:
1. Floc formation:
When coagulant (chemicals) are dissolved in water and thoroughly mixed with it,
they produce a think gelatinous precipitate. This precipitate is known as floc and
this floc has got the property of arresting suspended impurities in water during
downward travel towards the bottom of tank.
2. Electric charge:
The coagulants, has usually higher valence cationic salts (Al3+, Fe3+ etc.).
Although most particles dissolved in water have a negative charge, therefore
the aim of the coagulants is to neutralize particles and prevent from repelling
each other.
 The neutralized particles attract each other and forms a floc
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 Principle of coagulation/flocculation
Floc formation Electric charges

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 Factors affecting coagulation/flocculation

1. Type of coagulant
2. Dose of coagulant
3. Characteristic of water
Type and quantity of suspended matter
Temperature of water
pH of water
4. Time and method of mixing

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 Types of coagulants
Coagulant chemicals come in two main types:
1. Primary coagulants: neutralize the electrical charges of particles in the water which
causes the particles to clump together.
Example: aluminum sulphate, Sodium aluminates, Chlorinated Copperas etc.
2. Coagulant aids: add density to slow-settling flocs and add toughness to the flocs so that
they will not break up during the mixing and settling processes.
Coagulant aids includes:
 Alkalinity addition
Turbidity addition and
 Adjustment of pH

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 Common types of primary coagulants

i. Aluminum sulfate [Al 2(SO4) 3.18H2O]

It is also called Alum. It is the most widely used chemical coagulant in water purification
work.
It reacts with alkaline water to form aluminum hydroxide (floc), calcium sulphate and
carbon dioxide.
Due to the formation of calcium sulphate, hardness and corrosiveness of water is slightly
increased.
The chemical reaction in the presence of alkalinity is as follows.

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 Cont…
Alum reacts with water only in the presence of alkalinity.
If alkalinity is not enough in the water, pH will reduce greatly. Caustic soda, Lime
or Soda ash may be needed to neutralize the acid.
Chemical reaction in the absence of alkalinity
Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 6(NaOH)→2Al(OH)3(s)↓ + 3Na2SO4 + 14H2O

Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 3Ca(OH)2→2Al(OH)3(s)↓ + 3CaSO4 + 14H2O

pH variation due to addition of alum should be prevented.
Alum is most effective between pH range of 6.5 to 8.5.
Its dose may vary from 5 to 30mg/lit, for normal water usually dose being 14mg/l.
Actually, dose of coagulant depends on various factors such as turbidity, color, odor, taste,
pH value, temperature etc.

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 Cont…

Due to the following reason, Alum is the most widely used chemical coagulant.
1. It is very cheap
2. It removes taste and color in addition to turbidity
3. It is very efficient
4. Flocs formed are more stable and heavy
5. It is not harmful to health
6. It is simple in working, doesnt require skilled supervision for dosing

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 ii. Sodium aluminates (Na 2Al2O4)

• It reacts with calcium and magnesium salts to form flocculent aluminates. As a result it can
remove carbonate and non-carbonate hardness.
The chemical reaction is

The pH should be within the range of 6 and 8.5.

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 iii. Chlorinated Copperas

Both Ferric sulphate and Ferric chloride can be used independently with lime as a coagulant
If alkalinity is insufficient.
The chemical reaction is

Ferric chloride effective pH range 3.5 – 6.5 or above 8.5 and Ferric sulphate is effective with
pH range of 4 – 7 or above 9.
 Ferric sulphate is more expensive than alum. But its precipitate has quick settling floc.
N.B: all these coagulants may be put in raw water either in powder form or in solution form.

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Determination of optimum coagulant dose & pH using Jar test
The jar test – a laboratory procedure to determine the optimum pH and the optimum
coagulant dose
 A jar test simulates the coagulation and flocculation processes
Determination of optimum pH
1) Fill the jars with raw water sample (500 or 1000 mL) – usually 6 jars
2) Adjust pH of the jars while mixing using H2SO4 or NaOH/lime to (pH: 5.0; 5.5; 6.0; 6.5;
7.0; 7.5)
3) Add same dose of the selected coagulant (alum or iron) to each jar (Coagulant dose: 5 or
10 mg/L)
4) Rapid mix each jar at 100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute. The rapid mix helps to disperse the
coagulant throughout each container
5) Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 30 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20 mins. This
slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions,
which lead to larger flocs
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 Cont…
6. Turn off the mixers and allow flocs to settle for 30 to 45 mins
7. Measure the final residual turbidity in each jar
8. Plot residual turbidity against pH
The some procedure holds for optimum dose of coagulant for the
adjusted Ph.
Optimum coagulant dose: 12.5 mg/L
Optimum pH: 6.3

Coagulant Dose mg/L

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 Mixing of coagulants
The process of floc formation greatly depends upon the effective mixing (rapid mixing) of
coagulant with the raw water.
The effectiveness of mixing is also depends on
• Number of particles
• Size of particles
• Time of mixing
• Temperature of the water
• Chemical dosage
• Power input per unit volume of liquid
Rapid mixing of the mixture of coagulant and raw water is used to:
- Disperse chemicals uniformly throughout the mixing basin
- Allow adequate contact between the coagulant and particles
- Formation of microflocs
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 Types of mixing devices
A. Hydraulic mixing devices
1. venture sections, orifices
2. Hydraulic jumps
3. Parshall flume
4. Weirs
5. Baffled channel mixing devices
B. Mechanical mixing devices
1. Propeller mixer
2. Turbine mixers
3. Paddle mixers
C. Pneumatic mixers
• 1. Air diffusers

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Hydraulic mixing devices

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Hydraulic mixing devices
Weir Baffled well

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Mechanical mixers
Paddle mixer Turbine or propeller mixer (flash mixer)

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Advantage and dis advantages of mechanical mixer

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Advantage and dis advantages of hydraulic mixer

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 Design of rapid mix
Dimensions of the tank:
• Determine the tank volume for given detention time
• Assume a depth
• Calculate the tank diameter/width
Power requirements
• Calculate water horsepower.
• Calculate electric horsepower.
• Calculate impeller size and speed
Average detention time
td = V/Q
td: detention time, min; V: volume of tank, m3; Q: flow rate, m3/min

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Design of rapid mix

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 Power inputted to the water, P is calculated

P = 2pnT
P = Npmn2d3 (for laminar flow, NR < 10)
P = Nprn3d5 (for turbulent flow, NR < 10, 000)
NR = d2nr/m
Where,

n: impeller speed, rps

T: impeller shaft torque, N-m
Np: power number of the impeller (given for different impellers)
d: impeller diameter
r: density of fluid, kg/m3

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 Design of flocculation
Flocculation - agglomeration of colloids by collisions to form separable flocs
Types of flocculator
1. Hydraulic (baffled channel basin)
2. Mechanical Mixing
-Paddles
- Vertical-shaft turbines

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Baffled channel basin
Vertical baffled tank
Horizontal baffled tank

H
W

Plan view (horizontal flow) Isometric View (vertical flow)

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Mechanical paddle shaft

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Design of paddle flocculator
• Flocculate's dimensions
– Decide on the number of channels.
– Calculate the flow in one channel.
– Calculate the volume of one channel.
– Assume a depth.
– Calculate the width and length
• Check the flow through velocity
– Calculate the cross-sectional area of one channel.
– Calculate the velocity in one channel.
– Determine whether the flow through velocity is acceptable.
• Calculate the power requirements:
– Calculate the volume of the entire flocculator.
– Calculate water horsepower for the flocculator.
– Calculate electric horsepower for the flocculator.
– Estimate power costs for the flocculator.
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Cont…

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Typical values for paddle wheel flocculator

Parameter Value
Average G, s-1 30-40
Channel velocities, m/s 0.15-0.45
Minimum residence time, min 20
Head loss at 180° turn, velocity head 3.2-3.5
Head loss through slit or port, velocity head 1.5
Minimum distance between baffles, m 0.75
Minimum water depth, m 1
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Design guides for diffuser walls

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 4. Sedimentation
(Gravity settling)

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 Sedimentation tank

laundry

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 Sedimentation tank

laundry

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 SEDIMENTATION
Is the treatment process on which the velocity of the water is
lowered below the suspension velocity and the suspended particles
settle out of the water due to gravity.
It may with or without chemicals.
Removes 90% of the suspended particles and bacteria from water.
May not be necessary in low turbidity of water less than 10NTU.

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 SETTLEMENT THEORY
1. Discrete particle settlement theory
Is any particle which does not alter its size, shape and
weight while rising in any fluid.
Settle by gravity system with out addition of any coagulant
2. Flocculent settling
Particles are settle down by adding of chemicals
3. Hindered settling
4. Compression settling

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Discrete particle settling theory

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Cont…….

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Cont…

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 Classification of sedimentation tank
Based on flow
Intermittent
Continues
Depend on direction
oHorizontal flow
oVertical flow
Based on shape
Rectangular
Double deck Rectangular
Square or circular

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 Cont…
Rectangular basin allowing water to flow
horizontally through a long tank.
Simplest in design
Cost effective
Low maintenance cost
Least short circuiting
Disadvantage
Requires large area

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 Cont..
Double deck Rectangular: are two
rectangular sedimentation basins staked one
a top the other.
It conserves land area but it have high
operation and maintenance cost
Square or circular sedimentation tank
Have short circuiting problem

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 Zone of sedimentation tank
All types of sedimentation tanks have four zones.
1. Inlet zone
2. Outlet zone
3. Sludge zone
4. Settling zone

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 1. Inlet zone
Providing inlet zone in sedimentation basin is
used to;
Distribute water uniformly
To control the velocity water
To mix water with coagulants
To control short circuiting
2. Settling zone
After the passing inlet zone water enters the
settling by greatly reduced the velocity

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 2. Out let zone
Controls the water flowing out of sedimentation basin
Ensures that only well settled water leaves the basin and enters the
filter
Controls short circuiting problem
Control the water level in the basin

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 3. Sludge zone

Is found across the bottom of sedimentation basin

Velocity in this zone should be very slow to prevent re
suspension of sludge.
A drain at the bottom of the basin should be installed to be
easy removed the sludge from the tank.
Sludge disposal
Sludge should be transport away from treatment plant
To reduce transport cost sludge should be dewatering.

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 Factors influence efficiency of the basin
Short circuiting: is reaching of water from
inlet zone to out let zone before detention
time.
Floc characteristics: size, shape of the
particle and density of floc
Discharge
Length of the tank
Width
Velocity of flow
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 Design of rectangular sedimentation tank
Design of rectangular sedimentation tank is
determining the:
Design discharge(Qc)
Dimension of the tank(L,W,d)
Surface area of the tank (A)
Surface over flow rate(SOR)
Volume of the tank (V)
Detention time (td)
Velocity of flow (Vf)
Weir loading rate (WL)

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 Sedimentation Tank: Design Parameters
Rectangular tank should be design for the following design
guide lines

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 Over view of calculations
•

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 CONT..
•

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03/21/2024 116
03/21/2024 117
03/21/2024 118
 Design sedimentation tank
• Design a suitable sedimentation tank for a
town whose daily demand is 12 million lit
per day. Tank is fitted with a mechanical
scrapper for sludge removal. Assume
detention period as 5 hr..... and velocity of
flow as 20 cm/sec

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 Example
Solution
Quantity of water to be treated
12 x 10 6 lit/ day = 12 x 10 3 m3 /day = 500 m3/hr
Capacity of tank = Q x detention time
V = 500m3/hr x 5hr = 2500 m3
Velocity of flow= 20 cm /min = 0.2 m/min
The length of the tank required= Velocity of flow
x Detention time
L = 0.2 m/min x (5 x 60)min = 60 m

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 Example
The c/s area of the tank(A)
A= Volume of tank/Length of the tank
= 2500m3/60m
A= 41.66 m2
Assume water depth of 3.5 m
Width of tank = Area/depth
W=41.66/3.5
W=11.9=12m

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 Example
Using free board of 0.5 m the overall depth = 3.5 +
0.5 = 4.0 m
So provide a tank of 60 x 12 x 4 m
Surface loading rate = Q/( L x B)
= (12 x 103 )/(60 x 12) = 16.66 m3/m2/day
Weir loading: =Q/perimeter

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 Example 2
2. Design a sedimentation tank for a water
works which supplies 1.6 MLD to the
town. The sedimentation period is 4 hrs..
The velocity of flow is 0.15 m/min and the
depth of water in the tank is 4.0 m. Assume
an allowance for sludge as 80 cm. Also find
the overflow rate.

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 Solution
•

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 Cont…..
•

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 Cont….
•

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Cont..

• Design a plain sedimentation tank for water supply scheme having capacity to treat water=
10 MLD

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Cont.

• Design a Continuous horizontal flow Rectangle tank

• Assume detention time= 5 hrs. ( 4 to 8 hrs.)
• Velocity of flow= 0.2 m/sec (0.15 to 0.30 m/sec)
• Water depth= 3.5 m (3 to 6 m)
• Freeboard= 0.5 m

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Cont.

• Quantity of water to be treated= 10 MLD

• = 10 x 106 lit/day
• = 10 x 106 x 10 -3
24
= 416.66 m3/hr.
Volume of tank= Q x Detention time
= 416.66 x 5
= 2083.3 m 3

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Cont.

• Length of tank required= Velocity of flow x Detention time

• = 0.2 x 5 x 60
• = 60 m
• Cross-Sectional area of the tank
•= Volume of tank
Length of the tank
= 2083.30
60
=34.72 sq.

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Cont.

• Water depth is assumed as 3.5 m

• So required width of the tank = 34.72
3.5
= 9.92 m
Say 10 m
Provide a free board of 0.5 m total depth
= 3.5 + 0.5 = 4.0 m
Therefore the dimensions of the tank
= 60 x 10 x 4 m

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 Cont.
Surface overflow rate
SLR= Q
A
10 x 10 -3
60 x 10
= 16.66 m3/m2/day
Within limit so design is O.K.

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 .
4.4 FILTRATION

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Water Treatment Processes

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FILTRATION

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 Filtration
• Sedimentation removes a large percentage of settleble solids, suspended
solids, organic matter and small percentage of bacteria.
• If coagulation is used more percentage of fine colloidal particles will be
removed. But water still contains fine suspended particles, micro-
organisms, bacteria and color.
• To remove these impurities and to produce potable and palatable water,
the water is filtered through beds of granular material like sand and
gravel. This process of passing the water through the beds of such
granular materials is known as filtration.

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 Filtration
Theory of Filtration
Filtration is a water purification process in which water is allowed to pass
through a thick layer of sand to remove remaining suspended solids.
Generally filtration process is used to
 Remove suspended and colloidal matter
Change chemical characteristics of water
Reduced number of bacteria
Reduce color

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 Filtration
When water is filtered through the beds of
filter media, usually consisting of clean
sand, the following action takes place:
Mechanisms of filtration
A. Mechanical Straining
B. Sedimentation
C. Biological action
D. Electrolytic action

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 Filtration
A. Mechanical Straining
Sand contains small pores, the suspended particles which are bigger than
the size of the voids in the sand layer cannot pass through these voids
and get arrested in them as the water passes through the filter media
(sand).
Most of the particles are removed in the upper few centimeters of the
filter media, these arrested particles forms a mat on the top of the bed
which further helps in straining out impurities.

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 Filtration
B. Sedimentation
• In mechanical Straining, only those particles which are coarser than the
void size are arrested. Finer particles are removed by sedimentation.
• The voids between grains of filters act like small sedimentation tanks.
The colloidal matter arrested in the voids is a gelatinous mass and
therefore, attract other finer particle. These finer particle thus settle down
in the voids and get removed.

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 Filtration
C. Biological action
• When a filter is put into operation and the water is passed through it,
during the first few days, the upper layer of sand grain become coated
with sticky deposit of decomposed organic matter together with iron,
manganese aluminum and silica.
• After some time there exists a upper most layer of sand a film of algae,
bacteria and protozoa etc. this film is called schmutzdecke or dirty skin
which acts as an extremely fine messed straining mat. This layer further
helps in absorbing and straining out the impurities.
• The organic impurities present in water become food for micro-
organisms residing in the film. Bacteria breakdown the organic matter
and convert them into harmless compounds.

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 Filtration
D. Electrolytic action
• The sand particles of filter media and the impurities in water carry
electric charge of opposite nature, therefore they attract each other and
neutralize the charge of each other. After long use the electric charge of
filter sand is exhausted, which is renewed by washing the filter bed.

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03/21/2024 143
 Filter Material
Sand either coarse or fine, is generally used as filter media. The layers of
sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water to move
freely to the under drains and allow the wash water to move uniformly
upward.
Sand
The filter sand should generally be obtained from rock like quartzite and
should have following properties:
• It should be free from dirt and other impurities
• It should be of uniform size
• It should be hard
• If placed in hydrochloric acid for 24 hrs., it should not lose more than 5
% of weight.

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 Filter Material
Effective size of sand shall be
•(a) 0.2 to 0.3 mm for slow sand filters
•(b) 0.35 to 0.6 mm for rapid sand filter
Uniformity coefficient for
2 to 3 slow sand filter
1.3 to 1.7 for rapid sand filters

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 Filter Material
Gravel
• The sand beds are supported on the gravel bed. The gravel used should
be hard, durable, free from impurities, properly rounded and should have
a density of about 1600 kg/ m 3
• The gravel is placed in 5-6 layers having finest size on top.
Other material
• Other material which can be used are anthracite, Garnet, Sand or local
material like coconut husks, rice husks.

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 Types of Filters

Filters are mainly classified based

upon the rate of filtration as
1 Gravity filter system
a) Slow Sand Filter
b) Rapid Sand Filter
2 Pressure Filter system

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 A. SLOW SAND FILTER

148
03/21/2024
 A. SLOW SAND FILTER

Slow Sand filter was the earliest type , they were called slow sand filter
because the rate of filtration through them is about 1/20th or less of the
rate of filtration through rapid gravity filter.
Due to low filtration rate, slow sand filters require large area of land and
are costly to install. They are expensive to operate due to laborious
method of bed cleaning by surface scrapping
Due to this slow Sand filters are not used these days.

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 Slow Sand Filter
A slow sand filter unit consists of the following parts
Enclosure tank
Filter media
Base Material
Under drainage system
Inlet & Outlet arrangement
Other appurtenances

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 Slow Sand Filter
Enclosure Tank
o It consist of an open water tight rectangular tank made of concrete or
masonary.
o The bed slope is 1 in 100 to 1 in 200 towards the central drain.
o The depth of tank varies from 2.5 to 4 m. The plan area may vary from 100
to 200 sq.m. depending upon the quantity of water treated.

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 Slow Sand Filter
Filter Media
The filter media consist of sand layers about 90 to 110 cm in depth and
placed over a gravel support.
The effective size varies from 0.2 to 0.35 and uniformity coefficient varies
from 2 to 3.
Finer of the sand better is the quality of water.

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 Slow Sand Filter
Base Material
• The filter media is supported on base size material consisting of 30 to 75
cm thick gravel of different sizes, placed in layers, generally 3 to 4 layers
of 15 to 20 cm depth are used.

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 Slow Sand Filter
Under Drainage System
The base material are supported over the under drainage system which
centrally collects the filter water.
The water drainage system consists of a central drain collecting water
from a number of lateral drains.
The lateral drains are open jointed pipe drains or perforated pipes of 7.5 to
10 cm dia spaced at 2 to 4 m centre to centre.

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 Slow Sand Filter
Inlet & Outlet
• An inlet chamber, is constructed for admitting the effluent from the
plain sedimentation tank without disturbing the sand layer of filter and to
distribute it uniformly over filter bed
• An out let chamber is also constructed to convey the filtered water from
filtration tank to clear storage reservoir.

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 Slow Sand Filter
Other appurtenances
Various appurtenances that are generally
installed for efficient working are the
device for
Measuring loss of head through filter
media
Controlling depth of water above the
filter media.
Maintaining constant rate of flow through
filter.
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 Efficiency of Slow Sand Filters

Bacterial Load
The slow sand filter are highly efficient in removal of bacterial load from
water. They remove about 98 to 99 % of bacterial Load from raw water.

Color
The slow sand filter are less efficient in the removal of color of raw water.
They remove about 20 to 25 % color of water.
Turbidity
The slow sand filter are not very effective in removing colloidal turbidity.
They can remove turbidity to the extent of about 50 ppm

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Example

• Find the area of slow sand filter required for a town having a population of 15000 with
average rate of demand as 160 lpcd.

03/21/2024 158
Example

• Maximum daily demand = 15000 x 160 x 1.5

• = 3600000 lit
• Assume the rate of filtration as 150 lit/hr./m 2, the filter area required will be.
• = 3600000 = 1000 m 2
150 x 24
Let the size of each unit of 20 x 10 = 200 m 2
Then total number of unit required would be 5
Provided one unit as stand by, so provide 6 unit of 20 x 10 m

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 B. Rapid Sand Filter

Compressed air unit

03/21/2024 160
 B. Rapid Sand Filter
• Rapid sand filters were first developed in last decade of 19 th century, on
an average these filters may yield as high as 30 times the yield given by
the slow sand filter.
• These filters employ coarser sand with effective size around 0.5 mm.
Water from the coagulation sedimentation tank are used in these filters.

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 Rapid Sand Filter
A gravity type of rapid sand filters consists of following units
• Enclosure tank
• Filter Media
• Base Material
• Under Drainage System
• Other appurtenances

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 Rapid Sand Filter
Enclosure tank
It is generally rectangular in plan, constructed either of masonary or of
concrete, coated with water proof material.
The depth of the tank varies from 2.5 to 3.5 m.
Each unit may have a surface area of 10 to 50 m2.
 They are arranged in series.
The length to width ratio is kept between 1.25 to 1.35.

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 Rapid Sand Filter
Following formula is used to get approximately the number of filter unit
beds required
N= √Q
4.69
Where N is the number of units or beds and Q is quantity of water in m 3/
hr.... There should be at least 2 units in each plant.

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 Rapid Sand Filter

Filter media
•The filtering media consists of sand layer,
about 60 to 90 cm in depth and placed
over a gravel support.
•The effective size of sand varies from 0.35
to 0.6 mm and the uniformity coefficient
ranges between 1.3 to 1.7.

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 Rapid Sand Filter

Base Material
•The filter sand media is supported on the
base material consisting of gravel . In
addition to supporting the sand, it
distributes the wash water.
•Its total depth varies from 45 to 60 cm.
•It may be divided into 4 to 5 layers.

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 Rapid Sand Filter

Under Drainage System

The under drainage system serves the two
purpose
It collects the filter water uniformly over
the area of gravel bed.
It provides uniform distribution of
backwash water without disturbing or
upsetting the gravel bed and filter media.
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 Rapid Sand Filter
Under drainage should be capable of
passing the wash water at a rate of about
300 to 900 lit/min/m2 .
Since the rate application of wash water is
much higher than filtration rate, the design
of under drainage system is governed by
the consideration of even and uniform
distribution of wash water.

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 Rapid Sand Filter

There are various types of Under drainage

System Such as
Manifold and Lateral
(a) Perforated & Pipe System
Back washing

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 Rapid Sand Filter
Manifold and Lateral
It consist of a manifold running lengthwise along the
centre of the filter bottom.
Several pipe called laterals taken off in both the
direction at right angle to the manifold. The laterals
are placed at a distance of 15 to 30 cm centre to
center.
In perforated pipe type the laterals are provided with
holes at the bottom side. These holes are 6 to 12 mm
in dia and make an angle 30 0

03/21/2024 170
 Rapid Sand Filter
Following thumb rules are use in the design of Under drainage System
Ratio of the total area of the orifice to perforation or holes in lateral is 0.
15 to 0.5 % perferable about 0.3 %
Ratio of C/s area of lateral to the area of orifice served 2 to 4:1
Diameter of Orifice : 6 mm to 18 mm
Ratio of area of manifold to that of the area of lateral served 1.5 to 3:1
preferably
Spacing of Orifices: 7.5 cm for 6 mm diameter
Spacing of lateral 15 to 30 cm
Length of lateral: not more than 60 times length of lateral > 60

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 Rapid Sand Filter
Back Washing
When the clean filter bed is put in to operation, in the
beginning the loss of head is very small, but as the bed
gets clogged, the loss of head increases,
When the head losses becomes excessive, the filtration
rate decreases and the filter bed must be washed
• Rapid gravity filters are washed by sending air and
water upward through the bed the reverse flow
through the underdrainage system

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Filter - Backwashing

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 Efficiency and performance of Rapid Sand Filter
Turbidity
Since Coagulation and sedimentation always precedes filtration the
turbidity of water applied to filter is always less than 35 to 40 mg/lit.
Bacterial Load
• The rapid sand filter are less effective in removal of bacterial load as
compare to slow sand filter. They can remove 80 to 90 % of bacterial
load
Color
• Rapid sand filter are very efficient in color removal. The intensity of
color can be brought down below 3 on cobalt scale.
Iron & Manganese
• Rapid sand filter remove oxidized or oxidizing iron through it is less
efficient in removing manganese
Taste & Odor
• Unless special treatment such as activated carbon or pre chlorination is
provided, rapid sand filters will not ordinarily remove taste and odor,
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Comparison of Slow Sand Filter & Rapid Sand Filter

Item Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter

Rate of filtration 100 to 200 lit/ hr./m2 3000 to 6000 lit/hr./m2

Loss of head 15 cm to 100 cm 30 cm to 3 m

Area Requires Larger Area Requires smaller area

Coagulation Not Required Essential

Filter media Effective Size 0.2 to 0.35 mm Effective size 0.35 to 0.6 mm
Depth 90 to 110cm Depth 60 to 90 cm

Base material Size 3 to 65 mm Size: 3 to 40 mm

Depth 30 to 75 cm Depth 40 to 65 mm

Method of cleaning Scrapping the top layer Agitation and back washing

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Comparison of Slow Sand Filter & Rapid Sand Filter
Item Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter

Amount of wash water required 0.2 to 0.6 % of water filtered 2 to 4 % water filtered

Efficiency Very efficient in the removal of Less efficient in removal of bacteria

bacteria less efficient in removal of more efficient in the removal of
color and turbidity. color & turbidity.

Cost High initial cost Cheap & economical

Cost of maintenance Less More

Skilled Supervision Not essential Essential

Depreciation Cost Relatively low Relatively high,

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Example

• A City has population of 50,000 with an average rate of demand of 160 lpcd find area of
rapid sand filters. Also find number of units or beds required.

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Example

• Population= 50,000
• Rate of water supply= 160
• Maximum daily demand per day= 1.5 x 160 x 50000
• = 12 x 10 6 lit /day
• Assume rate of filtration = 4500 lit /hr./sq.m
• Area of filter beds required= 12 x 10 6
24 x 4500
= 111.11 m 2

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Example

• Number of filter beds can be found out by

• (i) assuming area of one bed/ unit and then finding out the number of
beds/ units required.
• (ii) By using the following eel
• N= √Q
4.69
Where, N= No of beds
Q= Quantity of water to be filtered in m3 /hr

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Example

• Q= 12 MLD
• = 12 x 10 6 x 10 -3
24
= 500 m 3 /hr...
N= √Q
4.69
= √ 500
4.69
= 5 units
Area of each unit = 111.11
5
= 22.22
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Example

Assume L:B ratio as 1.3

L= 1.3 B
A= 1,3 B x B
= 22.22= 1.3 B x B
B= 4.13 m
L= 1.3 x 4.13
= 5.369 m
Provide B= 4.2 m and L= 5.4 m
Provide 6 such units one as stand by

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Example

• Design a rapid sand filter Unit for supplying 10 MLD to a town with all its principle
components

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Example

Step-I Design of filter Units

• Water Required per day= 10 MLD
• Assuming that 3 % of filtered water is used for washing of filter every day
• Therefore total filter water required per day
• = 1.03 x 10
• = 10.3 MLD
• 10.3 = 0.438 ML/hr
• 24-0.5
• Assuming the rate of filtration as 5000 lit /hr./m 2
• Area of filter required= 0.438 x 10 6
5000
= 87.6 sq.
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 Example
• No of Unis Required
• N= Q√
4.69
= √438
4.69
= 4.46
=5
Area of each Unit= 87.6
5
= 17.52
Assume L/B= 1.3
1.3 B x B= 17.52
B= 3.67= 3.7 m
L= 3.67 x 1.3 = 4.771= 4.8m
Say provide total 6 units of 4.8 m x 3.7 m
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 4.4-DISINFECTION

• DISINFECTION
The primary goal of water treatment is to ensure that the water is
safe to drink and does not contain any disease-causing
microorganisms.
Methods of Disinfection
Boiling of water
Ultra–Violate rays
Iodine and bromine
Ozone,O3
Excess lime
03/21/2024 185
Cont’’

Potassium permanganate [KMnO4]

Chlorine
The most common method of disinfection is the use of chlorine i.e.
chlorination , why?
Dosage of Chlorine
1. Plain Chlorination
2. Super Chlorination
3. Break Point Chlorination
4. De-chlorination
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Cont’’

03/21/2024 187
Cont’’

Stages of Chlorination
• A) Pre-Chlorination
• Chlorine applied prior to the sedimentation and filtration process
• B) Post Chlorination
• Application of chlorine after water has been treated but before the water
reaches the distribution system
• C) Re-Chlorination
• Addition of chlorine at service reservoirs and booster pumping stations

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Cont’’’

03/21/2024 189
 plain
sedimentation

03/21/2024 190
 Thank You
,

“We are born of all the things we know

03/21/2024
And we are forms of all the things we love.” 191
 OU
K Y
A N
; T H
N D
E E
T H

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03/21/2024 193