SB661

This publication from the Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service
has been archived. Current information is available from http://www.ksre.ksu.edu.
A Glossary of Agriculture,
Environment, and
Sustainable Development
Bulletin 661
Agricultural Experiment Station, Kansas State University
Marc Johnson, Director
A GLOSSARY OF AGRICULTURE,
ENVIRONMENT, AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT1
R. Scott Frey2
ABSTRACT
This glossary contains general definitions of over 500 terms related

to agricultural production, the environment, and sustainable develop-
ment. Terms were chosen to increase awareness of major issues for the
nonspecialist and were drawn from various social and natural science
disciplines, including ecology, biology, epidemiology, chemistry, sociol-
ogy, economics, anthropology, philosophy, and public health.
1
Contribution 96-262-B from the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.
2
Professor of Sociology, Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work, Kansas State University, Manhattan,
KS 66506-4003.
1
PREFACE
Agricultural production has increased dramatically in the United States and elsewhere in the past
50 years as agricultural practices have evolved. But this success has been costly: water pollution, soil
depletion, and a host of human (and nonhuman) health and safety problems have emerged as impor-
tant side effects associated with modern agricultural practices. Because of increased concern with these
costs, an alternative view of agricultural production has arisen that has come to be known as sustain-
able agriculture. Sustainable agriculture typically is defined as agricultural practices that ensure long-
term productivity with few harmful effects. A similar concept of economic production is called
sustainable development.
Kansas State University and many other land-grant universities are increasingly committed to the
goal of sustainable agriculture. They support research on practices that reduce pressure on the natural
resource base and protect human health and animal welfare. In other words, current agricultural
research in the land-grant system centers not only on increasing production but also on finding ways
for improving the environmental sustainability of agriculture.
This glossary contains general definitions of over 500 terms related to agricultural production, the
environment, and sustainable development. These terms relate not only to important issues surround-
ing agriculture in the United States, but to agricultural production (and associated) issues worldwide.
Agriculture is after all a global human enterprise that recognizes few spatial and temporal bound-
aries. Terms were chosen to increase awareness of major issues for the nonspecialist and were drawn
from various social and natural science disciplines, including ecology, biology, epidemiology, chemistry,
sociology, economics, anthropology, philosophy, and public health. Many of the terms are complex and
cannot be defined quite as simply as I have done. You may want to refer to recommended readings
identified at the end of this bulletin for more detailed information.
2
Abiota—The nonliving component of an ecosys- Agenda 21—One of several documents emerg-

tem, including the soil, water, and air. ing from the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in
Aborigines—The original or native inhabitants of June 1992. Major issues of environment and
a country or region. development were examined, including pov-
Absorptive capacity—The maximum amount of erty, population, and human health.
waste that can be absorbed by the environ- Agent orange—A mixture of several herbicides
ment. that is considered to be a carcinogen because it
Acceptable daily intake—A daily exposure is contaminated with dioxin. The name comes
level that will not cause adverse health effects. from the orange-banded barrels in which it was
Acclimation—Adaptation to changing or new marketed.
conditions. Agribusiness—Industrialized agriculture con-
Acid precipitation—Rain, snow, fog, or dew trolled by corporations.
containing sulfuric and nitric acids produced by Agricultural economy—An economic system
fossil fuel combustion. based primarily on crop production.
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Agricultural revolution—A shift that took place
(AIDS)—A disease caused by the human im- 10,000 to 12,000 years ago and was character-
munodeficiency virus (HIV), which reduces the ized by the movement of human activity from
body’s ability to fight other diseases. hunting and gathering to agriculture.
Active solar heating—The use of solar panels to Agroforestry—An agricultural system based on
collect and concentrate the sun’s energy for the cultivation of trees with other crops.
heating. AIDS—See acquired immune deficiency.
Acute—A brief but high level of exposure to a Air pollution—Contamination of the air with
hazardous substance or an adverse health effect solids, liquids, or gases that may be hazardous
resulting from a brief exposure to a hazardous to humans or other living organisms. The five
substance. primary pollutants are carbon monoxide, hydro-
Adaptation—Biological modification that allows carbons, nitrogen compounds, particulate mat-
species to better exist in a specific environment. ter, and sulfur dioxide.
Additives—Chemicals added to food, often con- Alternative agriculture—Agriculture based on
sidered to represent a threat to human health. reduced use of chemical fertilizers and pesti-
Aerosol—A suspension of particles in the atmo- cides, increased use of crop rotation, and re-
sphere. duced tillage of the soil.
Afforestation—Establishment of forest in an area Alternative crops—Nontraditional crops that
not previously forested. can be grown in an area to diversify rotations
Aflatoxins—Carcinogenic toxins produced by and increase income.
molds in stored crops. Alternative energy—Energy produced from
Age distribution or structure—The proportions sources other than fossil fuels (solar, wind, hy-
of a population falling into three distinct droelectric, geothermal, and biomass).
groups: preproductive, reproductive, and Altruism—Seeking the good for others.
postproductive. If the population is divided Amazonia—The Amazon Basin area of South
equally among the three groups, the population America, consisting of 5-7 million kilometers of
growth is stable. When a large proportion of the grasslands, wetlands, shrublands, lakes, and
population is in the preproductive stage, the tropical forests.
long-term trend is population growth. If a large Ambient—Surrounding or outside.
proportion of the population is in the reproduc- Amoebic dysentery—A human disease caused
tive stage, a baby boom is experienced. by one-celled parasites called amoebae.
Agency—Extent to which humans are able to Ancient forests—Forests that have never been
create and change the world in which they live. cut and typically consist of trees 250 years of
age and older.
3
Animal rights—The belief that animals have jected by modern biological ecology but em-
rights similar to those afforded to humans. braced by proponents of deep ecology.
Anthropic—Relating to the period during which Basic needs—The basic items and services
humans have existed on earth. needed by an individual to ensure a reasonable
Anthropocentric ethic—The belief that only standard of living.
humans have value and that the environment Bhopal—Refers to an industrial accident at a
exists solely for the benefit of humans; nature Union Carbide factory in Bhopal, India in 1984,
has no rights. resulting in the deaths of close to 4,000 hu-
Anthropogenic—Based on human activities; of- mans and thousands of animals and the injury
ten used to refer to environmental changes of 300,000 persons.
caused by human activity. Bioaccumulation—The accumulation of pollut-
Appropriate technology—Labor-intensive, ants in an organism; sometimes referred to as
small-scale, production methods using renew- bioconcentration.
able energy. Biocentric ethic—The idea that nature, not hu-
Aquaculture—The farming of fish for human mankind, is the measure of all things.
consumption. Biocide—An agent that kills many organisms in
Aquifer—A rock, gravel, or sand formation in the environment.
which water is collected. An aquifer is not an Biodegradable—Capable of being broken down
underground lake, but it very much resembles into basic elements as a result of bacterial or
a soaked sponge. other microbial action.
Aquifer depletion—Depletion of water of an Biodiversity—The degree of species richness and
aquifer resulting from withdrawal that is greater natural genetic variation.
than natural or artificial recharge. Biogas—Methane gas produced by animal and
Arable land—Land that can be cultivated. human dung, crop residues, and other organic
Arid—A condition in which less than 10 inches matter; can be used as a fuel or fertilizer.
of rain falls each year and the level of evapora- Biogeochemical cycle—The cycling of chemi-
tion is greater than the level of precipitation. cals or nutrients between abiotic and biotic sec-
Arithmetic growth—An increase in some tors of the biosphere. Elements involved in
phenomenon at a constant rate over a specified biogeochemical cycles include carbon, nitrogen,
time period. sulfur, and phosphorus.
Artificial fertilizer—A chemical added to soil to Biological amplification—The accumulation of
enhance crop production. higher levels of pollutants in organisms higher
Artificial recharge—Adding water to an aquifer. up in the food chain.
Assimilative capacity—The ability of a water Biological control—The use of natural enemies
body such as a lake or stream to purify itself of or diseases to control pests.
pollutants. Biological diversity—See biodiversity.
Atmosphere—The air that surrounds the earth Biological evolution—Changes in the gene pool
and is bound by the earth’s gravitational attrac- of a species over time.
tion. Biomass—All living matter in an area and stored
Atmospheric inversion—A situation in which a energy in an organic form like wood.
layer of warm air traps pollutants. Basin cities Biomass energy—Energy derived from plant
such as Denver and Los Angeles experience matter.
this problem. Biome—A large ecosytem that has distinct cli-
Average life expectancy—The number of years mate, geology, and organisms; e.g., desert, tun-
that an average person can expect to live. dra, grassland, savanna, woodland, coniferous
Balance of nature—An idea popularized by forest, temperate deciduous forest, and tropical
George Perkins Marshall that all life is interre- rain forest.
lated and in balance. This idea has been re-
4
Bioregion—An area defined by natural ecological Cancer—The breakdown of the normal process
systems, such as a river watershed. of cell growth in which cancerous cells invade
Bioremediation—Restoring a natural area by the and destroy other cells and tissues. A large pro-
addition of living organisms (e.g., plants or bac- portion of cancers is thought to be linked to en-
teria). vironmental factors, including diet, chemicals,
Biosphere—The natural system of the earth and and other substances.
the atmosphere that supports life. Capital goods—Accumulated items used to pro-
Biota—The plant and animal life of an ecosystem; duce other goods and services.
often referred to as flora and fauna. Capitalism—An economy based on private enter-
Biotechnology—Biological manipulation of liv- prise and the use of markets for allocating eco-
ing organisms to produce foods, drugs, and nomic resources.
other products for humans. Capitalist economy—An economic system in
Birth cohort—A group of people born during a which the means of production are owned pri-
specific time period. vately.
Birth rate—The number of live births in a given Car emissions—Chemicals produced by the in-
year divided by the midyear population. ternal combustion engine and considered haz-
Bison—A large grazing animal that once reigned ardous. These include carbon monoxide,
over the grasslands of North America but was hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides.
slaughtered in great numbers during the 1870s. Carbon cycle—The process by which carbon,
Black Death—The name for the plague that the chemical foundation of living organisms,
swept Europe and Asia during the Middle Ages. circulates throughout the natural world. This is
Blocked development—Economic development only one of several different biogeochemical
in less developed countries that is impeded by cycles.
developed countries. Carbon dioxide—A gas that is an important part
Brandt Commission—The Independent Com- of the carbon cycle. Plants absorb CO2 during
mission on International Development held in photosynthesis, and plants and animals produce
1980, which documented the link between en- it as an end product of respiration. It plays an
vironment and development. Members coined important role in controlling the earth’s surface
the terms North (developed countries) and temperature.
South (less developed countries) and called for Carbon sink—A part of the biosphere that ab-
the amortization of old debts among Southern sorbs more carbon dioxide than it releases; e.g.,
countries. oceans and rain forests.
Breeder nuclear fission—A nuclear fission pro- Carbon tax—A tax imposed on fossil fuels ac-
cess in which new radioactive fuel is produced. cording to the amount of carbon contained in
It is considered dangerous because the chain them.
reaction is difficult to control. Carcinogen—An environmental agent, such as a
Brundtland Commission—The World Commis- pesticide, that causes cancer.
sion on Environment and Development chaired Carnivore—An animal or plant that feeds on and
by Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem digests animals.
Brundtland. The Commission’s report, Our Carrying capacity—The total population that a
Common Future (1987), popularized the no- particular area can support at a subsistence
tion of sustainable development. level.
Bubble policy—A policy that allows polluters to Cash crop—Agricultural produce marketed for
discharge more pollutants at one source, if an cash rather than retained for household use.
equivalent reduction occurs at other sources. Centrally planned economy—An economy
California condor—A bird once found in the whose investment and production are coordi-
mountains of California but now virtually extinct. nated by a central government body.
CFCs—See chlorofluorocarbons
5
Chemical—An element or compound naturally Clear-cutting—A logging practice in which a ma-

occurring or created by humans. jority of the trees in an area are cut.
Chernobyl—A nuclear power plant in the Climate—The long-term average of weather con-
former Soviet Union that suffered a serious ac- ditions in an area.
cident in 1986. Estimates are that 5,000 to Climate change—A change in climate caused by
150,000 people who lived in the area will die human activities or natural phenomena.
prematurely. Cognitive process—A mental process involved
Child labor—A practice whereby children be- in human learning and reasoning.
tween the ages of 8 and 15 are forced to work Colonialism—The practice of economic and po-
for a living. litical domination of less developed countries by
China Syndrome—The meltdown of a nuclear developed countries.
reactor. Commodities—Goods and services that can be
Chipko movement—A local movement that be- bought and sold.
gan in India in the early 1980s and is opposed Common law—Legal principles based on previ-
to governmental and other deforestation pro- ous legal decisions.
grams. Community—A group interacting at a specific
Chlorofluorocarbons—Nontoxic chemicals time and place, as well as sharing a similar cul-
used as coolants in refrigerators and air-condi- tural background.
tioners, as propellants in aerosol cans, and as Compost—Decayed organic and animal matter
solvents. They are linked with ozone depletion used as fertilizer.
and global warming. Conservationalists—Those wanting to preserve
Chronic—A health effect that takes a long time natural resources.
to manifest itself or that persists for some time. Conservation tillage—The practice of reducing
Circle of poison—The use of pesticides banned or eliminating tillage operations and leaving
in the developed countries on crops that are crop residues on the soil to prevent erosion.
produced in less developed countries for export Contagious diseases—Diseases that are trans-
to developed countries. mitted by physical contact, e.g., tuberculosis
Civil suit—A lawsuit centered on an individual and measles. They are the leading causes of
seeking damages for injury or loss. death in many less developed countries.
Class—A person’s ranking in a social hierachy; Contaminant—Any substance that has an ad-
based on access to wealth and other scarce re- verse effect on air, water, or soil.
sources. Contingent valuation—Valuation of commodi-
Class action suit—A lawsuit centered on a ties not traded in markets, e.g., clean air, life
group seeking damages for injury or loss. expectancy, wildlife, and severed limbs.
Class system—A system of social inequality Contour plowing—A soil conservation tech-
based on the unequal distribution of economic nique in which cultivation follows the contours
resources. of the land.
Clean Air Act—An act passed by the U.S. Con- Contraception—A birth control practice, such as
gress in 1963 to assure air safe enough to pro- use of condoms, intrauterine devices, or the
tect the public health. pill.
Cleanup—An action taken to deal with the re- Convenience food—Processed food often con-
lease of a hazardous substance that could affect taining high levels of fat, sugar, and/or salt; pro-
the environment or human health. duction and marketing are controlled by large
Clean Water Act—An act passed by the U.S. transnational corporations.
Congress in 1972 to protect the nation’s water Convention—A multilateral agreement between
resources, including regulation of pollution and countries, usually a legal agreement on interna-
sewage treatment. tional environmental issues.
6
Conventional agriculture—Agricultural prac- Deep ecology—The environmental ethic main-

tices involving the use of chemical fertilizers, taining that all species are of equal value and
pesticides, and machinery. that humans have no right to reduce life except
Convergence thesis—The idea that different to satisfy basic needs. This often is identified as
countries are becoming similar. a biocentric worldview. It maintains that the
Core countries—Developed countries having anthropocentric worldview is the key cause of
the most technologically advanced, capital-in- environmental problems. Proponents have been
tensive, and high-wage economies, e.g., the involved with radical environmental organiza-
United States, Japan, and the western European tions such as Earth First!, the Sea Shepherd
countries. Conservation Society, and People for the Ethical
Coronary heart disease—A disease affecting Treatment of Animals.
the heart and/or coronary vein or artery. This is Deforestation—Forest loss; typically defined as a
a leading cause of death in the developed coun- forest losing 40 percent or more of the trees.
tries and linked to overnutrition. Delaney amendment (Delaney clause)—An
Cornucopian—A view that natural resources are amendment to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
unlimited. Act that bans the use of all food additives that
Corporation—A large private organization with are carcinogenic.
multiple owners. Democracy—A government in which the politi-
Cost-benefit analysis—Evaluating projects, poli- cal power of elites is minimized and the politi-
cies, and programs in terms of economic costs cal power of nonelites is maximized.
and benefits. Demographic transition—The argument that as
Cover crops—Plants used to hold the soil during countries improve their standard of living, birth
the fallow season. and death rates converge, and zero population
Cowboy economy—An economy that behaves growth is achieved.
as if natural resources are infinite in supply and Demography—The study of the size and compo-
nature can absorb all wastes. sition of human populations, especially fertility,
Criteria pollutants—Substances that result in mortality, and migration patterns.
the most air pollution: carbon monoxide, sulfur Dependence—The asymmetrical relations that
dioxide, particulates, hydrocarbons, nitrogen characterize interaction patterns between coun-
oxides, ozone, and lead. tries occupying different positions in the world
Crop rotation—An agricultural method in which economy.
two or more crops are rotated from year to year Dependency theory—The theory that depen-
to reduce nutrient depletion of the soil and reli- dent relations between nations foster positive
ance on pesticides. development in the developed countries but
Culture—A commonly held set of beliefs, atti- distorted and constrained forms of development
tudes, and rules for behavior in a society. in the less developed countries.
DC—See developed country. Dependent development—A type of develop-
DDT—See dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. ment characterized by economic growth but
Death rate—The number of deaths in a given high income inequality and a repressive state. It
year divided by the midyear population. is fostered in less developed countries by
Debt crisis—A financial crisis faced by a number transnational corporations.
of less developed countries who borrowed ex- Depletion time—The actual time taken to de-
tensively in the 1970s and early 1980s. Many plete a nonrenewable resource.
of these countries have been unable to repay Desalinization—The process of removing salt
loans or keep up interest payments. and related minerals from water for human
Debt-for-nature swap—A method begun in uses.
1987 to help deal with the debt crisis by swap-
ping debt for creation of nature preserves.
7
Desert—A biome with limited precipitation (typi- Discount rate—A rate used in cost-benefit analy-
cally less than 10 inches per year) but different sis for discounting future values to the present.
temperature ranges. Tropical deserts (Sahara) It typically refers to the value of something in
are hot year round, temperate deserts (Mojave) the future when compared with current value.
are hot in the summer and cool in the winter, Diseases of civilization—Heart disease and can-
and cold deserts (Gobi) are hot or warm in the cer. Affluence increases fat consumption and
summer and cold in the winter. causes a more sedentary and stressful lifestyle,
Desertification—The process by which land be- which put people at risk for these diseases.
comes desert through climatic change or hu- Diversity—The number of species in an area.
man actions. Dominant social paradigm—A western
Detritivore—An organism that feeds on dead or- worldview maintaining that humans are supe-
ganic matter. rior to other creatures, the world provides un-
Developed country—A country with a techno- limited resources for humans, and human
logically advanced, capital-intensive, and high- history is characterized by substantial progress.
wage economy. Dose—The level of exposure to a hazard.
Development—A value-laden notion referring to Dose-response assessment—The determina-
the extent to which a society is meeting the tion of the relationship between dose or expo-
needs of its people. It typically is defined in eco- sure and the intensity of the adverse effect.
nomic terms, but encompasses other dimen- Doubling time—The amount of time required
sions as well. for the population of a country to double.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane—A chlori- Drift net fishing—The use of huge nets that drift
nated, hydrocarbon-based insecticide. It origi- on the water to catch fish.
nally was considered safe and effective but Drinking water—Water fit for human consump-
proved to have negative human health and en- tion.
vironmental consequences. It was banned in Drip irrigation—Irigation using a tape or pipe
the U.S. in 1972. with small holes that release water near the
Dieback—A sudden decline in the population of roots of plants and eliminate runoff.
an area after the carrying capacity of the envi- Driving forces—Social forces identified as the
ronment is reached. sources of environmental problems. Typical
Diet transition—A change in diet that is forces are population expansion, economic
associatated with increased affluence. It typi- growth, political and economic institutions,
cally moves from traditional grains (millet and technology, and cultural values.
sorghum) to rice and wheat and on to a combi- Drought—The prolonged absence of natural pre-
nation of meats and grains. cipitation.
Dioxins—Several chemicals created in the pro- DSP—See dominant social paradigm.
duction of pesticides that have no industrial use Dual economy—An economy with a rich mod-
but are hazardous to human health. ern sector and a poor traditional sector; often a
Direct action—A type of environmental protest problem for less developed countries.
practiced by environmental groups such as Dust bowl—An area in the Great Plains that ex-
Greenpeace. It is characterized as nonviolent, perienced drought and soil erosion in the late
passive resistance that forces the opponents to 1920s and 1930s.
defend their position. Earth Day—An event established in 1970 by
Direct regulation—A direct intervention in the Gaylord Nelson and held every year on April 22
market to regulate a hazard. to raise environmental awareness.
Dirty dozen—A group of 12 chemicals identified Earth Summit—The United Nations’ Conference
by the Pesticide Action Network as dangerous on Environment and Development, which took
and posing a significant health risk. place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June, 1992.
EC—See European Community.
8
Eco—A prefix derived from the Greek word for Efficiency—The amount of product produced
house. per input unit of energy, labor, or material.
Ecocide—A planned effort to exterminate an Effluent—A discharge of waste or other noxious
ecosytem or part of it. material into the environment.
Ecofeminism—An environmental position main- Effluent fee—A fee paid by a polluter to dis-
taining that environmental problems can be charge noxious emissions into the air and wa-
traced to male-dominated institutions empha- ter.
sizing competition, dominance, and individual- Electromagnetic pollution—Electronic and
ism. Environmental problems will be solved magnetic fields created by electrical circuits.
only when male-dominated institutions are re- They may represent human health risks.
placed with egalitarian, cooperative, and Eleventh commandment—A commandment
nonaggressive institutions. put forward by the population control move-
Ecological economics—Nontradional econom- ment that “Thou shall not transgress the carry-
ics that focus attention not only on allocation ing capacity of the environment.”
and distribution of resources but also on the Emigration—Population migration away from an
larger ecosystem or environment. The economy area.
is viewed as a subsystem of the larger and finite Emission—The release or discharge of gases or
ecosystem. Attention centers on the flow of particulate matter into the air.
matter and energy from the environment as Endangered species—Organisms that are at
raw materials and back to the environment as risk of becoming extinct.
waste. Endangered Species Act—An act passed by the
Ecological limit—The carrying capacity of a U.S. Congress in 1973 to protect species in
given area. danger of becoming extinct.
Ecological niche—The role of a species in an Energy—The capacity to do work; usable power.
ecosystem. Energy conservation—Elimination of energy
Ecology—The study of the relationship between waste.
all living organisms and the environment. Energy efficiency—The amount of fuel needed
Economic depletion—The use of 80 percent of to sustain a particular level of production or
a nonrenewable resource. consumption. It typically is defined as annual
Economic growth—Growth in the output of an primary energy consumption per dollar of gross
economy. The gross national product (GNP) of- domestic product.
ten is used to measure growth in the economy. Entropy—The measure of the degree of disorder
Economics—The study of the means by which within a system; derived from thermodynamics.
humans produce, distribute, and consume Environment—All living and nonliving compo-
goods and services. nents by which an organism is surrounded and
Economic system—A system of ownership, in- affected.
stitutions, and allocative and distributive Environmental accounting—An effort to incor-
mechanisms of an economy. porate into measures of economic output the
Economy—A human system by which resources environmental consequences of economic pro-
are produced, distributed, and consumed. duction, such as soil depletion and air pollu-
Ecosphere—Biosphere. tion.
Ecosystem—An interacting system of a biologi- Environmental change—A human-caused de-
cal community (biota) and its nonliving envi- cline in the quantity or quality of a renewable
ronment (abiota). resource.
Ecotage and ecoterrorism—Aggressive acts un- Environmental currency—Monetary values
dertaken against corporations and other parties that adequately reflect costs to the environment
to protect the environment. of human activities, by determining such fac-
EEC—See European Economic Community. tors as energy flows.
9
Environmental degradation—Depletion or de- European Community—A group of 12 coun-

struction of a potentially renewable resource tries: Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Ire-
such as soil. land, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, United
Environmental ethics—Moral relations that Kingdom, Portugal, Spain, and Germany.
hold between humans and the natural world. European Economic Community—An eco-
Environmental impact assessment—The pro- nomic union established in 1958 to promote
cess of identifying and assessing environmental trade in western Europe that currently includes
impacts associated with a project, policy, or pro- Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great
gram. Britain, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the
Environmental impact statement—A report Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain.
identifying the likely environmental conse- Evolution—A process of biological or social
quences of some project, policy, or program. change involving adaptation to an ecosystem.
Environmental movement—A political move- Exponential growth—A growth pattern in
ment to reduce resource depletion/destruction which some entity doubles in size during a
and pollution. given time period.
Environmental pathway—An environmental Export of pollution—Transporting pollutants to
path of hazard exposure; major pathways in- another area or country.
clude the air, soil, and water. Exposure assessment—Determination of the
Environmental Protection Agency—A U.S. extent of contact between an organism and a
regulatory agency established in 1970 to con- hazard.
trol pollution and conduct research on the envi- Extensive agriculture—Maximizing the amount
ronment. of land used for agricultural production.
Environmental refugees—Migrants from an Externalities—Beneficial or harmful effects asso-
area devastated by natural or technological haz- ciated with production and consumption of a
ards. good that are not included in its market price.
Environmental services—The restorative func- Extinction—The disappearance of a species.
tions of nature, such as conversion of carbon di- Exxon Valdez—An oil super tanker that ran
oxide to oxygen by plants. aground and spilled 300,000 barrels of oil in
Environmental sociology—A branch of sociol- Prince William Sound in Alaska in 1989. This is
ogy examining the interaction between humans considered to be the worst oil spill in U.S. his-
and the natural environment. tory.
Environmentalists—Individuals who attempt to Factory farming—The mechanized, high-tech
curb resource depletion/destruction and pollu- production of animals for human consumption.
tion. Growth hormones and antibiotics used to en-
EPA—See Environmental Protection Agency. hance growth of animals may pose health risks
Epidemiology—The study of environmental and to humans.
other factors determining disease. Epidemio- Family planning—The practice of providing in-
logic studies use human population data to ex- formation and contraceptives to help people
amine the distribution and determinants of limit the number of children.
adverse health conditions. Famine—Malnutrition and starvation resulting
Equity—A pattern of fairness. from a shortage of food.
Erosion—A process by which rock particles and FAO—See Food and Agriculture Organization.
soil are deposited in a new location through Fauna—The animal life of an area.
water or wind action. Feedlot—An area containing a high density of
ESA—See Endangered Species Act. animals that are fattened by intensive feeding;
Ethics—A code of behavior regarding what is ap- high concentrations of wastes make them haz-
propriate and inappropriate. ardous.
10
Fertilizer—A substance containing chemical ele- G-7—See Group of 7.

ments needed for plant growth, mainly potas- G-10—See Group of 10.
sium, phosphorus, and nitrogen. G-15—See Group of 15.
First law of thermodynamics—A law stating G-77—See Group of 77.
that energy is neither created nor destroyed, Gaia hypothesis—The hypothesis proposed by
but it does change form. Lovelock and Margulis that living organisms on
First World—Countries that were the first to in- earth help regulate and stabilize the climate.
dustrialize. GATT—See General Agreement on Tariffs and
Fission—The process of splitting atoms to release Trade.
energy. GDP—See gross domestic product.
Flood plain—A low area along a river considered GEMS—See Global Environmental Monitoring
to be at risk of flooding. System.
Flora—The plant life of an area. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade—A
Fly ash—An air emission created by the incinera- multilateral trade agreement regulating the
tion of solid wastes. world trade system.
Food and Agriculture Organization—A United Genetic diversity—The genetic variability
Nations Agency based in Rome and given the within a group of related organisms.
charge to improve efficiency of production and Genetic engineering—The manipulation of ge-
distribution of agricultural products. netic material for economic purposes.
Food chain—A hierachy of organisms, each feed- Geographic Information System—A computer
ing on the lower one. software mapping system that provides a basis
Food gap—The difference between what people for manipulating, analyzing, and displaying spa-
need to subsist and what is produced by farm- tial information.
ers. This occurs in some low-income countries Geosphere—The nonliving portion of the earth,
that are unable to produce basic foodstuffs. excluding the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
Forest—A biome with enough precipitation to biosphere.
support various tree species. Geothermal energy—Steam and hot water (cre-
Fossil fuels—Mineral fuels that occur in rock for- ated by the earth’s molted core) used to pro-
mations. They include coal, oil, and natural gas duce electricity and considered to be a
and provide a majority of the energy used in renewable energy.
the world. Ghost acres—The land on which cheap food-
Free market—A market in which buyers and stuffs and agricultural products are produced by
sellers are free to contract on whatever terms less developed countries for export to the in-
they like without government interference. dustrialized countries.
Friends of the Earth—An environmental advo- GIS—See Geographic Information System.
cacy group founded in 1970 by David Brower. Global commons—Natural systems and re-
Frugivore—An animal that lives on fruit. sources that do not belong to any one country,
Frugivores are typically primates that cannot di- e.g., the atmosphere and the oceans.
gest cellulose in leaves. Global Environmental Monitoring System—
Fuelwood crisis—A shortage of wood for heat- A global effort to monitor the earth’s environ-
ing and cooking purposes. This is a pressing ment; established in 1972 and operated by the
problem in many less developed countries. United Nations Environment Programme.
Fungicide—A pesticide that kills fungi. Global positioning system—A U.S. Depart-
Fungus—Parasitic or saprophytic plants lacking ment of Defense satellite network used as a sur-
the green pigment chlorophyll and thus inca- veying and navigational aid and available to the
pable of photosynthesis. public.
Fusion—The process of combining atomic nuclei
in order to release energy.
11
Global 2000—A report on global environmental Gross national product—The value of goods
trends that was commissioned by President and services produced in a country plus remit-
Carter in 1977 and was published in 1980. The tances received from abroad.
general conclusion of the report was that the Gross primary production—The total energy
world in 2000 would be more crowded, more produced by photosynthesis and stored in a
polluted, and more fragile if global trends con- given biotic community.
tinued. Groundwater—The water stored underground
Global warming—An increase in the earth’s sur- in rock and soil.
face temperature caused by the heat trapped in Group of 7—Seven of the largest industrial coun-
the earth’s atmosphere by human-created gases. tries, including Canada, France, Germany, Italy,
GNP—See Gross National Product. Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United
Granivore—An animal living on a diet of grain States.
or seeds. Group of 10—The 10 most influential environ-
Grassland—A biome with a moderate level of mental organizations in the United States.
precipitation and vegetation dominated by These include the Environmental Defense
grasses. Fund, Wilderness Society, Sierra Club, National
Great Plains—A grassland area in the western Audubon Society, National Parks and Conserva-
U.S., extending from North Dakota south to tion Association, Natural Resources Defense
Texas and from the Rocky Mountains east to Council, Defenders of Wildlife, Environmental
western Minnesota and Missouri. Policy Institute, National Wildlife Federation,
Green consumerism—Purchasing environmen- and Izaak Walton League of America.
tally sound products. Group of 15—A group of 15 less developed
Greenhouse effect— A rise in the earth’s sur- countries that meet to discuss issues of the
face temperature caused by heat radiated by the Third World.
sun that becomes trapped by greenhouse gases. Group of 77 —A group of less developed coun-
Greenhouse gases—Trace gases that contribute tries in the Third World and Eastern Europe,
to the greenhouse effect, mainly carbon diox- originally including 77 countries but later ex-
ide, methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluoro- panded to include 129.
carbons. Growth mania—A belief that “bigger is always
Greenpeace—An environmental organization better.”
emphasizing sea mammal protection and elimi- Growth rate—The annual percentage increase in
nation of toxic pollution. the gross national product.
Green politics—Politics centering on issues sur- Habitat—The place where organisms live.
rounding environmental problems. Habitat loss—The loss of natural habitat, often
Green revolution—The effort organized by the by human actions.
United Nations in the 1960s to increase world Hamburger connection—The clearing of land
food production by introducing high-yield vari- in Central and South America to produce cattle
eties of rice, wheat, and maize and new tech- whose meat is exported to U.S. fast-food restau-
niques, including irrigation and use of rants.
pesticides. Hardwood—The wood of broad-leaved, flower-
Greens—Political parties with an environmental ing trees, e.g., oak, mahogany, and walnut.
stance. Hazard—A technology, activity, or substance that
Green tax—A tax on activities that pollute, de- has adverse effects on the environment or hu-
plete, or degrade the environment. man health.
Gross domestic product—The value of goods Hazard identification—The process of deter-
and services produced in the country. mining that a technology, activity, or substance
causes adverse health, safety, or environmental
consequences.
12
Hazardous waste—Waste possessing chemical, Incineration—Burning wastes for purposes of

physical, or biological characteristics that repre- disposal.
sent a threat to either the environment or hu- Income—A gain or benefit expressed in money
man health. or in goods and services over a specified time
Hegemonic power—The power exercised by period.
states on an international basis because of their Index of sustainable economic welfare—An
economic and military status. alternative measure for assessing the strength of
HEP—See human exemptionalism paradigm. an economy and human well-being. Unlike
Herbicide—A chemical used to control weeds gross national product and similar indicators, it
and unwanted plants. includes measures of environmental degrada-
Herbivore—An organism that obtains energy tion.
from plant consumption. Granivores and Indicator species—A species that can indicate
frugivores are special types of herbivores. whether an ecosystem is being degraded.
Human ecology—An area of inquiry concerned Industrial economy—A production system
with the relationship of humans and their ac- based on machines to produce things of value.
tivities with the physical environment. Industrialization—A stage in societal develop-
Human exemptionalism paradigm—A set of ment when resources are shifted from agricul-
assumptions underlying the belief that humans ture to manufacturing.
transcend the environment in which they live. Infant mortality rate—The number of infant
Specifically, given their unique cultural heri- deaths (children between the ages of 0-12
tage, humans are different from all other spe- months) per 1,000 live births.
cies on earth, social and cultural factors Infectious diseases—See contagious diseases.
determine human society, the larger environ- Informal economy—Business outside of the rec-
ment is irrelevant, and all problems are soluble ognized sector of a country’s economy.
by human ingenuity and technology. Insecticide—A chemical substance used to kill
Hydrocarbons—Chemicals consisting of hydro- insects.
gen and oxygen and contributing to air pollu- Integrated pest management—A management
tion. effort combining biological and chemical con-
Hydroelectric power—Electricity created by trols to reduce reliance on synthetic pesticides.
movement of water. Intensive agriculture—A system to maximize
Hydrosphere—The water portion of the planet. output of land through use of chemicals and
Approximately 75 percent of the earth’s surface machinery.
is covered by water. Intergenerational equity—A norm that calls for
Ice Ages—Periods when ice sheets moved from considering the interests of future generations
the polar cap and covered areas of North when dealing with natural resources and a
America, Europe, and Asia. healthy environment.
Immigration—Population migration into another Internal cost—The direct cost associated with a
area. product or service that is paid by the producer
Immiserization—An economic decline among and/or consumer.
poor people, making it difficult for them to International regime—An international agree-
meet their basic needs for food, health, and ment between nations.
shelter. International Union for Conservation of Na-
Imperialism—A system in which one country ture and Natural Resources—A nongovern-
uses the resources of a less powerful country mental organization founded in 1948 and
for its own benefit, typically involving eco- concerned with threats to the quality of the
nomic and political control. natural environment, especially wilderness ar-
eas and endangered species.
13
IPAT—The model holding that environmental thousands of tons of chemical wastes during
degradation (I) is an interactive function of hu- the 1950s.
man population size (P), affluence (A), and LULU—See locally unwanted land use.
technology (T). LUST—See leaking underground storage tanks.
Irrigation—Artificial watering of crops. Malnutrition—Insufficent nutrition.
ISEW—See index of sustainable economic wel- Malthusianism—The belief that population out-
fare. strips society’s ability to provide for its mem-
IUCN—See International Union for Conservation bers. It is based on ideas developed by Thomas
of Nature and Natural Resources. Malthus (1766-1834) in An Essay on the Prin-
J-shaped curve—An exponential growth curve. ciples of Population.
Land ethic—A philosophy developed by Aldo Marxism—The theory of Karl Marx that all soci-
Leopold around the idea that land is more than eties go through a series of economic stages as
a commodity and deserves to be treated with the production system evolves and increases
respect. human control over the environment. The final
Landfill—A dump site in which waste is spread stage of all societies is socialism.
in thin layers and covered with soil. Maternal mortality—Death during childbirth.
Land scarcity—A situation in which 70 percent MDC—See more developed country.
or more of the arable land in a country or re- Methane—A gas created as a waste product of
gion is under cultivation. bacteria living with little oxygen and consid-
LD50—See lethal dose. ered to be a greenhouse gas.
LDC—See less developed country. Migration—The movement of populations from
Leachate—Liquid that has percolated through one area to another.
soil or solid waste and picked up potentially Modernization—The process accompanying in-
hazardous materials. dustrialization.
Leaking underground storage tanks—Major Modernization theory—A theory holding that
causes of groundwater pollution in the U.S. less developed countries will follow the course
Less developed country—A country with a low of industrial development experienced by the
per capita income and low to moderate indus- developed countries.
trialization. LDCs include nearly 150 nations Monkey-wrenching—See ecotage.
and 80 percent of the world’s population. Monoculture—An agricultural practice in which
Lethal dose—The quantity of a chemical that is a single species of plant is cultivated in an area.
lethal to 50 percent of the organisms in a spe- It requires large amounts of fertilizers and pesti-
cific test situation. cides.
Life expectancy—The number of years that an Montreal Protocol—A treaty signed in 1987 by
average person can expect to live. 24 countries, which pledged to phase out use
Little Ice Age—A cold period in Asia, Europe, of all chlorofluorocarbons by 1999.
and North America (A.D. 1550 to A.D. 1850). Morbidity—The incidence of disease in a popula-
Its end coincided with the beginning of the in- tion.
dustrial revolution and an increase of green- More developed country—A country with high
house emissions. per capita income and a high level of industrial-
Locally unwanted land use—A land use with ization, e.g., the United States, Canada, Japan,
adverse environmental consequences, e.g., Australia, New Zealand, and the western Euro-
nuclear power plants, hazardous waste facili- pean countries.
ties, airports, and refineries. Mortality—Deaths in a population.
Love Canal—The location of a landfill site near Multinational corporation—A large corporation
Niagara Falls that was used by Hooker Chemi- that owns property and produces and sells
cals and Plastics Company as a dumping site for products in a large number of countries.
14
Mutagen—An environmental agent that causes Net economic welfare—The gross national
genetic mutations or defects. product adjusted by subtracting the “bads”
NAAQS—See National Ambient Air Quality such as pollution and by adding the value of
Standards. beneficial, nonmarket activities such as leisure.
NAFTA—See North Atlantic Free Trade Agree- Net primary production—The total energy pro-
ment. duced by photosynthesis and stored in a biotic
Natality—The birth rate of a population. community (gross primary production) minus
National Ambient Air Quality Standards— energy consumed by photosynthetic organisms.
Regulations established by the Clean Air Act New environmental paradigm—A new set of
prescribing levels of pollution that may not be assumptions about the nature of the relation-
exceeded during a specified time in a defined ship between humans and the larger environ-
area. ment. This paradigm holds that humans,
National Audubon Society—An organization despite their exceptional characteristics, repre-
founded in 1905 to protect bird populations but sent one among many species on earth; human
now concerned with broader environmental activities are determined not only by social and
issues. cultural factors but by the environment; and
National Environmental Policy Act—A federal humans are dependent on a finite environment.
environmental law (1969) that requires all fed- New international economic order—A list of
eral agencies to file environmental impact state- demands made by the Group of 77 nations in
ments, sometimes referred to as “the environ- the 1970s regarding changes in the structure of
mental Magna Carta.” North-South economic relations.
National Institute of Occupational Safety and New social movements—Recent social move-
Health—A U.S. federal agency that conducts ments whose origins, political tactics, and goals
health and safety research. differ substantially from those of the traditional
National Wildlife Federation—An organization class and economic-based, social movements,
founded in 1936 as an environmental advocacy e.g., the environmental movement, the
and educational group. women’s movement, and the gay rights move-
Natural hazard—A natural event that damages ment.
the environment and humans, e.g., floods, vol- Newly industrializing countries—Countries
canoes, and earthquakes. that have been industrialized only recently, e.g.,
Natural pollutants—Pollutants created through South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore.
natural processes, e.g., ozone, dust, and gas of NGO—See nongovernmental organization.
volcanic origin. NIABY—See not in anybody’s backyard.
Natural resources—Substances and processes NIMBY—See not in my backyard.
used by people that they cannot create. NIMTOF—See not in my term of office.
Natural Resources Defense Council—An or- NIOSH—See National Institute of Occupational
ganization founded in 1970 to protect natural Safety and Health.
resources. Nongovernmental organization —An interna-
Natural sciences—Sciences that examine the tional nonprofit organization that is not affili-
physical environment, e.g., astronomy, biology, ated with any government but is concerned
chemistry, geology, physics, oceanography, and with problems of global and local environment
meteorology. and development.
Neo-Malthusian—The idea that human popula- Nonpoint source pollution—Pollution from
tions grow until they reach the carrying capac- many different sources.
ity of the environment. Nonrenewable resource—A resource that can-
NEP—See new environmental paradigm. not be replenished.
NEPA—See National Environmental Policy Act.
15
Nontransmissable disease—A disease that is implications for agriculture because of the large
not caused by organisms and cannot be trans- quantities of grain produced in the area.
mitted through human contact, e.g., cancer and Old-growth forests—Forests consisting of trees
heart disease. 250 years or older in age.
Noosphere—That part of the biosphere that is Omnivore—An animal that eats both plants and
affected by human activities. animals. Humans are good examples.
NOPE—See not on our planet. OPEC—See Organization of Petroleum Exporting
North or Northern—Industrialized countries lo- Countries.
cated mainly in the Northern Hemisphere and Organic agriculture—The practice of growing
referred to as the First World, including crops without chemical fertilizers and pesti-
Canada, the U.S., western European countries, cides, but otherwise similar to alternative agri-
the former Soviet Union, Japan, Australia, and culture.
New Zealand. The term was coined by mem- Organic beef—Beef from cattle raised without
bers of the Brandt Commission in 1980. antibiotics, growth hormones, or synthetic
North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement—A chemicals.
treaty freeing trade restrictions between Organic farming—Farming without the use of
Canada, the U.S., and Mexico. artificial fertilizers or pesticides.
Not in anybody’s backyard—The idea that haz- Organic fertilizer—Organic matter added to the
ardous activities and substances should not be soil to increase production, e.g., manure, plants
located in anybody’s backyard. plowed into the soil, and compost.
Not in my backyard—The idea that hazardous Organization for Economic Cooperation and
activities and substances should not be located Development—An organization founded in
in my backyard. 1961 to further economic development and
Not in my term of office—The idea that haz- consisting of 13 European countries plus the
ardous activities and substances should not be U.S., Canada, Japan, Australia, and New
located in the area during a politician’s term of Zealand.
office. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Coun-
Not on our planet—The idea that hazardous ac- tries—An organization created in 1960 and
tivities and substances should not be located on consisting of 13 countries that control 60 per-
earth. cent of the world’s oil reserves.
Noxious—Physically harmful to living organisms. OSHA—See Occupational Safety and Health Act.
Nuclear energy—The energy produced through Overconsumption—A situation in which some
nuclear fission or nuclear fusion. people consume resources at levels beyond
Nuclear winter—The theory that nuclear war their needs, often at the expense of those who
would lower the global temperature by adding cannot meet their basic needs.
smoke, dust, and other materials to the atmo- Overgrazing—Grazing by animals on vegetation
sphere and reducing incoming solar energy. at a rate greater than the ability of vegetation to
Ocean dumping—Dumping hazardous wastes regenerate itself.
and other substances in the oceans. Overnutrition—Excessive food consumption, es-
Occupational Safety and Health Act—A U.S. pecially red meat, fats, sugars, and processed
federal statute establishing health and safety foods. This is a problem in developed countries
regulations in the workplace. that contributes to high rates of nontransmiss-
OECD—See Organization for Economic Coopera- able diseases, such as coronary heart disease
tion and Development. and cancer.
Ogallala Aquifer—An underground water Overpopulation—More organisms in a popula-
source that streches from Texas to South Da- tion than the existing resources can support.
kota and is used for irrigation in the Great Overshoot—Population growing beyond the car-
Plains. Depletion is thought to have profound rying capacity of the environment.
16
Ozone—The gaseous form of oxygen. Pesticide treadmill—A situation in which more

Ozone depletion—Depletion of the ozone layer pesticides are applied to maintain previous lev-
in the earth’s upper atmosphere primarily by ac- els of production because their effectiveness has
cumulation of human-produced gases such as been decreased by development of resistance in
chlorofluorocarbons. This allows increased pests.
amounts of ultraviolet light to reach the earth Petrochemicals—Substances created during the
and damage both plants and animals. refinement of oil and used in the production of
Ozone layer—A layer of ozone in the earth’s up- plastics, paints, and other products.
per atmosphere that acts as a protective shield Photosynthesis—A process whereby radiant en-
by filtering out ultraviolet light. ergy of the sun is taken in by green plants and
Pacific Rim—The 34 countries and 23 islands in converted into chemical energy.
and around the Pacific Ocean with an area of Photovoltaic cell—A cell that converts sunlight
70 million square miles and a population of 2.4 into electricity.
billion people. Physical quality of life—A measure of eco-
Paradigm—A set of assumptions about the na- nomic welfare that is more sophisticated than
ture of reality. Such assumptions limit what is the gross national product. It is based on three
seen. variables: percent of population literate, infant
Parasite—An organism living in or on another or- mortality rate, and average life expectancy after
ganism. age 1.
Particulate matter—Tiny solid particles, such as PIBBY—See place in blacks’ backyard.
dust or soot, suspended in the air and repre- PITBY—See put in their backyard
senting a human health risk. Place in black’s backyard—The idea that haz-
Passive solar heating—Heating a building ardous activities and substances should be lo-
through the direct absorbtion of the sun’s en- cated in areas inhabited by blacks.
ergy. Point source pollution—Pollution that can be
Pathogen—A causal agent of a disease. linked to a single source.
Periphery—The lowest position in the three- Politics—An activity by which people try to con-
strata hiearchy (periphery, semiperiphery, and trol decisions about the distribution of re-
core) characterizing the world economic sys- sources and other matters affecting their
tem. The vast majority of less developed coun- welfare.
tries fall into this category. Pollutant—Any substance that contaminates the
Perpetual resource—A resource that is inex- environment.
haustible, e.g., solar energy. Pollution—A negative change in the quality of
Pest—An organism that is detrimental to agricul- some part of the biosphere. Pollution is a prob-
tural production. lem when pollutants are emitted at rates
Pesticide—A chemical that destroys or sup- greater than the rate at which they can be re-
presses pests. Pesticides are classified by the cycled, absorbed, or otherwise rendered harm-
type of pest against which they are active: in- less. The consequences often include threats to
secticides (ants, termites, etc.); herbicides humans and other organisms.
(broadleaved weeds, grasses, algae); fungicides Pollution prevention—A measure to reduce
(mildew, molds, plant diseases, etc.); acaricides emissions of noxious wastes into the air and
(mites, ticks); rodenticides (rats, gophers, water.
ground squirrels); avicides (birds); pisicides Population density—The number of persons per
(fish); molluscicides (snails, slugs); and nemati- unit of land area.
cides (nematodes or nonsegmented soil worms). Population explosion—Acceleration of the rate
Pesticide resistance—A situation in which pests of population growth, especially after 1800 in
are not affected by a particular pesticide. industrialized countries and in the 20th century
in less developed countries.
17
Postconsumer recycling—The reuse of materi- Rangeland—An area that provides vegetation for
als from residential or commercial waste. grazing animals.
Postindustrial society—A modern economy Real gross national product—The gross na-
dominated by services and information, rather tional product adjusted for inflation.
than industry. Reclamation—The process of restoring natural
Poverty—A low standard of living in terms of areas damaged by human activities, e.g., strip-
other people (relative poverty) or in terms of ba- mining.
sic needs (absolute poverty). Recyclable—Still retaining useful properties after
Power dependency relations—Relations be- serving a primary function and, thus, capable of
tween individuals, groups, or countries charac- being used again.
terized by dominant/subordinate positions. Recycling—The reuse of scarce raw materials,
PQLI—See physical quality of life. especially paper, glass, and metals.
Private good—A good that, when consumed by Recycling in your backyard—Engaging in recy-
one person, cannot be consumed by another cling.
and whose supply can be restricted to one con- Red tides—Sudden increases in red algae in ar-
sumer. eas along seacoasts. They usually are attributed
Productivity—The amount of real output pro- to human activities that create imbalances in
duced by input units of labor and capital. nutrient cycles.
Proximate causes—Those human activities that Reforestation—Replacing forests.
directly cause some environmental problem. Regime—A set of principles, norms, rules, and
For instance, fossil fuel consumption causes in- procedures governing negotiations and other in-
creased levels of carbon dioxide, which, in teractions between international participants.
turn, contribute to global warming. Renewable resource—A resource considered to
Public good—A commodity or service that is be inexhaustible.
available to everyone in an area, that cannot be Replacement fertility rate—The rate at which
withheld from nonpayers, and whose consump- the number of people born equals the number
tion by one person does not diminish that by of people dying, resulting in a constant popula-
others. tion size.
Push-pull hypothesis—The argument that cer- Resistance—The ability of an organism to live in
tain conditions (such as poverty) push people the presence of environmental stress, patho-
out (emigration), whereas other conditions in gens, or pests. Natural resistance of crops can
the area pull or attract people (immigration). be increased through breeding to reduce use of
Put in their backyard—The idea that hazardous pesticides and irrigation. However, resistance
activities and substances should be located in acquired by weeds and insects can be a prob-
others’ areas. lem—see pesticide resistance and pesticide
Quality of life—The extent to which basic hu- treadmill.
man needs (including health, education, shel- Resource depletion—Using a resource at a
ter, and food) are being met. nonreplacement rate.
Radical ecology—A variety of philosophic posi- Resource mobilization theory—A theory argu-
tions that deny the possibility of slowing envi- ing that social movements arise and act when
ronmental problems through economic and resources are available.
political reforms, e.g., deep ecology, Resources—Things obtained from the biosphere
ecofeminism, and social ecology. by humans to meet their basic needs and
Radon—A naturally occurring radioactive gas wants.
that is linked to lung cancer. Rest of the world—The belief that hazardous
Rain forest—A dense forest located in areas re- activities and substance should be located
ceiving 80 inches or more of rain each year. somewhere else.
18
Rio Conference—The United Nations Confer- Salinization—A process by which the salt con-
ence on Environment and Development, which tent of the soil is increased. It typically is attrib-
took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June, uted to irrigation practices and often makes
1992. land useless for crop production.
Riparian rights—A legal principle holding that Saprophyte—An organism (especially a plant)
users of land adjoining a river have the rights to that lives on dead or decaying organic matter.
the water, as long as plenty of water is left for Savanna—A biome similar to grasslands, but re-
those downstream. ceiving more precipitation and containing more
Risk—The expected frequency and magnitude of trees.
undesirable effects (death, disease, and injury to Science—An effort to understand physical or so-
humans and threats to the environment) result- cial phenomena through replicable procedure
ing from exposure to hazards. and observation.
Risk assessment—An estimation of the prob- Scrubber—An antipollution device that removes
ability and magnitude of adverse health and en- acid gasses and particulates from exhausted air.
vironmental effects of hazards. Second law of thermodynamics—A law hold-
Risk-benefit analysis—A comparison of the ing that, when energy is converted from one
risks and benefits associated with a particular form to another, some of the energy is degraded
hazard to determine its acceptability. or lost.
Risk characterization—An overall summary of Second World—Centrally planned economies,
what is known about the likelihood and magni- i.e., those of Eastern Europe from 1948 to
tude of adverse health, safety, and environmen- 1990.
tal consequences. Secondary air pollutants—Substances created
Risk communication—A process of providing when primary pollutants combine with one an-
the public with information about the risks as- other and other substances. For instance, the
sociated with particular products, substances, primary pollutant sulfur dioxide reacts with
activities, and technologies. oxygen and moisture to form sulfuric acid.
Risk evaluation—A determination of the accept- Secondary forest—A forest that has resulted
ability of an identified health, safety, or environ- from replacement of original trees by new spe-
mental risk. cies.
Risk management—A process of reducing or Semiperiphery—The middle position in the
controlling unacceptable risks. three-strata world economic system; partially
Risk perception—Human perception of health, industrialized countries such as Brazil, Taiwan,
safety, or environmental risks. the former Eastern Bloc nations, and related
RIYBY—See recycling in your backyard. countries fall in this category.
ROW—See rest of the world. Sex ratio—The number of males relative to fe-
Runoff—The part of irrigation or precipitation males.
that runs off of land and into surface water and Sierra Club—An environmental organization
often carries pollutants. founded by John Muir in 1892 that promotes
S-curve—A curve describing population growth. public education, litigation, and outings and
Population increases until it reaches the carry- conferences.
ing capacity of the ecosystem and then levels Sink—A part of an environmental system that ab-
off. sorbs substances generated. The ocean acts as a
Safe—Having acceptable risk. sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Sahel—The arid region south of the Sahara SLAPP—See strategic lawsuit against public par-
Desert in West Africa in which food shortages ticipation.
often occur because of infrequent seasonal SLAPP BACK—See strategic lawsuit against pub-
rains. lic participation.
19
Slash-and-burn cultivation—A form of agricul- ing use at the level of production, for instance,
ture in which land is cleared and farmed for a reducing the waste stream by stopping use of
short time; then the process is repeated on a unnecessary packaging.
new piece of land when the original land is de- South or Southern—Less developed countries
pleted. located in the Southern Hemisphere and often
Smog—Hazy, unhealthy air polluted by smoke, referred to as the Third World.
chemical fumes, or dust. Special risk group—A group that is at high risk
Social construction of reality—A process in because of sensitivity or exposure to hazards.
which people’s experience of reality is deter- Children often are identified as a special risk
mined by the meaning they attach to that real- group because of their high sensitivity to pesti-
ity. cides and other hazardous substances.
Social ecology—A radical ecological position Species—A group of similar organisms that are
championed by Murray Bookchin and maintain- capable of reproducing with one another.
ing that environmental problems can be traced Standard of living—The quality of life or the ex-
to a hierarchical political/economic system that tent to which basic human needs are met. Vari-
dominates humans and nature. It calls for a de- ous indicators have been used to determine it,
centralized, democratic, and agricultural-based including infant mortality, life expectancy, lit-
society. eracy, and economic output measures such as
Social evolution—A process of increasing soci- gross national product.
etal complexity that results from industrializa- Steady state economy—An economy with a
tion. constant population size and stock of capital
Social movement—A large number of people goods.
acting together to pursue some shared objec- Stockholm Conference—The 1972 United Na-
tive. tions Conference on the Human Environment.
Social sciences—Sciences concerned with the Many scholars assert that this conference was
study of human behavior, including anthropol- the springboard for the modern environmental
ogy, economics, psychology, geography, political movement.
science, and sociology. Strategic lawsuit against public participa-
Social structure—Patterned social regularities tion—A lawsuit used increasingly by corpora-
that emerge over time and typically represent tions to stifle environmentalists. SLAPP BACK
the interests of those controlling available re- refers to environmental organizations filing law-
sources. suits against those who filed the original
Socialist economy—An economic system in SLAPPs.
which the means of production are owned pub- Stratification—A hierarchical system based on
licly. unequal distribution of resources or other
Soft energy paths—Alternative energy sources. things that humans value.
Soil erosion—The process by which productive Stratosphere—The upper atmosphere.
topsoil is eroded by wind or water action. Subsistence economy—An economy in which
Solar pond—A group of black plastic bags filled production meets a population’s minimum
with water and laid out in large areas. Heat needs but produces no surplus.
trapped in the bags produces steam that turns Succession—A sequential change in vegetation
turbines and produces electricity. often in response to environmental change.
Solar power—The use of solar energy for heat- Superfund—An economic fund of the Environ-
ing purposes or for generating electricity. mental Protection Agency earmarked for clean-
Solid waste disposal—The final placement of ing up major hazardous waste sites.
waste that cannot be recycled or salvaged. Surplus—Production of goods and services be-
Source reduction—Controlling waste by chang- yond the minimum needed to sustain life.
20
Sustainable agriculture—Agricultural practices Tragedy of the commons—The tendency for

that ensure long-term productivity with few people to overuse and degrade resources to
harmful effects. which they have free access, because it is in
Sustainable development—The perspective their individual short-term interest to use them
emphasizing the need to reconcile present and in an unconstrained fashion.
future economic needs through environmental Transfrontier pollution—Pollution that moves
management. across national boundaries through natural
Swidden agriculture—Another term for slash- forces such as rivers and air currents.
and-burn agriculture. Transmissible disease—A disease caused by a
Technology—A set of standardized operations living organism transferred from one person to
that yields predetermined results. another through physical contact.
Teratogen—A substance that causes birth de- Transnational corporation—A firm with sub-
fects. stantial operations in many countries but con-
Tertiary sector—The part of the economy that trolled from its home country.
produces services and information. True costs—Market and nonmarket costs associ-
Third World—Less developed countries that ated with the production and use of goods and
have low per capita incomes, large agricultural services. Market costs fail to account for envi-
sectors, and a shortage of most kinds of capital. ronmental degradation and related externali-
Third World debt—See debt crisis. ties.
Three Mile Island—A nuclear power accident 2,4-D—An herbicide used to kill weeds and con-
that occurred at the Three Mile Island plant in sidered to be a carcinogen and a mutagen.
Pennsylvania on March 29, 1979. UNCED—See United Nations Conference on En-
Three R’s—Reduce, reuse, and recycle. vironment and Development.
Tillage—The use of mechanized means to loosen UNDP—See United Nations Development
soil and improve growing conditions for crops. Programme.
TNC—See transnational corporation. UNEP—See United Nations Environment
Topsoil—The top layer of the soil that contains Programme.
large amounts of organic matter. It often is Unequal exchange—A pattern describing trade
viewed as a transitional region between the liv- relations between two or more countries when
ing and nonliving segments of the larger bio- one country benefits more than another.
sphere. Uneven development—The tendency for some
Toxic chemicals—Chemicals that can cause areas of a country or region to prosper, while
harm to humans and the environment. other areas stagnate.
Toxic wastes—Wastes that can cause harm to United Nations Conference on Environment
humans and the environment and can be found and Development—The Earth Summit held
in the air, water, or soil. in Rio in 1992.
Toxicology—The study of the harmful effects of United Nations Development Programme—A
hazardous substances on humans and other or- program with the stated purpose of enhancing
ganisms. development worldwide.
Toxin—A hazardous substance produced by a liv- United Nations Environment Programme—A
ing organism. program conceived at the 1972 Stockholm
Trace gases—Gases that occur in only small Conference with the purpose of raising environ-
amounts. mental consciousness on a global level.
Traditional agriculture—Farming based on Urbanization—The process by which an increas-
practices such as crop rotation, use of animal ing share of the population of a country lives in
manures instead of chemical fertilizers, and use cities.
of animal power.
21
Value added—A means of increasing the value World Environment Day—June 5 of each year;
of agricultural commodities by improvements designated by the 1972 UN Conference on the
(e.g., breeding wheat with high protein con- Human Environment as a day to focus on envi-
tent) or processing (e.g., grinding wheat into ronmental problems.
flour). World Health Organization—A United Nations
Vegetarian—A person who does not eat meat. agency established in 1948 to promote coopera-
Water pollution—Degradation of the natural tion among nations in controlling disease.
quality of water. World Resources Institute—Policy research
Water table—The level below the surface at center set up in 1982 to address environmental
which the ground is saturated with water. issues on a global level.
WCED—See World Commission on Environment World-systems theory—A theory that views the
and Development. countries of the world as arranged in a hierar-
Wetlands—Several different types of habitats chical system and linked through a capitalist
containing water, e.g., marshes, swamps, and economy characterized by patterns of depen-
bogs. They act as filters for rivers and steams dence. This hierarchy consists of core, semipe-
and minimize the effects of flooding by storing ripheral, and peripheral positions.
water. Worldview—A set of beliefs and perceptions re-
WHO—See World Health Organization. garding the manner in which the world oper-
Why in my backyard—The question of why ates.
hazardous activities and substances are placed Worldwatch Institute—A research organization
in a particular location. founded in 1974 to track global problems.
Wilderness—An area uninhabited by humans. World Wildlife Fund—An organization founded
Wildlife—All undomesticated organisms in an in the U.S. in 1961 and working globally to
area, especially animals. protect endangered wildlife and wetlands.
WIMBY—See why in my back yard. WRI—See World Resources Institute.
Wind power—The generation of electricity WWF—See Worldwide Wildlife Fund.
through wind, a renewable source. WWI—See Worldwatch Institute.
World Bank—The popular name for the Interna- Yes, in my background-for a price—Accep-
tional Bank for Reconstruction and Develop- tance of the location of hazardous activities and
ment, which was established in 1947. It substances in an area for a price.
encourages private (rather than public) invest- YIMBY-FAP—See yes, in my backyard-for a price.
ment. Zero discharge—The complete prevention of
World Commission on Environment and De- pollutants from entering ecosystems.
velopment—Committee chaired by Norwe- Zero population growth—A lack of population
gian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland growth caused by a balance among births,
and also known as the Brundtland Commis- deaths, and migration.
sion. The Commission’s report, Our Common Zero Population Growth—An organization
Future (1987), popularized the notion of sus- founded in 1968 to inform people about prob-
tainable development. lems associated with global population growth.
World economic system—A capitalist world ZPG—See zero population growth.
economy consisting of a three-tiered hierachy of
countries, including a periphery, semiperiphery,
and a core. Centrality in the economic system
is determined by control of economic and politi-
cal resources.
22
RECOMMENDED READING
Allaby, Michael. 1994a. The Concise Oxford Franck, Irene and David Brownstone. 1992. The
Dictionary of Ecology. New York: Oxford Green Encylopedia: An A-to-Z Sourcebook of
University Press. Environmental Concerns and Solutions. New
_____. 1994b. Macmillan Dictionary of the York: Prentice-Hall.
Environment. (Fourth Edition.) London: Ghai, Dharam, editor. 1994. Development and
Macmillan Press. Environment: Sustaining People and Nature.
Art, Henry W., editor. 1993. The Dictionary of Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Ecology and Environmental Science. New Gilpin, Alan. 1976. Dictionary of Environmental
York: Henry Holt. Terms. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Badie, Sandra S. 1989. Sustainable Development: Goldsmith, E. and N. Hildyard. 1990. Earth
Challenges to the Profession of Agricultural Report 2. London: Mitchell Beazley.
Economics. American Journal of Agricultural Harte, J., C. Holdren, R. Schneider, and C.
Economics 71:1083-1101. Shirley. 1991. Toxics A to Z: A Guide to
Brown, Lester et al., editors. 1996. State of the Everyday Pollution Hazards. Berkeley:
World, 1995. New York: Norton. (Series University of California Press.
published annually since 1984.) Last, John M. 1995. A Dictionary of
Collin, Peter. 1992. Dictionary of Ecology and the Epidemiology. (Third Edition.) New York:
Environment. (Second Edition.) Middlesex, Oxford University Press.
England: Peter Collin Publishing. Lawrence, Eleanor. 1989. Henderson’s Dictionary
Cooper, Sr., Andre R. 1995. Cooper’s Pocket of Biological Terms. (Tenth Edition.) Essex,
Environmental Compliance Dictionary. New England: Longman.
York: Van Nostrand. Lisella, Frank S., editor. 1994. The VNR
Crump, Andy. 1993. Dictionary of Environment Dictionary of Environmental Health and Safety.
and Development: People, Places, and New York: Van Nostrand.
Organizations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Miller, Jr., G. Tyler. 1994. Living in the
Daly, Herman E. and John B. Cobb, Jr. 1994. For Environment. (Eighth Edition.) Belmont, CA:
the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Wadsworth.
toward Community, the Environment, and a National Research Council. 1989. Alternative
Sustainable Future. (Second Edition.) Boston: Agriculture. Washington, DC: National
Beacon Press. Academy Press.
Daly, Herman E. and Kenneth N. Townsend, Norgaard, Richard B. 1994. Development
editors. 1993. Valuing the Earth: Economics, Betrayed: The End of Progress and a
Ecology, Ethics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Coevolutinary Revisioning of the Future. New
Dashefsky, H. Steven. 1993. Environmental York: Routledge.
Literacy: Everything that You Need to Know Pearce, David W. and Jeremy J. Warford. 1993.
about Saving Our Planet. New York: Random World without End: Economics, Environment,
House. and Sustainable Development. Cambridge:
Eblen, Ruth A. and William R. Eblen, editors. Oxford University Press.
1994. The Encyclopedia of the Environment. Rutherford, Donald. 1992. Dictionary of
Boston: Houghton and Mifflin. Economics. London: Routledge.
23
United Nations. 1994. Human Development World Bank. 1994. World Development Report,
Report, 1994. New York: Oxford University 1994. New York: Oxford University Press.
Press. World Resources Institute. 1994a. The
Van Dieren, Wouter, editor. 1995. Taking Nature Information Please Environmental Almanac.
into Account. New York: Springer-Verlag. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Welsh, Brian W.W. and Pavel Butorian, editors. _____. 1994b. World Resources, 1994-1995.
1990. Dictionary of Development: Third World New York: Oxford University Press.
Economy, Environment, Society. New York:
Garland.
24
ISSN 0097–0484
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This publication from the Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service

has been archived. Current information is available from http://www.ksre.ksu.edu.

This glossary contains general definitions of over 500 terms related

Abiota—The nonliving component of an ecosys- Agenda 21—One of several documents emerg-

Chemical—An element or compound naturally Clear-cutting—A logging practice in which a ma-

Conventional agriculture—Agricultural prac- Deep ecology—The environmental ethic main-

Environmental degradation—Depletion or de- European Community—A group of 12 coun-

Fertilizer—A substance containing chemical ele- G-7—See Group of 7.

Hazardous waste—Waste possessing chemical, Incineration—Burning wastes for purposes of

Ozone—The gaseous form of oxygen. Pesticide treadmill—A situation in which more

Sustainable agriculture—Agricultural practices Tragedy of the commons—The tendency for

Agricultural Experiment Station, Kansas State University, Manhattan 66506-4008

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