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Medieval Indian History
Index
Chapter-1: EARLY MEDIVIAL INDIA AND TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE ____________ 2
Chapter-2: RAJPUT KINGDOMS AND ARAB INVASION_____________________ 14
Chapter-3: IMPORTANT REGIONAL KINGDOMS ____________________________ 21
Chapter-4: DELHI SULTANATE I (THE SLAVES AND KHILJI DYNASTY) _____ 23
Chapter-5: DELHI SULTANATE II [TUGHLAQS, SAYYIDS AND LODHIS] _____ 31
Chapter-6: INDIA UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE _________________________ 37
Chapter-7: BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT _______________________________ 41
Chapter-8: VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI EMPIRE _______________________ 54
Chapter-9: MUGHAL EMPIRE I [BABUR, HUMAYUN, SHER SHAH] __________ 64
Chapter-10: MUGHAL EMPIRE II __________________________________________ 68
Chapter-11: MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION, ART AND CULTURE ______________ 72
Chapter-12: THE MARATHAS_____________________________________________ 75
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Chapter-1
EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA AND TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE
After death of Harsha (647 AD), there was no political unity in north India for about five centuries. The
country was split up into a number of states which were constantly fighting and changing their frontiers.
The important kingdoms in north India were Kashmir, Gandhara, Sind, Gujarat, Kanauj, Ajmir,
Malwa, Bengal and Assam. In the early eighth century Kashmir was dominant. Then, Palas of Bengal
reigned supreme till Pratiharas became the most powerful rulers of north India. But in tenth century,
Rashtrakutas of Deccan tried to extend their power in north India but ultimately failed in their attempt.
Northern India: Age of the Three Empires (750–1000)

● The Gurjara−Pratiharas (who dominated western India and upper Gangetic valley till the
middle of the 10th century), the Palas (who ruled over eastern India till the middle of the 9th
century), the Rashtrakutas (who dominated Deccan and also controlled territories in north and
south India) kingdoms were constantly fighting with each other with aim to set up their control
on Gangetic region in northern India and for status of Chakravartin.
● This conflict among these three powers is often described as the ‗Tripartite struggle‘.
● Out of these 3, Rashtrakutas emerged as most powerful and their empire lasted for max time.
The Palas of Bengal

 Timeline: a750–1161 AD
 In 8th century CE, Gopala (750–770 AD) laid the foundation of Pala dynasty and known as
"Kingdom of Dharma''.
 ‗Pala‘ meant ―protector‖ in the ancient language of Prakrit.
 Pala kingdom included Bengal and Bihar, which included the major cities of Pataliputra,
Vikrampura, Ramvati (Varendra), Monghyr (Munger), Tamralipti and Jaggadala.
 The region witnessed invasions by Yashovarmana of Kannauj, Lalitaditya of Kashmir, and even
of a Chinese army.
 Pala kings were followers of Buddhism, especially Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism.
 They greatly promoted this religion by making monasteries (viharas) and temples in eastern
India. The Pala legacy is still reflected in Tibetan Buddhism.
 The Pala period is considered one of golden eras in the history of Bengal. The Palas brought
stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war between warring divisions.
Important Rulers of Pala Dynasty
Gopala  According to Khalimpur copper plate Inscription of Dharmapala,
(around c.750 CE) Gopala is the Founder of the Dynasty.
 Gopala built famous Buddhist Mahavihara (monastery) at Odantapuri
in Bihar.
Dharmapala  Founded the Vikramshila monastery in Bhagalpur, Bihar
(c.770−810 CE)  He also founded the Somapuri monastery near Bihar
 He patronised Haribhadra, a Buddhist philosopher.
 Buddhist scholar Santarakshita founded the philosophical school
known as Yogacara- Svatantrika-Madhyamika during his reign
 Dharmapala held a grand assembly (durbar) at Kannauj to assert
influence and consolidate his power over northern India.
 Titles: Paramesvara, Parambhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja.


Devapala  Extended empire to include Pragyoytishpur/Kamarupa (Assam), parts of
(c. 810−850 CE) Orissa (Utkala) and modern Nepal.
 He was also a great patron of Buddhism.
 His court poet was a Buddhist scholar, Vajradatta, who is the author of
the Lokesvarasataka.
 The Pala empire was called ―Ruhimi or Ruhma Dharma‘‘ by the Arab
merchant Sulaiman, who visited India in the middle of the 9th century.
Mahipala I  After a short lived decline, the fortunes of the Palas were restored under
(c. 977−1027 CE) Mahipala I in the late 10th century.
 He defended Pala bastions in Bengal and Bihar against Chola invasions,
but was defeated by Rajendra Chola.
Ramapala  The last strong Pala ruler, who gained control of Kamarupa and
(c. 1072−1126 CE ) Kalinga and again revived Pala fortunes in the 11th century.
 He was mentioned in Sandhyakar Nandi‘s Ramcharita, which
describes Kaivarta peasant rebellion.
Important aspects of Palas of Bengal

● Monarchical set up
● Kings appointed Prime Ministers.
● Empire divided into Bhukti (provinces), and Mandala (districts) or Visaya
(divisions).
● Governor of province was called Uparika and head of a district, Visayapati.
Administration
● Some Important Offices:
o Maha-sandhi Vigraha- foreign minister
o Duta- Head Ambassador
o Sasthadhikarta- Tax collector
o Mahaksapatalika- Accountant
● Palas were patrons of Mahayana Buddhism.
● Also patronised shaivism and vaishnavism.
Society and ● Land grants were made by the king to Brahmanas and Buddhists.
religion ● Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali were the languages in use in their kingdom.
 Islam first appeared in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased
trade between Bengal and the Middle East.
● Highest Military Officer- Mahasenapati.
Military ● According to contemporary accounts, Rashtrakutas had the best Infantry,
Pratiharas had the finest cavalry and Palas had the largest Elephant Force.
● They had navy used for both mercantile and defence purposes.
● Gaud Riti, new style of Sanskrit literature composition.
Cultural
 The proto-Bengali language developed under Pala rule as they laid the basis
Contribution
for the Bengali language.
● Patronised Nalanda university and founded Vikramshila
● Vikramshila and Somapura Monastery built by Dharmapal
● Bengali school of sculpture rise- influenced by Gupta Art.
Art and ● They built grand temples and monasteries, including the Somapura
Architecture Mahavihara, and patronised the great universities of Nalanda and
Vikramashila.
● Terracotta and blackstone sculpture


● Pala paintings are influenced by Vajrayana Buddhism.
● Wall paintings have been found at Saradh and Saraisthal in Nalanda district.
● Sompura Mahavihara in present-day Bangladesh is a World Heritage site.
● Patronised several Sanskrit scholars.
● Sridhar Bhatta wrote- ‗Nyaya Kundali‘
Literature ● Gaudapada wrote- ‗Agama Shastra‘
● Gauda riti, a style of composition developed during Palas.
● Account of Arab Merchant Sulaiman and Tibetian chronicles provides
information about Pala Empire.
Decline of Palas of Bengal

 Palas power was destroyed by Sena dynasty, under Vijayasena, dethroned Pala Empire in 12th
century.
 The subordinate rulers of Assam and Orissa assumed Independence.
 The noted Buddhist scholars, Santarakshita and Dipankara (called Atisa), were invited to Tibet,
and they introduced a new form of Buddhism there.
The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty (Western India)

 Timeline: 8th–11th Century AD
 Pratiharas (literally means door keeper) were also known as Gurjara−Pratiharas, as they
originated from the Gurjaras who were primarily pastoralists and fighters.
Important Rulers of Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty
Nagabhata I ● He is known for checking the invasion of the Arabs and offered the most
(c. 730–760 CE) successful resistance to the Arabs.
● He exercised control over the areas of Malwa, Rajputana, and Gujarat.
● Defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.
Vatsaraja ● He extended his rule over a large part of North India and made Kannauj
(c. 780–800 CE) in western U.P his capital.
● Vatsaraja‘s policy of expansion brought him into conflict with
Dharamapala, Pala King of Bengal and Bihar and Rashtrakuta king
Dhruva
● Thus began what is known as the ‗tripartite struggle‘.
● The most successful and popular ruler of Pratiharas.
● With the aid of feudatories such as Chedis and Guhilas, he won victories
Bhoja I/ Mihir over Palas & Rashtrakutas.
Bhoja ● He had his capital at Kannauj, which was also called Mahodaya.
(c.836−885 CE) ● In Barah copper plate inscription, there is mention of a military camp
i.e., Skandhavara at Mahodaya.
● ‗King Juzr‘ title given by Arab merchant, Sulaiman
● Also called ‗King Baura‘ by another Arab traveler, Al-Masudi.
● Devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of ‗Adivaraha.‘
Important aspects of Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty

● King was at highest position
Administration ● Important Officials:
o Kottapala- Highest officer of Fort
o Tantrapala- Representative of King in Samanta states


o Dutaka- Carry grants and order of king
o Baldhikrat- Chief of army
o Vynaharina- legal expert
● Entire state is divided into Bhuktis, Mandalas and Vishyas.
● The administration of the city looked after by council which are referred
as- ‗Goshthi‘,‘Panchakula‘, ‗Uttar Sobha‘
● Core army allied with feudatory troops.
Army ● Well known for Cavalry.
● Horses were imported from Central Asia and Arabia.
● According to Al Masudi, the army had four Division
● Caste system was prevalent
● Each caste was divided into different classes.
Society and
● Women learnt music, dancing, and painting.
Religion
● It was the age of progress in the Brahmanical religion.
● Jainism and Buddhism were declining in this period.
● Carved temples, constructed and open pavilion styles
Art and ● Maru- Gurjara architecture developed during Gurjara Pratihara empire.
Architecture ● The greatest development of Gurjara−Pratihara style of temple building
took place at Khajuraho (a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
● Patrons of Sanskrit
Literature
● Great Sanskrit scholar Rajshekhara adorned in the court of
Mahendrapala I (famous work kavyamimansa)
Decline of Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty

Yashpala (c.1024–1036 CE) was last ruler of this dynasty. Finally in 11th century CE, they were
wiped off from the political map by Ghaznavids and their rule was succeeded by Chahamanas or
Chauhans in Rajputana, Chalukyas or Solankis in Gujarat and Paramaras or Pawars in Malwa.
The Rashtrakutas (Deccan)

 Timeline: 753-975 AD
 ‗Rashtrakuta‘ means chief of rashtra (a division or kingdom).
 Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and Kannada language was their mother tongue.
Dantidurga was founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
 Rashtrakutas were originally known to be feudatories of Western Chalukyas of Vatapi. Though
Rashtrakutas were early rulers, greatest ruler of the dynasty was Dandidurga (meaning he whose
elephant is his fortress).
 Capital was Manyakheta or Malkhed near Solapur.
 They achieved spectacular military successes in the north and south and in the tripartite struggle
they mostly defeated the Palas and the Pratiharas.
Important Rulers of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Dantidurga ● Founder of dynasty
(c. 733−756 CE) ● Feudatory of Chalukya king, Kirtivarman-II, who later founded the
Rashtrakuta kingdom
● He defeated Gurjaras and captured Malwa
● He annexed the Chalukya Kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman.
Krishna I ● Brought major portions of present day Karnataka and Konkan under his


(c.756−774 CE) control.
● Gave the final blow to Pallavas.
● Built the magnificent rock-cut Kailashnatha Temple at Ellora
Dhruva ● He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, defeated Gurjara−Pratiharas
(c. 780−793 CE) (Nagabhata II) and Palas of Bengal (Dharmapala).
● Rashtrakutas became a Pan-Indian power during his rule.
Govind III ● He emerged victorious in the tripartite struggle.
(c.793−814 CE) ● Defeated Pala king Dharmapala, wrestled Malwa from Pratihara king
Nagabhata II.
 Popular for cultural development.
 Follower of Jainism.
 Jinasena (the writer of Adipuran and Mahapuran) was chief preceptor.
 Also built rashtrakuta capital Malkhed or Manyakhed.
Amoghavarsha  He wrote the ‗Kavirajamarga‘ – the earliest Kannada work on poetics and
I the ‗Prasnottara‘ ‗Ratna Malika‘ in Sanskrit.
(c.814−878 CE)  Because of his religious temperament and peace-loving nature, he is often
compared to emperor Ashoka and called ―Ashoka of the South‖
Out of these 3, Rashtrakutas emerged as the most powerful and their empire lasted for most time.
Important Aspects of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

● Centralised administration
● Position of Ministers by Hereditary
Administration ● Provinces called rashtras, which divided into Vishayas or districts governed
by Vishyapatis
● Bhukti- Collection of Villages (50-60) under control of Bhogapatis
● Village headman called Gram Mahattara
● Hindu sects of Vaishnavism and Shaivism flourished during the period of
Rashtrakutas.
Society ● They led Patronage to Jainism as well.
● There were some popular Buddhist settlements at Kanheri, Sholapur,
Dharwar.
● There was a college at Salotgi, situated in modern Bijapur.
● Hereditary revenue officers called Nad Gaundas and Desha Gramuktas
Revenue and ● Arab trade promoted
Economy ● Rashrakutas also acted as bridge between north and south India in
economic and cultural arenas.
● Patronised Sanskrit
● Jain literature flourished during Amoghvarsha
● Trivikrama wrote- ‗Nalachampu‘(during Indra III's reign)
● Halayudha composed- ‗Kavirahasya‘ during reign of Krishna III
● Viracharya a great mathematician at Amoghvarsha's court wrote
Literature
Ganitasarsangraha
● Kannada literature- Kavirajamarga first poetic work
● Pampa, Ponna- Kannada poet
● Pampa- famous work was ‗Vikramasenavijaya‘.
● Great Apbhramsha poet Svayambhu and his son lived in Rashtrakuta
court.



Kashi Vishvanatha temple and Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in
modern Karnataka - both are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
 Kailasa temple at Ellora (designated as UNESCO World Heritage Site in
1983) during Krishna I.
o Monolithic architecture consists of entrance gateway, an intermediate
shrine for Nandi, Mandapa surrounding the courtyard.
o Temple stands on 25 feet high lofty plinth
o Central face of the plinth has figures of lion and elephants
o It has 3 tiered ‗Shikhara‘ resembling of Mamallapuram Rathas
Art and
o Sculpture of Goddess Durga is shown.
Architecture
o Scene of Ramayana – Mountain Kailasa scene depicted on walls.
 Instrumental in establishing Karnata Dravida style.
● Sculptural art at Elephanta [originally called Sripuri] near Mumbai:
(Portuguese named it Elephanta)
o Close similarity in Ellora and Elephanta
o Might have been carved by same craftsmen.
o Around Sanctum (Shrine) there are niches containing images of shivas in
forms- Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanarishvara, Somaskanda.
o Most imposing figure of the temple is ‗Trimurti‘ (aka Sadashiva and
Maheshmurti) - represents 3 aspects of Shiva.
Tripartite Struggle (Kannauj Triangle Wars):

● Tripartite Struggle was three-way struggle of Pratihara, Pala and Rashtrakuta Empire.
Tripartite struggle was for control of Northern India in 9th century.
● Conflict started during the reign of Vatsaraja-Pratihar, he attacked Dharmapala, a Pala king.
● During this Conflict Dhruva, Rashtrakuta king
launched an attack on Vatsaraja.
● Dharmapala (Pala) defeated by Vatsaraja
(Pratihar), Vatsaraja defeated by
Dhruva(Rashtrakuta) and later Dhruva defeated
Dharmapala.
● Later Vatsaraja was succeeded by Nagabhatta, who
defeated Dharmapala (Pala Ruler); this victory was
short-lived by Govinda III‘s (Rashtrakutas) attack.
● Bhoja was most illustrious king of Pratihara
restored lost glory, he led expedition against
Devpala (Pala)
● Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta) came into conflict with palas and got success, Bhoja also took
advantage of weak Pala condition and attacked
● Pala suffered a crushing defeat and Bhoja annexed Western part of the empire.
● Bhoja made Kannauj as his capital of Pratihar Empire.
● After Devpala the Palas glory came to end later Sena dynasty succeeded Pala in Bengal.
Imperial Cholas
● After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas became feudatories in Uraiyur.
● They became prominent in the ninth century and established an empire comprising the major
portion of South India.


● Their capital was Tanjore. They also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Malay
Peninsula. Therefore, they are called as the Imperial Cholas.
● Cholas were an earlier feudatory of Pallavas.
● The Cholas, famous in Indian history for their local self-government, founded a mighty empire in
southern India during c. 850−1200 CE.
● The relationship between these Cholas, called the ‗Imperial Cholas of Tanjore‘, with the earlier
Cholas mentioned in Sangam literature is not very clear.
● The Cholas came to power after overthrowing the authority of the Pallavas in South India. This
empire brought under its control a large part of the peninsula.
● The founder of the Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya (9th century CE).
Important Rulers of Chola Dynasty:

Vijayalaya ● Founder of the Chola empire, earlier a feudatory of the Pallavas.
(around 850 CE) ● Captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 848 CE
● Successor of Vijayalaya who achieved significant military successes.
● At battle of Thirupurambiyam, he allied with Pallavas and defeated
Pandyas and as recompense received some territories in the Tanjore area.
Aditya I ● He put an end to the Pallava kingdom by defeating Aparajita and annexed
(871−907 CE) Tondaimandalam.
● He entered into a matrimonial alliance with Pallavas by marrying a
Pallava princess.
● He captured Madurai and took titles of ―Madurantakam‖ (destroyer of
Madurai) and Maduraikonda (capturer of Madurai).
● He was defeated by Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III at battle of Takkolam.
● Krishna III assumed the title of ‗Conqueror of Kanchi and Tanjai‘ and
Parantaka I the Rashtrakuta army overran the Tondaimandalam
( 907−953 CE) ● Parantaka I was Great Builder, who provided Vimanas to various
temples.
● Provided Vimana to Nataraja temple of Chidambaram with a golden
roof.
● Greatest Chola ruler, who helped raise the Chola Empire to become the
largest dominion in South India till the 13th century.
● He defeated Chera ruler Bhaskaravivarman.
● He defeated the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga.
● He captured Madurai and annexed northern Sri Lanka and named it
Mummadichola mandalam.
● He also conquered the Maldives islands.
Arumolivarman/ ● He led a naval expedition against the Sailendra Empire (Malaya
Rajaraja I peninsula) and expanded Chola trade with China.
(985−1014 CE) ● His Empire: Included pandya, Chera, tondaimandalam regions of
TamilNadu and Gangavadi and northern parts of Ceylon and Maldives
Islands beyond India.
● He was a follower of Saivism.
● Titles: Mummidi Chola, Jayakonda and Sivapadasekara.
● In c.1010 CE he constructed Rajarajeshwara or Brihadeshwara
temple, dedicated to Shiva at Thanjavur (Tanjore). This temple is also
called the Rajaraja temple.


● He also helped in construction of Buddhist Monastery at
Nagapattinam.
● During his reign he developed and re-organised an excellent revenue
system wherein land was surveyed and then revenue was assessed. He
was referred to as Ulakalanada Perumal i.e the great one who measured
the earth.
● He introduced a land measurement system called ‗ Kadamb‘.
● Continued the Chola territorial expansion.
● He completed victory over Ceylon by defeating king Mahinda V
● He defeated the Pala ruler, Mahipal I and the Western Chalukyas.
● He defeated the West Chalukya king- Jayasimha II, Tungabhadra was the
boundary in between empires.
● Successful North Indian Campaign crossing Ganga.
● Assumed the title ‗ Gangaikondachola‘.
● Established a new capital named ―Gangaikondacholapuram‖ (meaning
‗city of Chola conqueror of the Ganga‘)
Rajendra I
● Led naval expedition to Kadaram or Sri Vijaya, only temporary
(1014−1044 CE) annexation. He assumed title- ‗Kadaramkondan‘
● In 1025 CE, a successful naval expedition over Malay peninsula,
Sumatra, Java & neighbouring islands and controlled the overseas
trade route to China.
● Bay of Bengal was converted into a ‗Chola lake‘
● Also called Napoleon of SouthIndia/ Pandita Chola/ Uttam Chola.
● Titles Assumed: Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadamaramkondan,
Pandita Cholan.
● He was a follower of Shaivism, but was tolerant of other sects.
Decline of Cholas:
● Later rulers such as Kulottunga II, Rajaraja II and Kulothunga III tried to maintain Chola empire
but Chola power gradually declined and dynasty came to an end in the 13th century.
● The place of the Cholas were taken by Pandyas and Hoysalas in the south, and of the later
Chalukyas by the Yadavas and the Kakatiyas.
● Finally, in the beginning of 14th century, they were destroyed by the Sultans of Delhi.
Chola Administration:
● King was referred to as Ko-Perumal, perumal adigal (the great one), Raja-
rajadhiraja and ko-konmai kondan (king of kings).
Central
● The empire known as Rajyam or Rastrayam was divided into eight
Government mandalams (provinces) each governed by a governor/Viceroys.
● There was an elaborate administrative mechanism comprising various
officials called ‗Perundanam‘ and‘Sirudanam‘.
● Empire was divided in Mandalams and each mandalam into Valanadus
and Nadus. Each Nadus had autonomous villages.
Provincial ● Autonomous villages played a key role in the Chola administration system.
Government ● Royal princes- charge of Mandalam; Valanadu under –Periyanattar;
Nadu under—Nattar.
● Town was called nagaram- under administration of council called


‗Nagarattar‘.
● The administration was facilitated by the shrenis or pugas (guilds), which
were like some autonomous corporate organisations having persons
belonging to the same craft.
● Cholas were famous for their local self-government model, which can be
considered as one of the earliest examples of the Panchayati Raj System.
● The system of village autonomy with Sabhas and committees reached its
top during cholas.
● The Chola village assembly was the absolute proprietor of the village lands
and also of the newly acquired lands.
Village ● The famous Uttiramerur inscriptions give detailed accounts of Village
Assemblies administration of Cholas and functions of village councils, belong to
Parantaka I reign.
● Village was divided into 30 wards, each nominating its member to village
council.
● One member was nominated for each ward by the Kudavolai system for
a year.
● Land Revenue Dept was well organised, called ‗Puravu-varithi-
naikkalam‘.
● Land revenue officials were given salaries and called ‗Jiwita‘.
● Residential portion of village called ‗ur nattam‘- exempted from Tax.
● Temple lands were exempted from taxes as well.
● Source of Revenue: Land revenue, customs on goods, professional taxes,
dues levied on occasions like marriages and judicial fines.
● The main items of government expenditure were the king and his court, army
and navy, roads, irrigation tanks and canals.
● In hard times , there was the remission of taxes. [Kulottunga I became
Revenue famous by abolishing tolls- assumed title ‗Sungam tavirtta cholan‘.]
Administration ● The tax rates were fixed depending on the fertility of the soil and the status
of the landholder.
● Ur: The general assembly of the local residents of non-brahmadeya villages
to discuss matters without any formal rule or procedure.
● Agraham: gathering of the adult men in the Brahman villages
● Agrahara: Bramana villages whose tax was exempted
● The Mahasabha possessed the propriety rights over communal lands and
controlled the private lands within its jurisdiction
● The main source of income of the Chola Empire was the land revenue, which
was normally 1/6th of the produce.
 Various types of committees like tank committee was an important feature.
 In Chola empire, there was an expansion in agrarian economy and various
factors attributed to it such as extension of the margin of agriculture through
Development land reclamation, the spread of irrigation techniques, and an expansion in the
of Irrigation range of crops. Use of Agrahatta (Persian wheel for irrigation) also
Systems facilitated already established smooth irrigation networks of tanks, canals,
wells and sluices.
 The irrigation work done by Rajendra Chola I at Gangaikonda Cholapuram
was an embankment of solid masonry. He described it as his Jalamayam


Jayasthambham, meaning ―pillar of victory in water‖. He built an
irrigation tank called Cholagangam near the capital called Jala-stambha
(water-pillar). It became coronation centre, which was a Chola landmarks.
 Vati-Vaykkal, a criss-cross channel, is a traditional way of harnessing
rainwater in the Kavery delta. Vati is a drainage channel and a Vaykkal is a
supply channel.
 The Cholas also paid attention to irrigation. The river Kaveri and other rivers
were used for this purpose.
 The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of elephants,
cavalry, infantry and navy. About seventy regiments were mentioned in the
inscriptions.
 The royal troops were called Kaik-kolaperum-padai. Within this there was
Military
a personal troop to defend the king known as Velaikkarar.
Administration
 Attention was given to the training of the army and military cantonments
called kadagams existed. The Cholas paid special attention to their navy.
The naval achievements of Tamils reached its climax under the Cholas.
 They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts. In fact, the Bay of
Bengal became a Chola lake for sometime.
 Two guild-like groups are known:
o Anjuvan-nattar were maritime traders comprising West Asians,
Development including Jews, Christians and Muslims. They settled all along the port
of Trade towns on the west coast.
o Manigra-mattar were traders in the hinterland. Vetti and amanji
were forms of free labour related to public works at the village level.
Chola Society and Economy:

● Chola society was primarily an agrarian society where landholding was the
prime determinant of social status and hierarchy. Caste system was widely
prevalent.
● Brhamans and Kshatriyas enjoy special privileges.
● Sati was prevalent among royal families.
● Devdasi system or dancing girl attached to temples emerged.
● Status of the Paraiyar (untouchables) continued to be pathetic.
● Vellallas (farming groups) were Shudra varna but they were land holders and
were an economically powerful group.
● Paniceymakkal (Labourers) and Adimaigal (slaves) stayed at the bottom
Society of the social hierarchy.
● A crucial and unique development was the emergence of a supra caste
dichotomy (Division among Castes) known as-
o Idangai : Consisted mainly of artisanal and trading groups.
o Valangai : Consisted mainly of agricultural groups
● Both Shaivism and Vaishnavism flourished, and Mathas had great
importance.
● Temples were given to Brhamanas by rulers.
● Temples were gifted land known as Devadana, exempted from tax, as in
Brahmadeyams.
Economy ● Both agriculture and industry flourished.


● Kanchipuram emerged as important weaving industry centre (Silk
Weaving).
● Kudamukku was a prominent centre of betel nut and areca nut cultivation
as well as an important centre of crafts such as metal works, coin minting
and textiles.
● Commerce and trade were carried out through trunk roads or peruvazhis and
merchant guilds.
● Coins: Gold, silver, copper with different denominations.
● Commercial contacts: China, Sumatra, Java, Arabia (Arabian Horses
imported)
● Units of land measurement were known by various names such as kuli, ma,
veli, patti, and padagam.
● Palaiyarai was another important administrative centre and residential capital
of the Cholas.
Terms Concept
Muttaiyal/Vetti Obligation of villagers to provide labour services to
/Kudimai state officials
Kadamai Land revenue collected in kind.
Ur-nattam or ur- Residential quarter of the landowning farmers.
irukkai
Kamma-nacheri Residential quarter of the artisans
Paraicheri Residential quarter of agricultural labourers
Vellalar Cultivating groups.
Paraiyar Socially separated group of people
Nettal Compulsory labour
Chola‘s Cultural Contribution:

● Temple architecture in south attained its climax under the Cholas.
● Chola temples were found at Narthamalai, Kodumbalur in Pudukkottai
district and in Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli.
● The style of architecture which came into vogue during this period is called
Dravida style.
● The main feature of this style was the building of many storeys above the
Garbhagriha (the innermost chamber where the chief deity resides).
● No of storeys varied and had a typical style which came to be called
Vimana.
Chola Art and ● A pillared hall called Mandap, with elaborately carved pillars and a flat roof
Architecture is an Audience Hall.
● This entire structure was enclosed in a courtyard surrounded by high walls,
which were pierced by lofty gates called Gopurams.
● An early example of the Dravidian style of temple architecture is the eighth
century temple of Kailasanath at Kanchipuram.
● Similarly, the Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore is another fine specimen of
Dravida style. Brihadiswara temple was built by Rajaraja I. This is also
called the Rajaraja temple. It consists of vimana, ardhamandapa,
mahamandapa and Nandimandapa.
● Temple of Hoysalesvara which is a fine example of Chalukyan style


represents a mixed style of Nagara and Dravida.
● The art of sculpture attained high standard during this period as evident in
the giant statue of Gomateswar at Sravan Belgola.
● The dancing figure of Shiva called the Nataraja belongs to this period and
is considered to be a bronze masterpiece. Chola sculptures exemplified a
harmony of energy, grace, and dignity.
● Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I.
● Great Living Chola Temples (UNESCO):
o Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur built by Rajaraja.
o Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikonda-cholisvaram built by Rajendra I.
o Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram built by Rajaraja II (1146–1172).
● Besides temples, Mathas were important as educational centres.
● Inscriptions at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai provide
details of colleges that existed in these places.
● Subjects: Vedas, epics,Mathematics, Medicine were taught.
● A number of popular saints called Nayannars and Alvars who were
devotees of Shiva and Vishnu respectively, flourished in the Tamil kingdoms
between the sixth and the ninth centuries.
● Kamban‘s Ramayana is another classic gem of this period.
● Sivakasintamani written by Thiruakkadevar.
● Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpranam composed by Sekkilar, were
Education and masterpieces.
Literature ● Moovarula, written by Ottakuthar, depicts the life of 3 chola kings.
● Jayankondar‘s Kalingattu-parani describes kalinga war fought by Kulottunga
I.
● The famous trinity of Pampa (who composed Vikramarjuna-vijaya, known
popularly as Pampa Bharat), Ponna, and Ranna were the three most priced
jewels of Kannada poetry.
● The Chola king Rajaraja I built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam
on the Tamil Coast.
● The Sailendras also built a beautiful temple dedicated to Buddha at
Barabodur in Java.
******

Chapter-2
RAJPUT KINGDOMS AND ARAB INVASION
1. The period from c. 1000 to 1200 CE in northern India is primarily known as the age of conflict.
It resulted in breakdown of the tripartite powers (Rashtrakutas, Palas, and Pratiharas) into many
smaller kingdoms all over the country.
2. After fall of the Gurjar-Pratihara Empire, several Rajput states emerged in north India. The most
significant of these were Paramaras of Malwa, Chandellas in Bundelkhand, Chaulukyas,
(Solankis) of Gujarat, Chauhans of Ajmer and the Gahadavalas of Kanauj.
3. The four Agnikula (myth wherein these clans emerged out of the sacrificial fire of sage
Vashishta on Mount Abu) Rajput clans:
 The Pratiharas (discussed earlier)
 The Chahamanas/Chauhans of Ajmer.
 The Chandellas of Bundelkhand.
 The Paramaras of Malwa.
Important Rajput Dynasties

1. Emergence of Rajputs was the combined outcome of
death of Harshvardhana and disintegration of the
Pratihara Empire.
2. Dominance of Rajputs began from 7th and 8th
centuries & lasted till Muslim conquest in 12th century.
3. In period of Muslim period, Rajputs were main
defenders of the Hindu Religion and Culture.
4. Important kingdoms in north India were: Kashmir,
Gandhara, Sind, Gujarat, Kanauj, Ajmer, Malwa,
Bengal, Assam.
5. Most powerful Rajputs were: Gahadvalas of Kannauj,
Paramaras of Malwa and Chauhans of Ajmer and others
like Kalchuris, Chandellas in Bundelkhand, Chalukyas
of Gujarat, Tomars of Delhi.
6. Theory of Origin of Rajputs:
 There are several theories about origin of Rajputs.
They were considered as the descendents of the foreign invaders and the Indian Kshatriyas.
 The Rajputs were the descendants of Lord Rama or Lord Krishna or the Lord who sprang
from the sacrificial fire called the Agni Devta according to the AgniKula Theory.
 The Gurjara-Pratiharas were the earliest of the Rajput rulers. Its first great leader was
Harischandra.
Rajput Kingdoms Some Details
● Capital: Delhi
● Founder: Vasudeva
Chauhan/Chahman ● Vigraharaj was an important king, who occupied Delhi.
of Delhi-Ajmer ● Prithvi Raj Chauhan (1168-92) is one of the rulers who was throned at
(7th cent–1192) Delhi; he ruled from the twin capitals of Delhi and Ajmer.
● He fought 2 battles with Muslim invader Mohammad Ghori.
o First Battle of Tarain (1191): Prithvi Raj defeated Muhammad


Ghori
o Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Muhammad Ghori defeated
Prithvi Raj Chauhan.
● Prithviraj Raso: Military conquests of Prithviraj have been described
in the epic poem Prithviraj Raso composed by Chand Bardai.
● Capital: Avanti Kannauj
Pratihara/Parihar ● Founder: Nagbhatta–I
of Kannauj ● Gurjara-Pratiharas were earliest of the Rajput rulers. Its greatest ruler
(730–1036) was Mihir Bhoja or Bhoja I(836-885AD).
● Tripartite struggle with Palas and Rashtrakuts for Northen supremacy.
● Capital: Dharanagar (modern Dhar, MP)
● Paramaras of Malwa were originally based in Mount Abu area of
Rajasthan.
● Paramaras of Malwa rose on ruins of the Pratihara empire of Kanauj.
● Parmar Bhoja (1010-1055AD) was one of the important rulers.
● Adopted the title of Parameshvara-Paramabhattaraka.
● Bhoja tried to regenerate Hindu society & fought against muslims.
Paramaras of ● Apart from a great warrior, he was an accomplished scholar.
Malwa ● He constructed a Sanskrit college called Bhojshala at his capital.
(790-1150)  He is said to have founded the city of Bhojpur, credited with building
of not only Bhojeshwar temple but also three dams in that area. He is
often compared to the fabled Vikramaditya.
● His famous books were:
o Ayurveda Sangraha
o Yukti Kalpataru
o Samarangana Sutradhara (deals with architecture).
● Later Alauddin Khilji captured Malwa
● Tomaras ruled Haryana with their capital at Dhillika (Delhi) and they
are believed to be a feudatory of the Pratiharas.
● Founder: Angapala I
● Anangpal II was founder of Dhillikapuri, which eventually became
Delhi.
 Iron pillar at Mehrauli carries an 11th century inscription which refers
Tomars of Delhi to one of most famous kings of Tomara dynasty, Anangapala Tomara
● Anangapala II was the founder of the citadel of Lal Kot in the Mehrauli
area and also built a tank known as the Anang Tal.
● The Tomaras were associated with the construction of the earliest
surviving waterworks in the Delhi area.
● Similarly, the famous Suraj Kund reservoir (near Faridabad, Haryana)
is said to have been commissioned by a Tomara king named Surajpala.
● Capital: Mahoba
● Founder: Nannuka
● Kalinjar one of famous fort
Chandellas of
● Lakshmana Temple (c. 930–950 CE), Vishvanatha Temple (c. 999-
Jijakbhukti
1002 CE), and Kendariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE) were
constructed during reigns of Chandella rulers Yashovarman, Dhanga,
and Vidyadhara respectively


● After this the Chandellas sank into obscurity and Bundelkhand was
passed into the hands of the Muslims.
● Branch of Pala ruler
● Chandradeva founded Gahadavala dynasty of Kannauj around c. 1090
CE. They gradually squeezed Palas out of Bihar and made Banaras a
second capital.
Gahadavalas of
● Founder: Chandradeva
Kannauj
● Major cities: Kashi, Ayodhya, Kannauj
● Last great ruler: Last great ruler of this dynasty was Jaichandra well
known in popular legend as Raja Jaichand(1170-1194) (Battle of
Chandawar 1194AD).
● The state of Chedi was situated between Narmada and Godavari rivers,
and was ruled by the Kalachuri dynasty.
● Founder: Kokala I
● Capital: Tripuri, near modern Jabalpur, MP
Chedis of Tripuri ● The Kalachuri dynasty consists of two kingdoms, one ruling over
Central India called ―Chedi‖, and the other ―Haihaya‖ ruled over
Southern India (Karnataka).
● Important ruler of this dynasty named Gangeya Deva (1015-1040) was
contemporary of the Chandela king Ganda.
● It ruled parts of Gujarat and Kathiawar between c.950 and 1300 CE
● Capital: Anhilwara
● Bhima I (c. 1022 – 1064 CE): During his reign, Mahmud of Ghazni
overran Gujarat and plundered Somnath in 1025 CE.
● He built the Sun temple of Modhera.
● His wife Udaymati built the Rani-ki vav (Queen‘s step well) in his
Solanki of Gujarats memory, which is on the list of UNESCO‘s World Heritage Sites.
● Ruler Kumarapala is said to have rebuilt the temple of Somnath
● Bhimadeva 2 and Muladeva 2 defeated Mohd Ghori in 1178 AD.
● Jain scholar: Hemchandracharya stayed in Siddharaj Jayasimha court
o Book: Siddhemshabdanushasam
● Solankies were dethroned by Waghelas/Vaghelas.
Overview of Rajput Life:

Rajput Society
● The basis of Rajput society was the clan. Every clan traced its descent from a common
ancestor, real or imaginary.
● Clans generally dominated a compact territory-based on units of 12 or 24 or 48 or 84 villages.
● Attachment to land, family and honour (maan) was a characteristic of the Rajputs.
● Each Rajput state was supposed to be ruled over by rana or rawat in conjunction with his
chiefs who were generally his blood brothers.
● The Rajputs treated war as a sport.
● Occupation: War was the chief occupation; trade and agriculture also prospered.
● Most of the Rajput rulers of the time were champions of Hinduism, though some of them also
patronised Jainism.
● They gave rich donations and grants of land to Brahmans and temples.
● Rajput rulers stood forth as protectors of privileges of the Brahmans and of the caste system


● Caste system:
o Disparity: The society suffered also because there was a great disparity in the standard of
living of the people. They believed in caste and creed systems.
o Rich people: The ministers, officials, feudal chiefs belonged to upper class so they enjoyed
the privileges to accumulate wealth as they were entitled to live in luxury and splendour.
o Lower castes suffer: The lower castes suffered the animosities of feudal lords who looked
upon them like vultures.
o Ruthless treatment: Most of the workers like weavers, fishermen, barbers, etc. as well as
tribal people were treated very ruthlessly by their owners.
● Women condition:
o Lived in a handicapped society: Although honour of women was much defined and a
matter of utter dignity to Rajput‘s yet they lived in an inauthentic and handicapped society.
o Education inequality: The Rajput women of the lower class were denied the right to study
the Vedas. However, families of higher class received higher education. The laws for
women were very strict and harsh.
Contribution of Rajput‘s In Art and Architecture
● Temple building reaches its climax: Some of the most magnificent temples can be traced
back to this period.
● Nagara style: The style of temple construction which came into prominence was called the
nagara-the main centres of constructions in this style were in north India and the Deccan.
Main characteristic feature:
o Tall curved spiral roof over the garbhagriha or the deity room (deul).
o An anteroom (mandapa) was added to the sanctum sanctorum.
● Prominent temple:
o Parsvanatha temple, Visvanatha temple and Kendriya Mahadeo temple at Khajuraho
illustrate this style in its richest and most finished form.
o In Orissa, most magnificent examples of temple architecture of the time are Lingaraja
temple (eleventh century) and Sun temple of Konark (thirteenth century). The famous
Jaganatha temple at Puri also belongs to this period.
● Sculpture making: The rich and elaborate carvings on walls of the temples show that the art
of sculpture had attained its height.
● Most of these temples were built by the Chandellas.
● Additional infrastructure: Rajput was also known for building irrigation canals, dams, and
reservoirs which are still considered for their precision and high quality.
● Founded many cities: Foundations of many cities like Jaipur, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Bikaner,
were laid down by Rajput kings these cities were decorated with beautiful palaces and forts
and are today known as Heritage Cities
● Other: Victory Tower at fort of Chittor, Lake palace at Udaipur, Hawa Mahal and,
Astronomical Observatory by Sawai JaiSingh in 18th century are some astonishing examples
of very complexly built Rajput architecture.
Paintings
● Rajput works of art can be ordered into 2 schools- Rajasthani and Pahari schools of painting.
● The subjects of the artworks were enormously affected by the Bhakti religion and for the most
part portray scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata and Radha and Krishna in different
temperaments.
● The system of both the schools is same and both have made use of brilliant shades to explain
scenes from the lives of the basic individuals.


Literature During Rajputs
● Sanskrit flourished during this period under their patronage.
● Vastupala, the famous minister of the Chalukyan ruler Bhima in Gujarat, was a writer and
patron of scholars and builder of the beautiful Jain temple at Mt. Abu.
● Ujjain & Dhara, capitals of Paramara rulers, were famous centres for Sanskrit learning.
● Many works were written in Apabhramsha and Prakrit which represented regional
languages.
● The Jain scholars made significant contributions in this direction, the most famous among them
being Hemachandra who wrote both in Sanskrit and Apabhramsha.
● With revival of Brahmanism, Sanskrit supplanted Apabhramsha and Prakrit among the upper
classes.
● The modern north Indian languages, such as Hindi, Bengali and Marathi began to emerge
out of these popular languages during this period.
Rise And Spread Of Islam

 The period from the thirteenth to sixteenth centuries (1200-1550 CE) saw the arrival of
Islamic institutions and Islamic culture in India.
 In 7th century CE, a new religion called Islam was founded in Arabia by Muhammad (c.570–
632 CE), an Arab merchant from the city of Mecca who would later be known as the Prophet
Muhammad.
 In a very short span of time, Islam carved out an empire extending from North Africa to the
Iberian Peninsula, to Iran and India.
 This religion transformed the religious, political, and social life, not only of the people of Arabia
but also of many other parts of the world.
 Islam lays an emphasis upon the belief in one God (Allah) and its holy book, the Quran, which
is considered as the supreme authority in Islam as, according to Muslims, it was revealed by
Allah to the Prophet Muhammad.
 Advent of Islam in India: The Battle of Qadisiya brought the Arab armies to the frontier of al-
Hind. They struggled in the north-west and fought with small Hindu kingdoms for around four
centuries. Muhammad Bin Qasim eventually established Arab rule in Sind in 712 AD after
defeating King Dahir.
Arab and Turkish Invasion in India

1. The Arab Conquest of Sind
● The Islam was born at Mecca in Arabia, its
prophet Muhammad, migrated later to
Medina in 622 AD, which was start of
Muslim Calender and Muslim era (Hijra).
● The followers of Muhammad set up empire
called Caliphate. The Umayyads and
Abbasids were caliphs, expanded their
rule by conquests and spread their religion.
● By end of 8th century, Arabs connected
trade from Mediterranean and Indian
Ocean
● In c.712 CE, Arabs invaded India from the
north-west region (Sindh) under


Muhammad bin Qasim, who was a general of the Umayyad caliphate.
● Battle of Rewar: This battle was fought between Muhammad-bin-Qasim and Dahir the ruler
of Sind. Qasim captured Sind and Multan, and also organised administration of Sind.
● This military conquest is mentioned in the Chachnama, which is an early 13th century
Persian translation of an old Arabic history of Bin-Qasim.
● Arab conquest of Sind resulted in Spread of Islam in North Western India.
● Jizya, one kind of tax was imposed on non-Muslims.
● Many Arab travellers visited Sind. Indian medicine and astronomy were carried off lands
through the Arab.
● Islam was first introduced in India by Malik Ibn Dinar in 644 AD.
2. Turkish Invasion
● In 8th and 9th century, Turks dominated Caliphs in Baghdad, extended dominion beyond Sind
and Multan into India
● Ghazni in Afghanistan was ruled by a Turkish family called Gamini of the Ghaznavid
Dynasty.
● The Kingdom of Ghazni founded by Alptagin, slave of Samanid- amir of Bukhara.
3. Mahmud Ghazni‘s Invasion
● Muhmud Ghazni was first Turkish
conqueror of North India.
● In guise of Jihad he attacked India 17
times between 1000 and 1027 AD.
● In c.1000 CE, he first invaded
modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and
defeated Hindu Shahi ruler Jayapala
in the Battle of Waihind.
● In c.1008 CE, the Second Battle of
Waihind between Mahmud of
Ghazni and Anandapala (son of
Jayapala) was fought near Peshawar.
● In 1018, Mahmud plundered Mathura
and also attacked Kannauj.
● His next important and last campaign in India was against Gujarat when he sacked the
famous temple of Somnath in 1025 AD.
● He returned to Ghazna with enormous wealth after defeating- Jaipala, ruler of the Hindu
Shahi Dynasty, Fateh Daud of Multan, Anandpala of Nagarkot, the Chandelas, the rulers of
Mathura Kannauj, and Gwalior.
● He built a wide empire from Punjab to east of the Caspian Sea on the west and from
Samarkand in the north to Gujarat in South.
● He patronised three important people:
o Al Biruni – The scholar from central Asia, and the composer of the Kitab-ul-Hind
o Firdausi – The Persian poet called the Homer of the East, writer of the Shahnama
o Utbi – The court historian of Mahmud of Ghazni, writer of the Kitab-ud-Yamni
The Ghurid Dynasty and Muhammad Ghori

● The actual founder of the Islamic Empire in India was Shahabuddin Muhammad (also known
as Mui‘zz ud-din Muhammad bin Sam), popularly called Muhammad Ghori.


● His kingdom included parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran, India, Pakistan,
Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.
● Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, Muhammad Ghori was very much interested in establishing a
permanent empire in India and not merely looting its wealth
● In c. 1175 CE, he led his first expedition against Multan, which was largely successful.
● He again marched to conquer Gujarat but Chalukya ruler of Gujarat, Solanki Bhima II, defeated
him at the battle of Kayadara.
● He conquered Peshawar c.1179, Sindh in c.1182 CE Punjab and Lahore.
● First Battle of Tarain (c.1191 CE): Ghori‘s possession of Punjab and his attempt to advance
into Gangetic Doab brought him into direct conflict with Rajput ruler Prithivaraja Chauhan who
defeated Muizzuddin in the First Battle of Tarain.
● Second Battle of Tarain (c.1192 CE): This battle is regarded as one of the turning points in
Indian history, as Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated and Ghori emerged successful.
● Battle of Chandwar (c.1194 CE): Ghori defeated Jaichandra (ruler of Kannauj) of the
Gahadavalas dynasty.
● Conquest of Bengal and Bihar: One of the commanders of Muhammad of Ghori, Muhammad-
bin-Baktiyar Khilji, destroyed Vikramasila in 1202 and Nalanda Universities in 1203A.D.
● Thus, the battles of Tarain and Chandwar laid the foundations of Turkish rule in Northern India.
● Muhammad Ghori returned from India after giving Indian territories to Qutb-ud-din-Aibak, who
laid the foundation of the Slave Dynasty.
******

Chapter-3
IMPORTANT REGIONAL KINGDOMS
After the death of Harsha, there was no political unity in north India for about five centuries. The
country was split up into a number of states which were constantly fighting and changing their frontiers.
The important kingdoms in north India were Kashmir, Gandhara, Sind, Gujarat, Kanauj, Ajmir, Malwa,
Bengal and Assam. In the early eighth century Kashmir was dominant.
 Assam's history is shaped by the blend of Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan, and
Austro-asiatic cultures, drawing people from various directions.
 Ahoms, a Mongoloid tribe from northern Burma, established a potent Hinduized
kingdom in the 13th century, giving the region its name.
 They replaced the Bhuiyan system with a robust political order and relied on
Ahom‘s of
compulsory labor called Paiks, contributed by villages in rotation.
Assam
 In wartime, virtually all adult males served in the king's army.
 The "Buranjisis" chronicled Ahom history.
 Originally worshiping tribal gods, the Ahoms embraced Hinduism by the 17th
century while retaining some tribal cultural elements.
 Ahom society was organized into Khel or clans.
 Gond lived in vast forestland mentioned as Gondawana.
 ―Akbarnama‖ mention Gond kingdom in Garh Katanga.
 The kingdom was divided into:
Gonds o Garh
o Chaurasi (unit of 84 village below Garh)
o Bahot (divison of Chaurasi in 12 villages)
 The famous queen Durgawati belong to this dynasty.
 Gajapati dynasty was established by Kapilendra Deva in c.1435 CE, after the
fall of the last eastern Ganga king, Bhanudeva IV.
 ―Gajapati‖ etymologically means a king with an army of elephants.
Orissa  Narsinghdeo of this dynasty constructed Konark Temple.
 In the middle of the 15th CE there was rise of Gajpati rulers they ruled Orissa
until the end of Lodhi period.
 Mewar or Udaipur Kingdom was originally called Medhpaat and over time,
the name Medhpath became Mewar. Interestingly, rulers of Mewar used the
title ―Maharana‖ (Prime Minister or Custodian) instead of the typical title
―Maharaja‖ (King).
Mewar  Rana Kumbha (1433-1468 AD) was the most famous ruler.
 Rana kumbha wrote book like Sangeet Priya, Sudha Prabandh, Rasik Priya,
Kam Raja Ratisara etc.
 Kumbha erected a Victory Tower (Kirti Stambh) at Chittor a mark of victory
of his conquests. He also consolidated the fortification of Chittor and
constructed a road running through its seven doors.


 He was acclaimed as ‗Sangeet Shiromani‘ and wrote an outstanding treatise on
Indian music titled Sangeet-Raj as well as other works like Sangeet Mimansa,
Sangeet Ratnakar, and Sudprabhandh.
 In Rajatarangini (a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the mid- 12th
century) it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake.
 Zainul Abedeen was the greatest ruler of Kashmir. He also known as Bud Shah
(Great Sultan) and as Akbar of Kashmir who was benevolent, liberal, and an
enlightened ruler.
 He contributed to the agricultural development of Kashmir by constructing
dams and canals and initiated the maintenance of the agricultural records.
Kashmir  He also constructed ―Zaina Lanka‖ artificial island on the Wullur Lake.
 Many Sankrit works like Rajtarangini, Mahabharat were translated into Persian
under him.
 In c.1586 CE, Akbar conquered Kashmir and made it a part of the Mughal
Empire.
 Malik Sarwar laid the foundation of the Sharqi dynasty.
 Malik Muhammed Jaisi writer of ―Padmavat‖ was the court poet.
Sharaqi of  Jaunpur evolved a distinct architecture that is known as Sharqi style of
Jaunpuri architecture. Jaunpur was known as the Shiraz of India.
 Most notable examples of Sharqi style of architecture in Jaunpur are the Atala
Masjid, the Lal Darwaja Masjid, and the Jama Masjid.

Chapter-4
DELHI SULTANATE I (THE SLAVES AND KHILJI DYNASTY)
 The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi Sultanate
which existed from A.D. 1206 to 1526.
 Five different dynasties – Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids and Lodis – ruled under Delhi
Sultanate.
 Not only they extended their rule over North India, but also they penetrated into the Deccan and
South India.
Title of ‗Sultan‘
The title of ‗Sultan‘ was started by Turkish rulers and Mahmud of Ghazni was the first to assume
the title of Sultan. Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion as Islam. Sultans considered
themselves as representatives of Caliph. Sultanate established a Turko-Afghan administrative
system in India. Absence of a clear succession policy caused instability and power struggles after
the Sultan's demise
Foundation of Delhi Sultanate

1. Delhi sultanate was founded by Turkish ‗Mamluk‘ slave soldiers employed by rulers of
Afghanistan.
2. Mamluks after Persia conquered India in 1100 AD by defeating Rajput kings.
3. At last, Mohammad Ghori occupied Delhi by the end of 12th century, after Ghori his empire was
divided into many states.
4. After Ghori his successors:
 In Ghazni – Taj al-din-Yeeduz
 In Sindh – Nasir-ud-din Qabacha
 In India – Qutub-ud-din Aibak
Delhi Sultanate Period
Delhi Sultanate
Period
Slaves Dynasty Khilji Dynasty Tughlaqs Sayyid Dynasty Lodhis Dynasty

(1206-1290 (1290-1320 Dynasty (1320- (1414-1451 (1415-1526
AD) AD) 1414 AD) AD) AD)
Points to ponder about Delhi Sultanate

● First three dynasties belonged to the Turkish race.
● Sayyids were Arabs and they proclaimed their descendants from Prophet Mohammed.
● The Lodhis were Afghans.
● Most Sultans were from the first dynasty
● Least number of Sultans from the Lodi dynasty.
● Tuglaqs ruled for the longest period of time and Khalji ruled for the shortest.


● Tuglaqs under Mohammad Bin Tughlaq had the most extensive territory.
● Sayeeds ruled the least territory.
Slave Dynasty/Ilbari/The Mameluk Sultans [1206-1290 CE]

1. The Slave dynasty was also called the Mamluk dynasty and Ilbari Dynasty.
2. Mamluk means property. It is also the term for the Arabic designation of a slave.
3. Three dynasties were established during this period. They were:
 Qutbi dynasty (c.1206–1211 CE ) founded by Qutbuddin Aibak.
 First Ilbari dynasty (c.1211–1266 CE) founded by Iltutmish.
 Second Ilbari dynasty (c.1266–1290 CE) founded by Balban.
4. Qutub ud din, Iltumish and Balban were slaves later became sultan, therefore dynasty is named
as Slaves dynasty.
5. Qutub ud din Aibak was a slave of Muhammad Ghori, he founded Slave Dynasty
6. Aibak was the first independent Muslim ruler of Northern India, the founder of Delhi Sultanate.
Ruler Details
● He was slave of Mohmmad Ghori, who made him governor.
● After the death of Ghori, Aibak declared his independence.
● He belonged to the Turk tribe called ‗Aibak‘.
● His capital was at Lahore.
● He was titled ‗Amir-i-Akhur‘(master of royal stable) in Ghori‘s court
● Known as ‗Lakh Baksh‘ as he gave a lot of liberal donations.
● Aibak issued coins in gold, silver, bullion and copper. He discarded
carving the name of Abbasid caliph on it.
● He assumed the title of ‗Sultan‘.
Famous Conquests:
Qutub-ud-din-
● He defeated Yaldauz and severed others to disconnect with Ghazni.
Aibak (1206-
● Aibak reconquered both Badayun and Farukhabad and thus founded the
1210) Slave dynasty as well as Delhi Sultanate.
Construction:
● Built the first mosque in north India – Quwwat-ul-Islam (Delhi)
● Also built Adhai din ka jhonpra (Ajmer).
● Started construction of Qutub Minar (only first storey) in memory of
famous Sufi saint, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakthiyar Kaki
Literature:
● Patronised great scholars:
o Hasan Nizami – wrote ‗Taj-ul-Maasir‘
o Fakh-ul-din – wrote ‗Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi‘
Aramshah (1210  Son of Qutbuddin Aibak, was an incapable ruler.


CE) ● The Turkish chiefs of Delhi invited the governor of Badayun, Iltutmish
(son-in-law of Qutbuddin Aibak), to come to Delhi.
● Iltutmish disposed of Aram Shah and became the Sultan
● Slave of Qutub ud din Aibak
● The real consolidator of Turkish rule in India. He belonged to the Ilbari
tribe and hence his dynasty also known as the Ilbari dynasty.
● He is known as the real founder of Slave dynasty.
● Aibak gave him the post ‗Amir-i-Shikar‘.
● After becoming Sultan, he shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi.
● He was a great statesman, received ‗Mansur‘, letter of recognition from
Abbasid Caliph in 1229, hence became the legal sovereign ruler.
● Created a new class of ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders, ―The
Forty‖ (Turkan-i-chahalgani).
● He nominated Razia as his successor, thus hereditary succession to the
Sultanate started from Iltumish.
Major Conquests:
● He defeated Yaldauz in c.1215 CE in the 3rd Battle of Tarain.
● In c.1217 CE, he drove away Qabacha from Punjab
● In c.1220 CE, Temujin, popularly known as Chengiz Khan, leader of
Mongols, started invading Central Asia and destroyed the Khwarizm
empire.
● With diplomatic skills, he prevented Mongol attack and saved India from
the wrath of Chengiz Khan.
Iltumish Administration:
(1210-36) ● He introduced Iqta/ iqtadari system in India.
● Divided his empire into Iqtas (assignment of land in lieu of salary).
● Every Iqtadars had to maintain law and order and collect revenue, they
were transferable (non hereditary)
● Sar-i-Jandar - group of royal bodyguards
● Hassan-i-Qulb - 5000 cavalrymen under the direct command of sultan (to
solidify his strength)
● Organised turkan-i-chahalgani.
o Institution of 40 (or not neccessarily 40) highly placed and powerful
officers whom Iltumish had organised as his personal supporters
o A new class of ruling of elite and powerful military leaders
Coins:
● Issued Arabic Coinage into India: Tanka (silver), Biranz (bronze) coin
and Jital (copper) coins.
Construction:
● He was called Father of tomb building (Sultangarhi in Delhi); completed
the construction of the Qutab Minar- (tallest stone tower in India) at
Delhi (238 ft.). Other buildings:
o Jama Masjid (Badaun, UP)
o Antakaran ka darwaza (Nagaur, Rajasthan)
o Patronised Minhaj-us-siraj who wrote Tabaqqat-i-Nasiri
Ruknuddin ● Iltumish nominated his daughter Razia as his successor but his eldest son
Firuz Shah was put on throne by nobles


(c.1236 CE) ● Government handled by Shah Turkan.
● When governor of Multan revolted, Ruknuddin marched to suppress that
revolt. Using this opportunity, Raziya, with the support of amirs of Delhi,
seized the throne of the Delhi Sultanate
● First and only female Muslim ruler of medieval India.
● Discarded female apparel and purdah (veiling).
● It marked the beginning of a struggle for power between the monarchy and
the Turkish chiefs (‗the forty‘ or the chahalgani).
● Her attempts to create a counter nobility of non-Turks invited the wrath of
the Turkish amirs.
● She captured Ranthambore fort.
Razia Sultan ● Razia appointed Yakut as ‗Amir-i-Akhur‘ and Malik hasan as chief
(1236-40) army officer, this decision incensed nobels
● Soon nobel of Lahore revolted, but Razia defeated him
● Serious rebellion broke out in Sirhind (Bhatinda) under Altuniya
(governor).
● After Razia went to suppress it, meanwhile Turkish nobles enthroned
Bhram Shah.
● Turkish orthodox nobles and ulemas led by Ichtiyar Aeitgin defeated her at
the battle of Kaithal (in Haryana).
● Next few years there ensued a struggle for supremacy between Sultans and
Bahram shah nobles
(1240-42) ● Anarchy prevailed
● The fall of Raziya paved the way for the ascendancy of ‗the Forty‘.
Alauddin Masud ● Son of Ruknuddin Firuz Shah
Shah (1242–46 ) ● He was more of a puppet for the chiefs, was considered incompetent
● Grandson of Iltutmish who was inexperienced ascended to the throne with
Nasiruddin the aid of Ulugh Khan/Balban (member of the Chahalgani)
Mahmud(1246–
● Nasiruddin was interested in philosophy; he was inefficient at ruling.
65 ) ● Real power during reign lay in the hands of Ghiyas ud din Balban
● Belong to Ilbari tribe, Slave of Iltumish.
● He is known as Consolidator of Delhi Sultanate.
● Due to his success in defending agaist Mongol invasion he was given the
title ‗Ulugh Khan‘.
● Amir Khusrau (Tuti-i-Hind) adorned his court.
Administration:
● He organised a strong centralised army, both to deal with internal
Ghiyas-ud-din disturbances, and to repel the Mongols.
Balban ● He separated the Diwan-i-unzarat (Finance Department) from the
(1266–1286 ) Diwan-i-Arz (Military Department).
● He also created diwan-i-barid (department of spies). He appointed spies to
monitor the activities of the nobles.
● Followed the policy of Blood and Iron. Developed an efficient spy system
and kept himself well-informed by appointing spies in every department.
● Administered justice with extreme impartiality.
● To justify his succession to the throne he traced his origin from ancient
persian hero Afrasiyab.


● Excluded non-Turks from administration.
● According to him, real threat to the sultanate is from nobles called
Forty, so he stressed upon centralization and strengthening Monarchy.
● He was determined to break the power of the Forty (Nobels).
● Called himself Nasir-amir-ul-momin (Caliph‘s right-hand man).
Religious Policy:
● Barani (historian) in his book Tareeq-i-firozshai tells about Balban‘s
Theory of Kingship:
o It was borrowed from Persia
o According to him, the Sultan was God‘s shadow on earth (Zil-i-Ilahi)
and recipient of divine grace (Nibyabat-i-Khudai).
o Introduced rigorous court discipline and new customs such as sijada
(prostration) and paibos (kissing the Sultan‘s feet) to prove his
superiority over the nobles.
● Introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz (Iranian New year).
● He was grandson of Balban, and was raised to the throne by nobles after
Balban‘s death.
● However, he was soon replaced by his son, Kaimurs
Kaiqubad ● In c.1290 CE, Firoz, the Ariz-i-Mumalik, i.e., the Minister of War who
(1287–90 )
later took the title of Jalaluddin Khalji, took a bold step by murdering
Kaimurs and seized the throne.
● Group of Khalji nobles led by him established the Khalji dynasty.
Cause of the Downfall of the Slave Dynasty

Sultans were Foreigners + Autocratic Military Rule + Absence of Law of succession + Lack of
Organised Central Power + Lack of Public Sympathy and Internal Revolts + Rise of the Power of Amirs
+ Weak successors + Continuous Mongol Invasions + Slave system was prominent + Weakness of
Frontier Policy.
Khilji Dynasty [1290-1320 CE]

 Khiljis served under Ilbari dynasty of Delhi
Sultanate. Khalji nobles headed by Jalaldduin,
overthrew the incompetent successors of
Balban in 1290 & established Khalji dynasty.
This event is called ‗Dynastic Revolution‘ of
1290- it brought to an end the so-called slave
dynasty and bought to the forefront the Khaljis.
● The founder of the Khalji dynasty was
Jalaluddin Khalji (Malik Firuz) originally he
was Ariz-i-Mumalik appointed by Kariqubad.
● Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban, was allowed to remain the governor of Kara.
Did You Know?
The term Mongol refers to all Mongolic-speaking nomadic tribes of Central Asia. In 12th
century, they had established a very large kingdom, which included most of modern-day Russia,
China, Korea, south-east Asia, Persia, India, Middle East and Eastern Europe, under the leadership
of Chengiz Khan. Their phenomenal success is attributed to their fast horses and brilliant cavalry
tactics, their openness to new technologies, and Chengiz Khan‘s skill in manipulative politics.


● Laid the foundation of the Khalji dynasty.
● He served as warden of marches on north west frontier against mongols.
● He was generous and also the first sultan of the Delhi Sultanate to have a
benevolent attitude towards Hindus
Jalal-ud-din
● Tried to win the goodwill of nobility by adopting a policy of tolerance.
Khalji ● Jalal-ud-din won many battles and even in old age he marched out against
(1290–1296 ) the Mongol hordes and successfully halted their entry into India (1292).
● During his reign in c.1294 CE, Devagiri was invaded by Alauddin Khalji
and procured a lot of wealth.
● Later Alauddin murdered his uncle Jalaluddin and ascended the throne.
 He was appointed as Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of Ceremonies) and Ariz-i-
Mumalik (Minister of Law) by Jalauddin Khalji.
 Jalaluddin‘s policy of tolerance was reversed by Alauddin Khalji, who
awarded drastic punishments to all those who dared to oppose him.
 He decided to curb the powers of nobles and the interference of the ulema
in the matters of the state.
 Malik Kafur- was made Malik Naib (military commander).
 Because of his conquests he adorned the title of ‗second Alexander‘ in
coins
 He was the first sultan who separated religion from politics. He
proclaimed ―Kingship knows no kinship‖.
 Patronised poets like Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlv.
 Alauddin adopted the title of Sikander-i-Azam and gave Amir Khusrau the
title of Tuti-i-Hind (Parrot of India)
 Barani wrote about Alauddin Khilji in his book Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi.
Famous Conquests:
 Gujarat (1297): plundered Somnath temple
Ala-Ud-Din  Ranthambore (1299): against Rana Hamir Deva; he captured the Fort of
Khilji Ranthambore.
(1296-1316)  Chittor (1301): Against Rana Ratan Singh; Rani Padmavati Jauhar
episode; Khizr Khan made governor of Chittor.
 Alauddin‘s Chittoor campaign was described in book Padmavat written by
Malik Muhammed Jayasi.
 Devgiri (1307): Malik Kafur was commander; against Ramachandra Deva
 Defeated Mongols in battles of Jalandhar (1298), Kili (1299), Amroha
(1305) and Ravi (1306).
 Malik Kafur was his slave–general, he led a series of expeditions in the
southern part of India, against Yadavas (1308), Kakatiyas (1310),
Hoysalas (1311) etc.
Administrative Reforms:
 According to Barani, author of Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, Alauddin was
convinced that the basic reasons for rebellions were –
o General prosperity of the nobles
o Social intercourse among the nobles
o Inter-marriages between noble families
o Inefficient spy-system
o Drinking liquor


 Therefore, He confiscated the properties of the nobles.
 The intelligence system was reorganised and all the secret activities of the
nobles were immediately reported to the Sultan.
 The use of liquor and intoxicants was prohibited.
 Social gatherings & festivities without Sultan‘s permission were forbidden.
 He organised strict vigilance through an efficient espionage system (Barid
- Spy)
Military Reforms:
 An innovative Chehra and Dagh System was introduced by him wherein
the Chehra- Huliya (detailed description of each soldier) and Dagh
(branding of horses) was maintained.
 He introduced permanent Standing army.
 He started salaries in cash and abolished a large number of small iqtas.
 Ariz-i-Mumalik was incharge of appointment of soldiers.
Market Control:
 He stored grains in royal granaries to mitigate famines and control prices.
 Fixed cost of all commodities. For this purpose, he set up 3 markets – one
for food grains, second for cloths and expensive items and third for horses,
slaves etc.
 He also received daily reports of markets from Barids (intelligence
officers) and munhiyans (secret spies).
 No hoarding was allowed.
 Harsh punishments were awarded if regulations are violated.
 Established market control department- ‗Diwan-i-Riyasat‘ under Nayab-i-
Riyasat
 Chief officer was appointed for each market, he was called- Sahana-i-
Mandi
 Reasons for Market Reforms:
o To enjoy the support of citizens
o To sustain a large army on low salaries.
Banjara Community
During the Indian Middle Ages, banjaras were generally merchants. They
referred to their caravans as tanda. During reign of Alauddin Khalji, banjaras
had a significant impact. For purpose of transporting grain to the markets in
cities, Alauddin Khalji used Banjaras as they were responsible for moving
goods from one location to another.
Economic reforms:
 He introduced Masahat System.
 Kharaj: agriculture tax amounting to about 50% of the peasant‘s produce.
For collection, a particular post was created known as Mustakharaj.
 Biswa and bigha was standard unit of measurement. Biswa (1/20 of bigha)
was used for cultivable land measurement and calculating its productivity.
 He insisted that land revenue would be assessed on basis of land survey
and measurement
 First ruler to fix land revenue in cash
 Khalisa land- Revenue from where directly came to the royal treasury.


 House tax (Grahi) and pasture tax (Chari) were imposed, but kismat-i-
khoti and haqq-i-khoti (headman‘s cess) were abolished.
 He abolished the privileged positions of hereditary revenue officers like
khuts, chaudharies etc.
 All goods for sale in open market: Sarai-Adl
Art and Architecture:
 Alai Darwaja (1311): the southern gateway of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque
in Qutb complex, Mehrauli, Delhi.
 Siri Fort- 2nd city of Delhi, Situated north of the Qutub complex.
 Hazar Sutun- Palace of 100 pillars
 Tank called Hauz-i-khas
 Jamait Khana Mosque,
 Alai Minar
Note: Ala-ud-din nominated his eldest son Khizr Khan, as his successor.
However, Ala-ud-din‘s confidant at that time was Malik Kafur. So Malik Kafur
himself assumed authority of the government. But Kafur‘s rule lasted only 35
days as he was assassinated by hostile nobles. After Malik kafur Alauddin‘s
son‘s death, Qutbuddin Mubarak came to power.
● Declared himself Caliph and took title of Al Wasiq Billah
Qutbuddin
● Cancelled all harsh regulations of his father.
Mubarak Shah
● Although he was able to crush many revolts during his reign, he was not
(1316–1320)
able to run the administration smoothly.
Nasiruddin ● Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in c.1320 CE defeated him and became sultan.
Khusrau Shah
(1320 )
Cause of Decline of Khalji Dynasty

Unpopularity of Khalji Rulers + Despotism of Alauddin+ Influence of Mongol Invasions(weakened the
empire and endangered the safety of the country) + Weak and Disabled Successors + Lack of Law of
succession + Lack of Military Power + Decline of Slaves(slaves of the latter period were flatterers and
treacherous. Malik Kafur poisoned his master Alauddin Khalji. Khusrau Khan murdered the Sultan) +
Opposition of Hindus + Opposition of stern Muslim Mullas and Ulema.
*****

Chapter-5
DELHI SULTANATE II [TUGHLAQS, SAYYIDS AND LODHIS]
Tughlaq Dynasty [1320-1414]
The Tughlaqs were also known as Quaraunah Turks as father of Ghazi Malik was a Qaraunah Turk in
origin. The founder of Tughlaq dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Rulers Details
● According to Ibn Batuta, Tughlaqs belong to ‗Qurana‘ Tribe of Turks
● Founder of the Tughlaq dynasty and the first Sultan to take the title of Ghazi/
Slayer of Infidels.
● Amir Khusrau's famous work ―Tughlaqnama‖ deals with rise of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Annexation Policy:
● Strengthened defence of North West frontier to check Mongol invasion.
● He sent Juna Khan to defeat Kakatiya, ruler of Warangal.
● Defeated Khusro khan in the Battle of Saraswati and Battle of Lahrawat.
Military Policy:
● Paid in cash to improve the efficiency of the Army.
● He increased the strength of the army.
Ghiyasuddin ● The Judicial and Police Arrangements were made efficient.
Tughlaq Economic Policy:
(1320–25) ● The practice of measuring land was abandoned.
● Area under cultivation increased and the condition of farmers improved.
● He inspected jagirs and cancelled illegal grants.
● 1st Sultan to start irrigation.
● Gave up land measurement system & started batai system/crops sharing.
● He fixed land revenues to 1/10th of produce
● 1st ruler who dig canals, planted gardens and built forts to safeguard peasants
during wartime
● He organised a postal system for communication
● He replaced men with horses in the courier system.
Construction:
● Built a strong fort called Tughlaqabad- 3rd city of Delhi near Delhi.
● Title: Ulugh Khan

● During his reign, the famous traveller Ibn Batuta (author of Safarnama Rehla)
came to India in c.1334 CE and acted as Qazi at Delhi for eight years & was
Mohammad
also sent to Chine as ambassador.
Bin Tughlaq/
● He captured south India but later during his reign South India became
Jauna Khan
independent and three major states emerged:
(1325–51)
o Vijaynagar kingdom – Harihara and Bukka (c.1336 CE),
o Bahmani Kingdom (Deccan) – Hasan Gangu (c.1347 CE),
o Sultanate of Madurai.


Major Rebellions:
● Bahaudin Gurchap rebelled in Sagar, Bengal.
● Kishlu Khan, subedar of Kuchh, Sindh and Multan rebelled.
Administration:
● Appointed official on the basis of merit.
Major Reforms:
● Capital transfer (1328-1336) from Delhi to Deogiri (Daulatabad, Maharashtra)
for better administration. The capital shifted back to Delhi after two years
because of the lack of water supply in Daulatabad.
● Introduction of Token Currency: Copper Coins. He decided to introduce a
bronze coin which would have the same value as a silver coin.
● Proposed Khurasan expedition: To conquer Khurasan, Iraq, and Transoxiana,
he raised an army of 3,70,000 men but later abandoned the plan.
● Qarachill expedition (Kumaon Hills)
● Taxation in Doab: Increased taxation rate (half the produce) for farmers of
Ganga Yamuna Doab. Many people ran away to forests to avoid heavy taxes
due to which cultivation was neglected and severe food shortages occurred.
Revenue Administration and Agriculture policy:
● Prepared Register and recorded all income and expenditure.
● Established department of Agriculture called ‗Diwan-i-Kohi‘.
● Post of ‗Wali-ul-Kharaj was created for revenue creation.
● He launched a scheme by which taccavi loans (loans for cultivation) were
given to the farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation.
● Model farm of 64 sq. miles was created.
Religious Policy:
● Tolerant towards Hindu subjects
● Ulemas were not allowed to interfere
● He broked monopoly of Ulemas and Qazis
● He was only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary, religious,
and philosophical education. He was the most educated Sultan of Delhi.
Construction:
● He laid the foundation for construction of Jahan Panah- 4th city of Delhi.
● He built the fort of Adilabad (in present day Maharashtra).

He had the unique distinction of being chosen as Sultan by the nobles. So, his
policy aimed to appease the nobles, the army, and theologicians.
● He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, Telugu Brahmin convert, as Wazir.
● He marched against Nagarkot and during this campaign, Sultan collected 1300
Firoz Shah Sanskrit manuscripts from the Jawalamukhi temple library and got them
Tughlaq translated into Persian by Arizuddin Khan ‗Dalail-i-Firuz Shahi‘.
(1351–1388) ● To appease theologians, Firoz made the following decisions:
o Prohibited practice of Muslim women going out to worship.
o Gave concessions to theologians
o Made jizya a separate tax. Earlier it was part of land revenue. Only children,
women, disabled were exempted.


o Erased wall paintings in his palace
● He led two unsuccessful expeditions to Bengal. Bengal became free from the
control of the Delhi Sultanate.
Major Reforms:
● Established Diwan-i-Bandagan (department of slaves).
● A new department called Diwan-i-Khairat (Department of Charity) was
created to take care of orphans and widows.
● Free hospitals like Dar-ul- Shafa and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were
also established
● Department for public work.
Administration:
● Wazir helped the Sultan in his administration and maintained the prestige of the
Sultanate during this period.
● He strictly followed advice of ulemas in running administration
● He extended the principle of heredity to the army & nobility.
● Thus, the iqta system was not only revived, but also it was made hereditary.
Military Policy:
● Soldiers were given land assignments (jagir system), and even their recruitment
was made hereditary.
Revenue Policy:
● Introduced 2 new coins: Adha (50% Jital) and Bitch (23% Jital)
● He developed Royal factories called ‗Karkhanas‘.
● Imposed 4 taxes sanctioned by Islamic kharaj (land tax), khums (1/5 of
looted property during wars), Jizya (religious tax on Hindus), and Zakat
(2.5% of income of the Muslims which was spent for the welfare of Muslim
subjects and their religion).
● He was the first Sultan to impose Sharb (irrigation tax).
● At the same time, he built a number of canals and also set up a separate
department of public works.
● He was the first to link rivers and provide irrigation with four canals.
● He imposed water cess on haq-i-shrib.
● British called him the ‗father of the irrigation department‘ because of the
gardens and canals that he built.
Literature:
● Firoz patronised scholars like Barani (famous historian who wrote Tarikh-i-
Firoz Shah and Futwa-i-Jahandari) and Khwajja Abdul Malik Islami (who
wrote Futuh-Us Salatin).
● He himself wrote the Futuhat-e-firoz shahi.
Construction:
● Planned new city of Jaunpur at bank of Gomati, in memory of Mohammad bin
Tughlaq
● Built Fatehabad, Hisar, Firozabad (Firoz shah Kotla- 5th city of Delhi),
Jaunpur (considered the Shiraz of the east).
● Ashokan Pillars from Topara and Meerut were brought to Delhi.


● Last Tughlaq ruler
● Faced invasion of Timur, great mongol leader of central Asia
Nasir-ud-Din
● Delhi sultanate disintegrated towards the beginning of the 15th century and a
Mahmud
number of independent states were set up. E.g. Malwa and Gujarat etc.
shah
● The Tughlaq empire came to an end in 1412.
(1394-1412)
● Later Daulat Khan was Defacto ruler and was defeated by Khizr Khan which
laid foundation of Sayyid dynasty
Cause of Downfall of Tughluq Dynasty

Vastness of Empire(no good means of transport and communication make it difficult to administer)+
Autocratic Rulers + Utopian Schemes of Muhammad Tughluq+ Firoz Tughluq‘s Weaknesses+ Slave
System(became burden on state exchequer)+ Jagirdari System(emergence of powerful feudal nobles
which broke empire)+ Weak Army+ Empty Treasury (due to visionary schemes of Muhammad-bin-
Tughluq)+ Theocratic Nature of State(was anti-Hindu and anti-non-Sunni)+ Moral Downfall of Muslims
The Sayyid Dynasty [1414-1450]

● Khizr Khan (1414-1421 AD) took over Delhi and started the Sayyid dynasty.
● The Sayyids put on a pointed cap (kulah) and were known as ‗Kulah-Daran‘.
Khizr Khan ● Before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as Governor of
(1414–21 ) Multan. He captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
● He got Khutba coins issued in his name
Mubarak
● Defended revolts of Bhatinda and Khokhan chief Jasrat
shah
● Constructed planned town ‗Mubarakabad‘
(1421-34)
● Patronised Yahiya BinAhmed Sirhindi, author of Tarikh-i-Mubarak shahi
● An incapable ruler
Muhammad
Shah ● Ruler tried to control rebellious regions like Katehar, Badaun, Etawah, Patiali,
Gwalior, Kampil, Nagaur, and Mewat, but they failed due to the conspiracy of
(1434-43)
the nobles
Ala-ud-din ● Established residence at Badaun
Alam Shah ● He was deposed by Bahul Lodhi thus bringing an end to the Sayyid dynasty
(1443-51)
Lodhi Dynasty [1451-1526]

● The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, were Afghans.
Buhlul Lodi was the first Afghan ruler while his
predecessors were all Turks.
● It was the fifth and final dynasty of the Delhi
Sultanate, and was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodhi.
● Lodhis were the last ruling family of Sultanate period and first to be headed by
Afghans who were ruling over Sirhind when the Sayyids were in India
Bahlul Lodhi
● He laid the foundation of the Lodhi dynasty.
(1451–89)
● He adopted Afghan nobels appeasement policy
● In c.1476 CE, he defeated the Sultan of Jaunpur and annexed it to the Delhi


Sultanate.
● He also brought ruler of Kalpi and Dholpur under Delhi‘s sovereignty.
● He annexed the Sharqi dynasty and introduced Bahlol copper coins.
● He issued coins in his own name which were included in the Khutba.
● The greatest and noblest of the three Lodhi rulers.
● Contemporary of Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat and Rana Sanga of Mewar.
● Appointed Dariya Khan as Governor of Bengal
● Set up an efficient espionage system to maintain strict vigilance
● Suppressed power of jagirdars
● Promoted trade
● Introduced Gaz-i-Sikandari of 39 digits or 32 inches for measuring
agriculture land
Sikander ● He abolished the octroi duty on grains
Lodhi (1489– ● Started auditing accounts
1517) ● He destroyed many Hindu temples and imposed many restrictions on the
Hindus. He re-imposed jaziya on non-Muslims.
● Sikandar Shah enjoyed ―Shehnai‖ Music. A work on music named ―Lahjati-
Sikandar Shahi‖ was created during his reign.
● He was a poet of repute, composed under the pen-name of Gulruk.
● Transferred capital from Delhi to Agra
● City of Agra was conceptualised by him
● Founded Agra in c.1504 CE and wrote Persian verses under the name
‗Gulrakhi‘.
● Ibrahim Lodi was stubborn and intolerant which were not good qualities in a
ruler.
● He was unsympathetic which turned many nobles against him. (Decline of the
Sultanate started)
● Nobles were killed cruelly and many nobles were humiliated by him.
● He also treated his son Dilwar Khan Lodi cruelly.
● When Sikandar Lodi died, the nobles divided the empire between his two sons
and Ibrahim was made king of Delhi.
● The governor of Bihar declared independence and that of Punjab, Daulat Khan,
invited Babar, the ruler of Kabul, to invade Hindustan and oust Ibrahim from
Ibrahim the throne.
Lodhi ● Babur marched against Delhi and defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodhi in the
(1517-1526) first Battle of Panipat (c.1526 CE).
Literature
● He translated an ayurvedic book himself called ‗Farhang-i-Sikandari‘.
● Lazzat-e Sikandari, text of Sanskrit was composed
 Tughlaq Nama, Tarik-i-Alai, Ashiqa - Amir Khusro
 Git Govinda - Jaydeva
 Hammir Raso - Sarangdhara
 Fatwa-i-Jahandari - Barani
 Padmavat - Malik Muhammad Jaisi.
● Afghan kingdom thus lasted for only 75 years. With him, the Sultanate period ended.


 Babur marched against Delhi and defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodhi in the first Battle of Panipat
(c.1526 CE). Scholar states ―The Sultanate of Delhi, which had its birth on the battlefield of
Tarain in c. 1192 CE, breathed its last in c. 1526 CE, a few miles away on the battlefield of
Panipat.‖
Causes of Decline of Delhi Sultanate (Common causes)

Financial instability + Degeneration of Delhi Sultans + Invasion of Timur + Resistance by Indian
Chiefs + Inner Conflict of Nobility + Attacks by Mongols + Greed and incompetency of nobles +
Defective military organisation + Vastness of empire + Poor means of communication + War of
succession + Despotic and military type of government.
******

Chapter-6
INDIA UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE
Striking Features of Administration of Sultanate

Central Administration Provincial Government
● Sultan was the legal leader ● Provinces were called iqtas (territory divided
● Assisted by council of ministers by sultan amongs nobles and military
● Post of Naib was the most powerful one. commanders)
● Naib practically enjoyed all powers of the ● Village remained the basic unit of the
Sultan and exercised general control over administration
all departments. ● Sahib-i-Diwan was appointed to control
● Next to him was Wazir who headed the provincial revenue
finance department called Diwani Administrative Units:
Wizarat. Iqta (Provinces): head- Muqti
● Chief Qazi, as head of judicial department. Shiq (District): head-Sikdar
● Ariz-i-mumalik, head of the military Paragana (taluka): head-Amil
department responsible for recruiting the Gram (village): head-khut
soldiers and administering military dept. ● Iqta means land or land revenue assigned by
● Muslim personal law/sharia was followed a ruler to an individual.
in civil matters. Hindus were governed by ● Office holders: Iqtadar, Muqti or Wali.
their own personal law and their cases were ● Iqta system was introduced by Mohmmad
dispensed by village panchayats. Ghori
● The criminal law was based on the rules ● Iltumish institutionalised Iqtas
and regulations made by the Sultans. ● Balban found many corruptions in Iqta
● Wakil-i-Dar – officer responsible for system.
maintenance of proper decorum at court. ● Ala-ud-din brought back most of Iqta land
back to Khalisa
● Under Firoz shah it became hereditary
Sultanate Economy and Land Revenue System:

● Agriculture
o The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue, and
sometimes even one half of the produce.
o Ibn Batuta states- Soil was very fertile.
o Major Crops; Rice, Sesame, sugarcane and cotton were grown.
● Sarais or rest houses on the highways were maintained for the convenience of
the travellers.
Economy ● Industries; Oil pressing, making of jaggery, weaving etc.
● Sericulture was introduced on a large scale.
● Bengal and Gujarat were famous for fine quality fabrics, like Combay
(Gujarat) for textile, gold & silver work & Sonargao for raw silk & muslin.
● Indian textiles were exported.
● Turks introduced many new crafts (manufacturing of paper) and techniques
ex- use of iron stirrup, amour. It led to the growth of the metallurgical industry.


● They also introduced spinning wheels, book binding technique and block
printing.
● Postal system based on relays of horses or fast-runners was developed.
● Coin system:
o The system of coinage had also developed during the Delhi Sultanate.
o Iltutmish issued several types of silver tankas and copper jittal.
o Gold coins or dinars became popular during the reign of Alauddin Khalji
after his South Indian conquests.
o Muhammad bin Tughlaq had experimented with token currency
● A number of new urban centers emerged resulting into urbanisation in 13th-
14th century
● Delhi Sultans introduced reforms in the land revenue administration. The lands
were classified into three categories:
o Iqta land – Lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment.
o Khalisa land – Land under direct control of Sultan and revenues collected
were spent for the maintenance of the royal court and royal household.
o Inam land – Land assigned or granted to religious leaders or institutions
Land ● Sultans like Mohd bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq enhanced agricultural
revenue production by providing irrigation facilities and by providing taccavi loans.
System ● Types of Land taxes:
o Ushra: Land tax levied on Muslims on total produce
o Kharaj: Land tax taken from Non-muslims
o Khams: War booty
o Zakat: Religious tax from rich muslims
o Jazia: Non muslims
o Muktai: System for fixation of land tax
Society in Sultanate
● There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society during this period.
● The practice of sati was widely prevalent.
● The seclusion of women and wearing of purdah became common among upper-
class women.
● The Arabs and Turks brought the purdah system into India and it became
Social widespread among the Hindu women in the upper classes of north India.
Life ● During Sultanate period, the Muslim society remained divided into several ethnic
and racial groups like Turks, Iranians, Afghans and Indian Muslims etc. There were
no inter-marriages between these groups.
● Very rarely the Hindu nobles were given a high position in the government.
● The Hindus were considered zimmis or protected people for which they were forced
to pay a tax called jaziya.
Culture of Sultanate:
● Turkish influence:
Art and o Architectural style brought by Turkish invaders had main features:
Architecture Dome, minarets, arches, propped roofs
o Originally, Arch or dome was not Turkish or Muslim invention. They


learned from Rome, developed and performed many experiments in its
use.
o Turks also used the slab and Beam method in buildings. They also added
colour to their buildings by using marbles, red and yellow sand stones.
o They used geometrical & floral designs with inscriptions containing
verses of the Quran. It was called Arabesque.
● Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque of Delhi was first monument of sultanate by Aibak
● Ibadat khana was introduced
● Construction of Qutub Minar started by Aibak and completed by Iltumish
● Adhai din ka Jhopra at Ajmer built by Aibak has characteristic features of
Hindu temples
● Iltutmish: Built Hauz-i-Shamsi and completed Qutb Minar
● Ala-ud-din Khilji built:
o Alai Darwaza- redstone structure; ‗Jewel of Islamic Architecture‘
o Siri fort
o Hazar satoon (1000 Pillars)
o Hauz-i-Khas
● Muhammad bin Tughlaq built the tomb of Ghyasuddin on a high platform
● The Kotla fort at Delhi was the creation of Firoz Tughlaq.
● Lodhis:
o Lodi placed buildings, especially tombs on high platforms.
o Some tombs were placed in midst of gardens. ex- Lodi garden in Delhi.
o Double dome was another feature of Lodis architecture. E.g. Mothi ki
Masjid (built by Sikandar Lodi).
● Multan style of Architecture: Tomb of Bahawal haq; Alam- Finely
decorated Octagonal structure
● Bengal style: Tomb of zafar khan Ghazi, square brick tomb of Jalaluddin
Mohammad shah, lal darwaza mosque at Jaunpur, Jamia Mosque
● Malwa Style: Dilwar khan mosque, Mughis Mosque
● Gujarat Style: Wood work is used, Ahmad shah laid foundation of
Ahmedabad, Tomb of Ahmad Shah
● Kashmir Style: Sultans of Kashmir accepted traditional Hindu architecture,
Zain-ul-Abidin also known as Akbar of Kashmir was important for this style
● The most famous historians of this period were Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-
Siraj, Ziauddin Barani, and Shams-i-Siraj Afif.
● Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian.
● The book Tutu Nama or "Tales of a Parrot" (a series of 52 books written in
persian) became popular and was translated into Turkish.
● The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana belonged to the period of
Zain-ul-Abidin, the ruler of Kashmir.
Literature ● Maldhar Basu, compiler of Sri-Krishna Vijaya, was patronised by Bengali
Sultans and was granted the title of Gunaraja Khan.
● Nusrat Shah patronised the translation of Mahabharata into Bengali.
● Amir Khusrau wrote: (Court Poet of Khilji)
o Ayina-i-sikandar
o Hasht Bihisht
o Laila Majnu


o Tughlaq nama
o Multa-un-anwar
● Abu Bakr wrote: Chach Nama (History of Sindh region)
● Firoz Shah wrote: Fatwa-i-firozshahi
● Ibn Batuta wrote: Kitab-ul-Rehala
● Firdausi wrote: Shah nama (about Mahmud Ghazni‘s reign)
● New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during
this period.
● Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as Ghora and Sanam.
● He evolved qawwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian systems.
Music ● The invention of sitar was also attributed to him.
● Indian classical work, Ragadarpan, was translated into Persian during the
reign of Firoz Tughlaq.
● Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period.
● He encouraged the composition of great musical work called Man Kautuhal.

Chapter-7
BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT
Bhakti Movement
● It was a religious reform movement during medieval times which emphasized single-minded
intense devotion to God. The
term ―Bhakti‖ is derived from the
Sanskrit root word ―Bhaj,‖ which
means to serve, and it is defined
as ―devotion‖ or passionate love
for the Divine.
● Origin: Origin of Bhakti is traced
in Vedas, but it's real
development took place after the
7th century AD.
● Philosophy: Bhakti movement
was based on the doctrine that the
relationship between god and
man is through love and
worship rather than through
performing any ritual or religious
ceremonies.
● Bhakti: Worship of god on the
personal devotion to attain
salvation or moksha.
● Adoration of personal god:
Process of ‗adoration of a
personal god‘ started during the
course of the 6th century BCE,
with the rise of the heterodox
movements of Buddhism and
Jainism
● Vishnu worship: The worship of Vishnu too started around same time, which was popularised
to a great extent by the Gupta kings
● Genesis: Bhakti Movement had its genesis in southern India in 7th to 12th century CE.
● It is characterised by writings of its poet-saints, Shaivaite Nayannars and the Vaishnavaite
Alvars, who preached the Bhakti cult under Pallavas, Pandyas, and the Cholas.
Nayanars Alvars
Devoted to Lord Shiva and his avatars Devoted to Lord Vishnu and his avatars
Tirumarai – Compilation of hymns of Nayanars Divya Prabandha– Compilation of the hymns
by highest priest of Raja RajaChola I, of the Alvars saints – poets.
Nambiyandar Nambi.
Details of the lives of saints are described in work
‗Tevaram‘ which is also called Dravida Veda.


The Nayanars were from various backgrounds, Bhakti literature that sprang from Alvars had
including Brahmins, Harijan, and nobles. Along contributed to establishment and sustenance of
with the twelve Vaishnava Alvars, they are culture that broke away from ritual-oriented
regarded as the important Hindu saints from Vedic religion and rooted itself in devotion as
South India. only path for salvation
Important saints: Important saints:
● Tiru Neelakanta, ● Andal (only female Alwar saint who is
● Meiporul, referred to as the ‗Meera of the South‘)
● Viralminda, ● Thirumazhisai Alvar
● Amaraneedi, ● Thiruppaan Alvar
● Eripatha ● Nammalwar
● Yenathinathar ● Kulasekara
● Karaikkal Ammaiyar (woman)
Reasons behind Emergence of Bhakti Movement

1. Evil practices in Hindu Society like:
 Brahminical Dominance
 rigidity of caste system,
 irrelevant rituals and religious practices,
 blind faiths and social dogmas.
 polytheism,
 segregation,
 severe economic disparity due to casteism, untouchability etc
2. Influence of Sufism
3. Influence of Vaishnavism and Shaivism ideologies
4. Idol worship in Buddhism: Mahayana Buddhism, worship of the Buddha started in his
avalokita (gracious) form.
5. Rival religions like Islam: The Islamic principles of one God, equality and fraternity of
mankind and complete surrender to God appealed to the liberal Hindus.
6. Emergence of Great Reformers: Hindu liberals like Ramanuja, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Kabir,
etc emphasised aspects like equality irrespective of caste, creed, and colour, virtues of kindness
of heart and mind, devotion to one God (monotheism), freedom from all kinds of ritualism and
preaching in the language of the common people.
Salient Features of the Bhakti Movement

● Unity of God or "one God" though known by different names.
● Bhakti, intense love and devotion, the only way to salvation.
● Repetition of the True Name.
● Open to all without any distinction of caste or creed
● Preached equality, universal brotherhood and Self-Surrender
● Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.
● Rejection of idol worship by many saints
● Open- mindedness about deciding religious matters.
● Did not link themselves with any particular religious creed
● Emphasised the fundamental unity of all religions.
● No distinction of different castes, higher or low
● Need of a guru for guidance advocated by some.


● Preaching through local or regional languages and travelling from place to place to spread the
religious message.
● Encouraged women to join in the gatherings, and taught in the local vernacular languages.
School of thought in Bhaktism

The Bhakti movement is also divided into two different ideological streams:
 ‗Saguna‘(those poet-saints who composed verses extolling a god with attributes or form)
 ‗Nirguna‘ (those extolling god without and beyond all attributes or form).
Nirguna Bhakti Saguna Bhakti
● Believe in formless God ● Believe in Personification of God
● Monotheistic Bhakti saints, who gave more ● Upheld the caste system and the
importance to the personal experience of supremacy of the Brahmans, and
Bhakti saints with god preached a religion of surrender and
● Rejected the varna system and all simple faith in a personal God, having
conventions based on caste distinctions a strong commitment towards idol
● Rejected the authority of the Brahmans and worship
attacked caste system and practice of idolatry ● Non-Liberal Social outlook
● They greatly emphasised on the fundamental ● Followers: Ramananda, Surdas, etc
unity of all religions
● Liberal in social matters
● Followers: Kabir, Nanak, Ravidas,etc
Similarities: Nirguna Bhakti and Saguna Bhakti
 Both focused on singular devotion, mystical love for God, and had a particular focus on a
personal relationship with the Divine.
 Both were highly critical of ritual observances as maintained and fostered by the
Brahman priesthood. In fact, many poet- saints, specially in northern areas, were themselves
of lower caste lineages.
 Usage of vernacular or regional languages of the masses, as opposed to sacred language
of the elite priesthood, Sanskrit. They composed their poems in popular languages and
dialects spoken across north India. This enabled them to transmit their ideas among the
masses and also among the various lower classes.
Bhakti Movement in North india

● Started during the 12th century, differs from the southern Bhakti Movement
● The northern medieval Bhakti Movement had the influence of the spread of Islam in India.
● The distinctive characteristics of Islam such as Monotheism or belief in one God, equality and
brotherhood of man, and rejection of rituals and class divisions certainly influenced the Bhakti
Movement of this era
● Some scholars consider the rise of the Bhakti Movement as a reaction against feudal oppression
and against conformist Rajput−Brahman domination.
● Use of vernacular and local language.
Important Saints and their Philosophies

Name About
Vedant Saints and their Philosophies
Shankaracharya ● Leader of the Hindu revivalist movement of the 9th century
(700-750 AD) ● Propounded the Advaita (Monism) philosophy and Nirguna-brahman


(god without attributes).
● Guru: Govinda Bhagavath pada
● Reality of the world is denied; Brahman is considered as only reality.
● Wrote commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, Brahma Sutra and the
Upanishads, and also wrote other books like: (a) Upadesh Shastri (b)
Vivek Chudamani (c) Bhaja Govindum Stotra
● Established mathas at Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, and Badrinath
● Organiser of Dashanami monastic order and unified the Shanmata
tradition of worship centered around worship of six main hindu deities
(Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesh, Shakti, Surya and Skanda)
● Brhat-Sankara-Vijaya by Citsukha is oldest biography of Adi Shankara
● According to him, gyaan (knowledge) alone can lead to salvation.
● Advaita Vedanta (Non-Dualism)
o Based on concept that the higher or true self is identical to Brahman,
the Absolute Reality.
o In Advaita Vedanta, gyana yoga is path of knowledge to Moksha, or
liberation from the cycle of life, death and rebirth.
o Doctrine also believes that Moksha can be achieved in this life
(Jivanmukti) in contrast to other Indian philosophies that emphasise
videha mukti, or Moksha after death.
 His famous quotes include, ―Brahma Satyam Jagat Mithya Jivo
Brahmatra Naparaha‖, meaning, ―The Absolute Spirit is the reality, the
world of appearance is Maya‖.
● Guru: Yadavapreksha
● He opposed the mayavada of Shankara and advocated the philosophy of
Vishista Advaitavada (qualified monism)
● Founded the Shrivaishnava sect.
● According to him, God is Saguna Brahman.
● Kulothunga Chola, a Shaivite banished Ramanujacharya for preaching
Vaishnavism
● He wrote: Sribhashya, Vedanta dipa, Gita Bhasya, Vedantasara
● Vishistadvaita
Ramanujacharya
o Brahman is a personal god with omniscient qualities.
(1017-1137 AD)
o Advocated Prabattimarga or path of self surrender to God.
o Philosophy: Objects in creation are real, not illusionary.
o The practice of religion in Vishishta Advaita is similar to Dualism,
and the only difference is that mankind enjoys a higher status than in
pure dualistic worship and is nearer to God.
o Moksha, or spiritual liberation, is seen as joy of contemplating
Brahman (not release from the life-death-rebirth cycle), and that joy
is result of devotion, praise, worship & contemplating divine
perfection.
● Disciple of Ramanujacharya
● Preacher of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region.
Nimbaraka
● He also founded the Sanak Sampradaya.
(1130-1200)
● Propounded Dvaita advaita and Bheda Abheda philosophy
● He wrote Dashasloki and commentaries on Vedanta


● He was also a prominent astronomer
● Dwita Advaita: Its philosophy held that men were trapped in physical
bodies constricted by prakrti (matter) and that only by surrender to
Radha-Krishna (not through their own efforts) could they attain grace
necessary for liberation from rebirth; then, at death, physical body would
drop away.
● Worshipper of Krishna and Radha and established his ashrama in Braja
(Mathura).
● He was a critic of Adi Shankara‘s Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja‘s
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta teachings.
● In the 13th century, Madhava from the Kannada region propagated
Dvaita or the dualism of the Jivatma and Paramatma.
● Founded Brahama sampradaya
● He was invited into sanyasttva by Achyutapreksha.
● Some of his works were Gita Bhashya, Brahma Sutra Bhashya, Anu
Bhashya, Karma Nirnaya, and Vishnu Tattva Nirnaya.
● Book: Anuvyakhyana
Madhavacharya ● Dvaita:
(1199-1278) o According to Madhava, Brahman and the world are considered to be
two equally real entities and not related in any way.
o The soul is bound to this world through ignorance
o For the soul to release itself from bondage is to seek Sri Hari‘s grace
o To reach Sri Hari, one has to practice Bhakti, there is no other way
o To practice Bhakti, one needs to meditate
o To meditate, one needs to clear the mind and attain detachment by
studying the sacred texts
o Philosophy: The world is not illusion but reality.
● Born in Benaras in 15th c. and lived at the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
● According to him, God is omnipotent and omniscient and cause of all
that is there in the universe.
● He was also known as ‗Achinitabhadra‘
● Its philosophy is Pushtimarga Sampradaya.
● He founded the Rudra Sampradaya
Vallabhacharya
● Surdas were his disciples
(1479-1531)
● He was blind but was largely instrumental in popularising the Krishna
cult in north India
● He propounded Shuddhadvaita (pure monism):
o Believed in absolute union.
o He prescribed Pushtimarg as means for salvation (extreme devotion
to God)
Non-Sectarian Bhakti Movement
 In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ramananda, Kabir, and Nanak emerged as the great apostles of
the Bhakti cult.
 Though they drew inspiration from old teachers yet they showed a new path. Unlike the
early reformers, they were not linked with any particular religious creed and did not believe in
rituals and ceremonies.
 They condemned polytheism and believed in one god. They also denounced all forms of


idolatry. They helped the common people to shed age-old superstitions and attain salvation
through bhakti or pure devotion.
 They greatly emphasised on the fundamental unity of all religions.
● He was born in Allahabad in the 15th century and was originally a
follower of Ramanuja.
● He was a devotional poet from Vaishnava sect
● Ramananda was influenced by Nathpanthi ascetics of Yoga school.
● Later, he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at
Benaras and Agra.
● Founder of the Ram cult in north India
● Rejected the monopoly of the Sanskrit language over the teachings of
religious texts
Ramananda ● He was first to employ a vernacular medium to propagate his ideas.
(1400-1470) ● He opposed the Caste system.
● Gave rise to two schools of thought:
o Orthodox school – Represented by Nabhadas, Tulsidas
o Liberal – Represented by Kabir, Nanak, and others
● His followers are called Ramanandis, like Tulsidas.
● His famous disciples: Kabir, Ravidas, Bhagat Pipa and others.
● He put emphasis on bhakti and avoided both gyan marg and karma marg.
● His verse is mentioned in Sikh scripture Adi Granth.
● Some of his works include- Gyan-lila, Yog-chintamani (Hindi),
Vaishnava Mata Bhajabhaskara and Ramarchana paddhati
(Sanskrit).
● He was a 15th cent Bhakti poet and saint, whose verses are found in the
Sikh holy scripture, Adi Granth.
● Kabir‘s object was to reconcile Hindus and Muslims and establish
harmony between the two sects.
● He was a Nirguna saint and openly criticised the orthodox ideas
● He denounced idolatry and rituals and laid great emphasis on the
equality of man before God.
Kabir ● Refused to accept any prevalent religious belief without prior reasoning.
[1440-1510] ● He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints and his followers are
called Kabirpanthis.
● Denounced Caste system and untouchability
● His poems are called ―Banis‖ (utterances) or ‗Dohe‘.
● Bijak is the best known compilation of the compositions of Kabir
● He wrote- Sabad, Bijak, Doha, Holi, and Rekhtal.
● He propagated Ram Bhakti.
● Kabir says: ―Ram and Rahim is the same‖.
● Birth: Talawandi
● The first Sikh Guru and founder of the Sikhism, who was also a Nirguna
Guru Nanak Dev Bhakti Saint.
[1469-1538] ● He laid great emphasis on the purity of character and conduct.
● Preached casteless, universal, anti ritualistic, monotheistic religion
● Started free community kitchen (langars)
● He did not accept the theory of incarnation


● Nanak set out on a set of spiritual journeys through India, Tibet and
Arabia that lasted nearly 30 years.
● He introduced the concept of god- that is ‗Vahiguru‘, an entity that is
shapeless, timeless, omnipresent and invisible.
● Other names for God in the Sikh faith are Akal Purakh and Nirankar.
● Guru Granth Sahib, the holiest book of the Sikhs, contains 974 poetic
hymns composed by Guru Nanak.
● It is believed that Emperor Akbar was one of his followers.
● Died at Kartarpur.
 Started Gurumukhi script
Guru Angad
 He started tradition of Mall Akhara for physical
(1538-52)
as well as spiritual development
 Reformed Langar institution
 Divided his spiritual empire into 22 parts called
Guru Amar Das
Manjis, each under a Sikh and also Piri system
(1552-74)
 Advocated widow-remarriage, and asked women
to discard purdah
 Got the site of Harmandir Sahib at Amritsar by
Akbar
Guru Ramdas
 Composed 4 Lawans (stanzas) of Anand Karaj, a
(1575-81)
distinct marriage code for Sikhs separate from the
orthodox and traditional Hindu Vedic system
 Compiled Adi Granth (Guru Granth sahib)
Guru Arjun  He was executed by Jahangir
(1581-1606)  Hailed as the first martyr of the Sikh religion, and
as Shaheedan-de-Sartaj (The crown of martyrs)
Guru  He was titled as ‗Sacche Padshah‘
Hargobind  Established the Akal Takht, and fortified
(1606-44) Amritsar
 Gave shelter to Dara Shikoh (brother of
Guru Har Rai
Aurangzeb, and his rival to the throne) and thus
(1644-61)
was persecuted by Aurangzeb
Guru Har  Became Guru at the age of 5.
Kishan  He died when he was being taken to the
(1661-64) Aurangzeb's court because of a disease.
Guru Tegh  He appointed Banda Bahadur as military leader of
Bahadur the Sikhs
(1664-75)  He was executed by Aurangzeb
Guru Gobind  Established Khalsa (Military sect) in 1699
Singh  Compiled the supplementary granth of Deswan
(1675-1708) Padshan Ka Granth.
● They condemned the ritual and other aspects of orthodox religion and
Nathpanthis, the social order, using simple, logical arguments.
Siddhas, and ● They encouraged the renunciation of the world.
Yogis ● To them, the path to salvation lay in meditation and to achieve this they
advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like


yoga asanas, breathing exercises and meditation.
Other Prominent Saints
● His teachings are collected in a book called ‗Bani‘
● He was a disciple of Kabir
Dadu Dayal
● Founded Brhama Sect or Param Brhama Sampraday
[1544-1603]
● His followers came to be known as the Dadupanthis who set up ashrams
known as Thambas around the region
● It is believed that Emperor Akbar was one of his followers
● Translated Ramayana & Mahabharata into Assamese
● He started Ekasarana movement (Neo-Vaishnavite movement). He
believed in worship of ‗Ekasarana‘ (One God) in the form of Krishna.
● His most famous work is ―Kirtana Ghosha‖
Shankaradeva ● He wrote in Assamese and Brajavali (mixture of Maithili and
(1449-1568) Assamese).
● He was the founder of Eka Saranadharma and Veerapurushamarga
● He is widely credited with building on past cultural relics and devising
new forms of music (Borgeet), theatrical performance (Ankia Naat,
Bhaona), and dance (Sattriya), literary language (Brajavali).
● Disciple of Vishoba Khechar
● He was a devotee of Vittoba (Vishnu)
● Opposed Caste system
● Only Nirguna saint in Maharashtra.
● He belongs to the Varkari tradition.
Namdeva
● Namdeva is remembered in the north Indian monotheistic tradition as a
1270-1350AD)
nirguna saint, in Maharashtra he is considered to be part of the Varkari
tradition (the Vaishnava devotional tradition).
● He is considered one the five revered gurus in Dadupanth tradition
within Hinduism, other four being Dadu, Kabir, Ravidas, and Hardas.
● It is believed that his Abhangas were included in the Guru Granth Sahib.
● Also kmown as Jnaneshwar or Jnandeva.
● He was the founder of Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra in 13th century.
● Wrote ―Dnyaneshwari―, a commentary on the Bhagavad-Gita.
Dnyaneshwar
● His other work on Yoga and philosophy is called ―Amrutanubhav‖
(1275-1296 AD)
● He was worshipper of Vithoba (Vitthala), a manifestation of Vishnu.
● He was a follower of the Nath Yogi Tradition. He also drew inspiration
from the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.
● Disciple of vallabhacharya
Surdas ● Devotee of Lord Krishna and Radha
(1478-1581) ● Use of Brajbhasha in his works
● Work: Sursagar, Sahitya Ratna, Sur Sura Wali
● He was the disciple of Keshav Bharti.
● Well-known saint, ascetic Hindu monk, and social reformer of Bengal,
Chaitanya who popularised the Krishna cult in the 16th century.
(1486-1534) ● He gave philosophy of Achintya bheda abheda(inconceivable oneness
and differences)
● Popularised Sankirtan/Kirtan system (group devotional songs
accompanied with ecstatic dancing).


● The form of Vaishnavism that he preached was called ‗Gudiya
Vaishnavism‘
● The biography of Chaitanya was written by Krishnadas Kaviraj.
Narsingh Mehta ● Saint from Gujarat who wrote Gujarati songs depicting Radha–Krishna
(1414-1481) love.
● Author of Mahatma Gandhi‘s favourite bhajan – ―Vaishanava jan ko‖
● Was one of greatest composers of Carnatic music, who composed
thousands of devotional compositions, most in Telugu and in praise of
Lord Ram.
Saint Thyagaraja ● He was a prolific composer and composed the famous Pancharatna
(1767−1847) Kritis (meaning five gems).
● He was highly influential in the development of the classical devotional
music tradition.
● He was a famous saint from Chhattisgarh and established the ―Satnami
Community‖ there.
Guru Ghasidas ● He strongly believed in equality and criticised the oppressive caste
(1756-1836 AD) system.
● He was a monotheist and was against idol worship.
Haridas ● A great musician saint who sang the glories of Lord Vishnu
(1478-1573 AD)
● Depicted Rama as the incarnation
● Wrote ―Ramcharitmanas‖
● He was a Varkari
Tulsidas ● Founded Sankatmochan Temple dedicated to Lord Hanuman in
(1532-1623 AD) Varanasi.
● Tulsidas started Ramlila plays, a folk-theatre adaption of the Ramayana
● Other works of Tulsidas include: Dohavali, Sahitya ratna or Ratna
Ramayan, Gitavali , Krishna Gitavali or Krishnavali and Vinaya Patrika
 Wrote commentary on verses of the Bhagavad-Gita
 Devotee of Vithoba. He criticized the Caste distinctions.
Sant Eknath  In the development of Marathi literature, Eknath is seen as a bridge
(1533-1599) between his predecessors—Dnyaneshwar and Namdeva—and the later
Tukaram and Ramdas.
 He introduced a new form of Marathi religious song called Bharood.
● Contemporary of Maratha king Shivaji
● Devotee of Vithal
Sant Tukaram ● He founded the Varkri sect
(1598-1650) ● His teachings are contained in Abhangas (Dohas).
● He was a contemporary of Shivaji and was responsible for creating a
background for Maratha nationalism, ‗Parmaratha‘.
 Author of ―Dasabodh‖
Ram Das  He was the spiritual guide of Shivaji.
(1608-1681)  His teachings inspired Shivaji to establish an independent kingdom in
Maharashtra.
● The mild devotees of God Vitthala of Pandharpur, who are more
Varakaris emotional, theoretical, and abstract in their viewpoint.
● Vari means 'pilgrimage' and a pilgrim is called a Varkari.


● The Bhakti movement in Maharashtra centred around the shrine of
Vithoba or Vitthal, the residing deity of Pandharpur, who was regarded
as a manifestation of Krishna.
● The heroic followers of the cult of Ramadasa, the devotee of God Rama,
Dharakaris
who are more rational, practical, and concrete in their thoughts
Women in Bhakti Movement
● Also known as Akka or Mahadevi
● Contributed to Kannada literature
● Established herself as an ardent devotee of Shiva whom she addressed as
Akkamahadevi
Channamallikarjuna.
(1130-1160) ● She earned the title ―Akka‖ meaning elder sister from great philosophers
of her time – Basavanna, Prabhu Deva, Madivalayya and Chenna
Basavanna.
● Was born around the 13th century in Maharashtra in a low caste Sudra
Janabai family.
(1258-1350) ● She wrote over 300 poems focusing on domestic chores and about the
restrictions she faced as a low caste woman.
● She was the most popular Bhakti reformer
● She was born in Rajasthan
Mirabai or Mira ● She became wife of Rana Bhojraj, one of the royal families in Rajasthan
(1498-1547) ● She was the first to introduce Giridhara Gopala cult of Brindavan and
also the first to introduce Bhajan in Bhakthi movement
● Her bhajans were composed in the Vraj Bhasha
● 17th-century poet-saint of Maharashtra, who wrote different abhang,
Bahinabai or
women‘s folk songs that portray the working life of women, especially
Bahina
in fields.
● Only female Alwar saint
Andal ● Andal saw herself as beloved of Vishnu; she expressed her devotional
love for the deity.
Karaikkal ● One of the 3 women Nayanars amongst the 63 Nayanars
Ammaiyar ● She adopted the path of asceticism in order to attain her goal.
Impact of Bhakti Movement

1. Social impact:
● Rejection of the caste distinctions
● Upliftment of people in the lower rungs
● Evil practice of ‗Sati‘ received some set back
● Status of women got improved
● Popularised idea of equality & brotherhood
2. Religious impact:
● Religious tolerance
● Preached inclusive path to spiritual salvation
● Birth of a new sect i.e. Sikhism
● Rulers adopted liberal religious policies
3. Impetus to Vernacular Languages:
● Understood very easily
● Idea spread easily


● Encouraged the value of social service to the poor and the needy
● Developed a humanitarian attitude
Sufi Movement
1. Origin: Sufism rose from Islam in the 8th-9th centuries
2. Region: Originated in lands of Madina, Mecca, Baghdad of Arab world
3. Nature: Sufism was liberal reform movement within Islam, from Persia.
4. The first sufi saint Shaikh Ismail of Lahore started preaching his ideas.
5. Sufism (tasawwuf) is the name given to mysticism in Islam.
6. Sufi means wool: People who wear long woollen clothes were called as sufis.
7. Sufism sprang from the doctrine of Wahadut-ul-wajud (unity of being) propounded by Ibn-ul-
Arabi [1165-1240 AD]
8. Sufism entered in India between 11th and 12th century
9. Al-Hujwari was the first of Sufis who settled in India and died in 1089 AD, popularly known as
Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of unlimited treasure).
10. Sufism has 2 forms:
 Basara- Who believed in Islamic Laws
 Beshara- Who did not believe in Islamic laws
11. The terms Sufi, Wali, Darvesh, and Faqir are used interchangeably for Muslim saints who
attempted to achieve ascetic exercises, contemplation, renunciation.
12. The ideas of ruh (soul), qurbat (divine proximity), and hulul (infusion of the divine spirit),
Ishq (divine love), and Fana (self-annihilation) are central to the theory of Sufism.
13. By the 12th century, the Sufis were organised in Silsila (i.e., orders, which basically represented
an unbreakable chain between the Pir, the teacher, and the murids, the disciples).
14. The liberal and unorthodox features of Sufism were appreciated by Mughal emperor Akbar.
Essential Characteristics Of Sufism
 Fana: Spiritual merger of devotee with Allah
 Insan-e-kamil: Perfect human with all good virtues,
 Zikr-tauba: remembrance of god all the time(zikr),
 Wahadatul-wazudi: one god for entire universe; unity of god and being.
 Sama: Spiritual dance and music to promote concepts, though music is un-Islamic.
Features of Sufism
● Sufism derives its inspiration from Islam. While the orthodox Muslims depend upon external
conduct and blind observance of religious rituals, the Sufi saints seek inner purity.
● According to Sufi saints, God is beloved of lover (``Mashook‖) i.e. the devotee and the devotee
is eager to meet his beloved (God).
● It is based on Pir-Murid (Teacher- student)
● The Sufis think that love and devotion are the only means of reaching God.
● Along with Prophet Muhammad, they also attach great importance to their ‗Murshid‘ or ‗Pir‘
● Devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz)
● Critical of the definitions and scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur‘an and Sunna
(traditions of the Prophet) adopted by theologians.
● Sufis rejected elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious
scholars.
● Sufism took roots in both rural and urban areas and exercised a deep social, political and
cultural influence on the masses


● Sufism has adapted extensively from the Vedanta school of the Hindu philosophy.
● Sufism does not believe in the caste system.
● Sufism emphasises upon leading a simple life.
● Sufi saints preached in Arabic, Persian and Urdu etc.
● The Sufis were divided into 12 orders each under a mystic Sufi saint like Khwaja Moinuddin
Chisthi, Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar, Nizam-ud-din Auliya etc.
Sufi orders
● Established in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, after invasion of
Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori, and settled in Ajmer around c.1206
● Chisti presence in Delhi was established by Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki
● Apart from Muinuddin Chisti, other important Chistis were Baba
Fariduddin Ganj-i- Shakar, who established himself at Hansi, Haryana on
route between Multan and Lahore, and Nizamuddin Auliya
Chishti Order ● In the 13th century, the Chisti Order was established in the Deccan by
Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib.
● Baba Fariduddin popularly known as Baba Farid built khanaqah at
Punjab and was the 1st Punjabi sufi poet.
● His ‗dargah‘ (tomb) at Ajmer (Ajmer Sharif) has become a place of
pilgrimage for Muslims as well as the Hindus. His devotees believe that by
offering prayer at his tomb, their wishes (‗minit‘) are fulfilled.
● Silsilah was founded by Shihabuddin Suhrawardi in Baghdad
Suhrawardi ● Established in India by Bahauddin Zakariya.
Order ● Unlike chishti saints Suhrawardi maintained close contacts with state
● This silsila was firmly established in Punjab and Sind
● Founder: Sheikh Badruddin Samarkandi (13th CE)
Firdausiya
● Activities were confined to Bihar
Order
● Famous sufi Shafruddin Ahmad Yahiya Maneri belonged to this order
● Established in India by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi
● Sheikh Baqi Billah and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1625) were the most
famous saints
Nashqbandi
● Popularised by Babur who was devoted to Khwaja Ahrar of this order
Order
● They criticised liberal policies of Akbar such as the high status accorded
by Akbar to many non-Muslims, withdrawal of the jizya, and ban on cow
slaughter
● Popular in Punjab, was initiated during Mughal rule under the teachings of
Sheikh Abdul Qadir
Qadiriyya Order ● Supported the concept of Wahdat al Wajud meaning ―Unity of Existence‖
or ―Unity of Being‖
● During the reign of Aurangzeb, Qadiriyya order lost patronage of court
Shattariyya ● Founder: Sheikh Sirajuddin Abdullah Shattar
Roshaniya ● Founder: Miyan Bayazid Ansari
Mahadwadi ● Founder: Mullah Mohammad Mahdi
Rishi Order ● Founder: Nur-ud-din Nurani in Kashmir
Qualandariya ● Founder: Abu Wali Qalander


Sufism and Music
● Sufism encourages music as a way of deepening one‘s relation with God, remembering God by
zikr (reciting name) sama or performance of mystical music.
● Sufis too composed poems and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables, the most
notable writer of this period was Amir Khusrau the follower of Nizamuddin Auliya.
● Sufi saints are credited with the invention of sitar and tabla.
● It contributed to the evolution of classical music. Khayal style owes a lot to sufism.
● Amir Khusro gives a unique form to sama.
● Khusrow is sometimes referred to as ―Parrot of India‖. His songs are sung in several dargahs
across the country. Khusrow is regarded as the ―Father of Qawwali‖.
Impact of Sufism
● Religions impact: Lessened religious fanaticism and many Hindus became followers + Tombs
built after their death become places of worship + Belief in unity of God
● Social Impact: Stress on social welfare + Charitable works(orphanages, women service centre)
+ Help to promote equality + Lessened evils of casteism + Infuse spirit of piety and morality
● Political Impact: Motivated some Delhi Sultans to follow a liberal policy.
● Cultural Impact: Popularised devotional music and songs + Literary works in vernacular
languages + Amir Khusro writings were based on Sufi ideas
******

Chapter-8
VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI EMPIRE
The Vijayanagar Kingdom [1336-1672 CE]

 History of Vijayanagar Empire constitutes important chapter in history of India. Four dynasties –
Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672.
 It was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka (with the blessings of Guru Vidyaranya) of the
Sangama dynasty who originally served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal.
 Vijayanagara kingdom was a kind of cooperative commonwealth at first.
 In the south, Vijayanagara‘s main rivals were the Sultans of Madurai and the struggle between
them continued for almost four decades. By c.1377 CE, the Sultanate of Madurai was wiped out
and the Vijaynagara kingdom comprised the whole of south India up to Rameshwaram, including
the Tamil country as well as that of the Cheras (Kerala). In the north, they had continuous
hostility with the Bahmani Sultanate.
Sources to study Vijayanagara Empire

Literary Sources  Krisnadevaraya‘s ‗Amuktamalyada‘,
 Gangadevi‘s ‗Madhuravijayam‘,
 Allasani Peddanna‘s ‗Manucharitra‘
 Vishvanatha Sthanapati‘s ‗Rayavachakam‘
 Robert seawell‘s ‗The Forgotten History of Vijayanagar Empire‘
 Moroccan Traveller- Ibn Batuta (Visited Harihara I, also visited
Muhammad bin Tughalaq);
 Venetian traveller- Nicolo de Conti (during times of Devaraya 1);
 Persian- Abdur Razzak (visited during Devaraya 2);
Foreigner‘s  Portuguese- Domingo Paes and Duarte Barbosa (visited during
Account Krishnadevaraya).
 Portuguese – Nuniz (visited during the times of achyuthdevaraya)
 Srirangam Copper Plate (Tamil Nadu) inscription of Devaraya II;
 Bitragunta inscription (Andhra Pradesh) is major source for the
Archaeological construction of family history of the sangama dynasty.
Sources  Hampi Ruins;
 Coins by various rulers.


About Vijayanagar Kingdom
● Vijayanagar kingdom constituted four dynasties — Sangama (c.1336–1485 CE), Saluva
(c.1485–1503 CE), Tuluva (c.1503–1570 CE) and Aravidu (till the end of the 17th century).
● Founder: Two Sangama brothers Harihara (Hakka) and Bukka Raya laid the foundation of
Vijayanagar on the south of river Tungabhadra in 1336.
● Region: Vijayanagara kingdom comprised the whole of south India up to Rameshwaram,
including the Tamil country as well as that of the Cheras (Kerala). (Vijayanagar is in today‘s
Bellar district of Karnataka).
● Followers: Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Shaivism. Virupaksha was their family
God. Later they came under the influence of Vaishnavism. However, Siva continued to be
worshipped.
● Conflict: There was constant conflict between the Vijayanagar Empire and Bahamani kingdom
over Raichur doab (fertile region between Krishna and Tungabhadra), Tungabhadra doab (fertile
areas of Krishna-Godavari delta) & Marathwada. While in the south its main rivals were Sultans
of Madurai.
● Battle of Talikota: During the reign of Rama Raya, combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar,
Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talikota in 1565 which marked an end of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
● Last ruler: The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III
1. Harihara I [1336-1356]
● Known as Hakka Raya, founder of Vijayanagar
● Baggipelsi Inscription gives information about him
● Originally feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal.
● Saint Vidyaranya played the role of Mentor.
● He built a fort at Bakruru, west coast of Karnataka
● Administered Northern parts of Karnataka
● ‗Anegundi‘ (in modern koppal distt, Karnataka) was his first
capital
● Included Hoysalas area in his kingdom
2. Bukka Raya [1356-1377]
● Extended kingdom to southern India
● He defeated Shambuvaraya kingdom of Arcot
Sangama Dynasty ● He defeated sultanate of Madurai
(1336-1485) ● ‗Madhuraivijaiyam‘ written by his wife Gangambika
● Bukka sent missions to China
● Capital of empire established at Vijayanagar
3. Harihar II [1377-1404]
● He extended his kingdom to east coasts
● Harihara ruled from capital Vijayanagar now more known as
Hampi
● Patronised kannada poet, Madhura
4. Deva Raya I [1406-1422]
● Constructed dam across river Tungabhadra to bring canals into
city
● Under Deva raya, Vijayanagar became a learning centre
‗Vidyanagar‘.
● Italian traveller Nicolo Conti (in c.1420).


5. Deva Raya II [1422-1446]
● Greatest ruler of sangama dynasty
● Authored well-known works in Kannada language (Sobagina Sone
and Amaruka) and in Sanskrit language (Mahanataka Sudhanidhi).
● The Sanskrit poet Gunda Dimdima, and gifted Telugu poet
Kavisarvabhauma (Emperor among Poets) Srinatha, author of
Haravilasam, was also present at his court.
● The noted Hazare Rama temple, an excellent example of Deccan
architecture, was constructed during his rule.
● He also patronised poets like Chamarasa and Kumaravyas.
● Acquired the title of Gajabetegara, which means ―Hunter of
Elephants‖
● Abdur Razzak visited his kingdom in 1443
● The Gorantla inscription traces the details of Saluva dynasty
● Saluva, founded by Saluva Narasimha (the earlier king‘s minister)
Saluva Dynasty reigned only for a brief period (c.1486–1491 CE).
(1485-1505) ● Annamcharaya(Music composer) lived during this time period.
● Important Rulers: Narasimha Dev raya, Thimma Bhupala,
Narasimha raya II
1. Vir Narsimha Ray [1505-09]: Founder of Tuluva Dynasty
2. Krishna Deva Raya [1509-1529]
● The greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers
● Known: ‗Abhinava Bhoja‘, ‗Andhra Pitamah‘, ‗Andhra Bhoja‘
● Krishna Deva himself took the title of Yavanarajya
sthapanacharya
● His Conquests:
o His first task was to check invading Bahamani forces and later
the Deccan Sultanates.
o Muslim armies were decisively defeated in Battle of Diwani.
o He invaded Raichur Doab and confronted Adil Shah of
Bijapur.
o He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered
Tuluva Dynasty the whole of Telangana.
(1505-1570) ● Foreign Policy:
o He maintained friendly relations with Portuguese. Governor
Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva Raya.
o The Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Barbosa
came to India during his reign
o Friendly relations with Portuguese Governor, Albuquerque.
● Religious Belief:
o He was Vaishnavite, but respected all religions.
o Great patron of literature and art.
o 8 eminent Telugu scholars ‗Ashta diggajas‘ adorned his court:
 Allasani Peddanna (Title- Andhrakavita Pitamaha):
works include Manucharitam and Harikathasaram.
 Tenali Ramakrishna: author of Panduranga
Mahamatyam.


Pingali Suranna: author of Garuda Puranam, Prabhavatee
Pradyumnamu, Raghava Pandaveeyam and
Kalapurnodayam.
 Nandi Thimmana – the author of Parijatapaharanam
 Madayyagari Mallana
 Dhurjati
 Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi
 Ramaraja Bhushana
● Krishna Devaraya Wrote: Amuktamalyada (Telugu), Jambavati
Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam (Sanskrit)
● The famous temple of Tirupati developed during his period
● He built some fine stone temples such as Vittalaswami and
Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar.
● Built Krishna temple at Hampi.
● Also built Nagalapuram in memory of the queen.
3. Achyuta Deva raya [1529-1542]
● Portuguese traveller, Fernoa Nuniz, came to India during his reign.
● He patronised the Kannada poet Chatu Vittalanatha, the great
singer and composer Purandaradasa (father of Carnatic music)
● The Sanskrit scholar Rajanatha Dindima II.
● Tiruvengalanatha temple, now popularly known as Achyutaraya
temple, was built in Vijayanagar during his reign.
4. Sadashiv Roy [1542-1570]
● His minister, Aliya Rama Raya, who was the de facto king.
● Deccan states (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar, except
Berar) thus formed confederacy and inflicted crushing blow on
Vijayanagar armies at Bannihatti in Battle of Talikota in c.1565
● This battle is also known as Rakshasa Tangadi
● Battle of Bannihatti is generally considered to mark the end of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
● Caesar Fredrick visited Vijayanagar after the battle of Talaikotta.
Aravidu Dynasty ● Tirumal Deva Raya- Founder of Aravidu Kingdom
(1570-1649) ● Sri ranga III- Last ruler of Vijayanagar Kingdom
Administration of Vijayanagar
 The Rayas (king) enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters.
 King was the highest court of appeal.
 Succession to the throne was mostly on principle of hereditary succession. [Saluva narsimha
came to power after ending Sangama]
 The kingdom was divided into different administrative units called Mandalams (Provinces),
Nadus (Districts), Sthalas(sub-districts) and Gramas(villages).
 The governor of the Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
 Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities.
 The growth of hereditary nayakships weakened local self-government of villages.
 Some important Offices:
o Nayak: Provincial governor
o Dandnayak: Chief of Army


o Ayagar: Hereditary officers
o Karnikam: Treasurer/ accountant
o Athavan: Land revenue department
o Talar: Home minister
o Nayankaras: Military Chief/ Nayak of palaiyagars
o Ayangars: 12 members institution for village administration
Military of Vijayanagar
● Army was well organised
● It consists- cavalry, infantry, artillery, and elephants.
● High breed horses were procured from foreign traders.
● Top grade army officers- Nayakas or Poligars
● Land was given in lieu of their services, land called Amaram.
● Soldiers were usually paid in cash.
Nayankaras and Ayagaras System
● Vijayanagara Kingdom War-State approach, ever made by Hindu Kingdom.
● The Nayankara system was an important Feature of Provincial organisation.
● According to this system, the King was the owner of soil, who distributed land to Nayakas.
● In return for the land they received from the king, the nayakas paid a fixed annual financial
contribution to the imperial exchequer which generally maintained for the king a sufficient
number of troops and served him in his wars.
● An important feature of the village organisation was the ayagar system.
● According to it, every village was a separate community or republic, and its affairs were
conducted by a body of 12 functionaries who were collectively called the ayagars.
Revenue and Economy
● Land revenue called ‗sist‘ .
● Department of land revenue called Athavan.
● Taxes on Land: Kadmal, Irai,vrai (Generally it was at rate of 1/6th of the total produce.)
● Govt. of source of income: chungi tax, custom tax, land revenue, Tributes, gifts, profession
tax
● Chief occupation: Agriculture
● Irrigation: New tanks were built and dams were constructed across rivers like Tungabhadra
● Gold coins: were called- ‗varahas‘ or Pagoda
● Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur district
● Commercial contacts: with Arabia, Persia, South Africa, and Portugal on the west, and with
Burma, the Malay peninsula and China on the east flourished.
● Chief items of Exports: were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre, and sugar.
● Imports: consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk, and velvet cloths.
● Famous Ports: Malabar coast, Cannanore.
● Art of Ship building was developed
Social Life
● Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers to the existence of four castes — Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras.
● Paes mentions beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household servants.
● Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery.
● Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family deity.
● Muslims allowed to build mosques for worship.
● Barbosa referred to the religious freedom enjoyed by everyone.


● Position of women had not improved; some women learnt (Gangadevi- wife of
Kumarakampana)
● Famous Women poet: Hannamma, Thirumalamma.
● Women were honoured, they participated in social political gatherings.
● Widow could remarry.
● Women even went to battles.
● Child marriage was practiced.
● The practice of devadasi (attachment of dancing girls to temples) was in place. Domingo Paes
refers to the flourishing devadasi system of this period.
● Amusement: Music, Dance, wrestling, gambling, cock fight
Cultural Contribution of Vijayanagar
 Management of water resources: canals, reservoirs, tanks constructed
 The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall Raya
Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple
 Horse was the most common animal in these pillars.
 Vittalaswami and Hazara Ramaswamy temples were the best examples of this style.
 The Varadharaja and Ekambareswarar temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples of the
magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture.
 The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram speak of the glorious epoch of
Vijayanagar
 Virupaksha temple built by Krishna Deva Raya
 His famous court poet Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature.
 Literature: Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu language witnessed voluminous literature in the
Vijayanagar period.
● Few Sanskrit works are:
o Gangadevi wrote- Madhuravijayam
o Krishnadevarya wrote – Usha Parinayan, Jambavanti Kalyanam, Madalasa Charita.
o Guru vidyaranya wrote—Raja kalanirnaya
● Literary works in Kannada.
o Chamarasa wrote – Prabhulinga Leela
o Kanakadas wrote- Ramadhanacharite, Nala Charite, Mohantarangini
o Kumaravyasa wrote – Karnataka Katha Manjari
o Purandardas — Keertanas
● Literary works in Telugu
o Krishnadevaraya wrote – Amuktamalyada
o Allasani pedanna wrote – Manucharita
o Nandi timanna wrote – Parijathaparahana etc.
Foreign Travellers Visited Vijayanagara

Name of Travellers From Vijayanagara-Ruler
Abu Abdullah/ lbn Batuta (Book: Rihla) Morocco Harihara I
Nicolo de Conti (Travels of Nicol Conti) Italy Devaraya-II
Abdur Razzaq Persia Devaraya-II
Athanasius Nikitin Russia Virupaksha Raya II
Ludvico de Vorthema Italy Krishna Deva Raya
Duarte Barbosa Portugal Krishna Deva Raya
Dominigo Paes Portugal Krishna Deva Raya


Fernao Nuniz Portugal Achyuta Deva Raya
Marco Polo Venice --
Bahamani Empire [1347-1527]

1. In the 14th century, along with Vijayanagar kingdom, another powerful kingdom arose in South
India, which was the Bahmani Sultanate.
2. The Bahmani Sultanate was a Persianised Muslim state of the Deccan in South India and one
of the major medieval Indian kingdoms.
3. Though the region was ruled by a Muslim it was not an exclusive 'Muslim State'. Hindus were
also part of it as well.
4. In the early 14th century, the Deccan and South India were partitioned into four kingdoms:
 Yadavas of Devagiri (Western Deccan or present Maharashtra)
 Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra (Karnataka)
 Kakatiyas of Warangal (eastern part of present-day Telangana)
 Pandayas of Madurai (southern Tamil Nadu)
5. In order to establish a stable administration in Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed
Amiran-i-sada, also known as Sada Amir (administrative heads of hundred villages).
6. The conflict between the officers in Deccan and Delhi Sultanate, accelerated which ultimately
resulted in the establishment of an independent state in the Deccan in c. 1347 CE
7. Region: The Kingdom stretched from north to south from the Wainganga river to Krishna and
east to west from Bhongir to Daulatabad.
8. Capital at Gulbarga in Andhra Pradesh.
9. Founder: Hasan Gangu, assumed the title Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah.
10. Bahmani Empire reached its zenith during the time of Mahmud Gawan who was a minister of
the Empire.
11. Last ruler: Kalimullah was the last king of the Bahmani dynasty.
Famous Rulers:
Alauddin hasan ● Also known as Hasan Gangu, founded Bahamani kingdom
Bahman Shah(1347-58)
● He started the Bahmani expansion towards Berar
● He was well acquainted with the religious sciences (commentaries on
the Quran, jurisprudence) and natural sciences too (such as botany,
Tajuddin Firoz Shah geometry, logic, etc.).
(1397-1422) ● He encouraged the pursuit of astronomy and built an observatory
near Daultabad.
● Inducted a large number of Hindus in his administration.
Ahmad Shah Wali ● His association with the famous Sufi saint Gesu Daraz
(1422-35) ● He shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar


● He was a Persian merchant.
● He was granted the title of Malik-ul-Tujjar, i.e., ‗Chief of the
Merchants‘ by Humayun Shah.
● He divided the kingdom into eight tarafs or provinces, each governed
by a tarafdar
● Curtailed power of Tarafdars in order to strengthen the central
government.
● The salary was paid in cash or by assigning a Jagir.
● A tract of land called Khalisa was set apart for expenses of Sultan.
● Introduced use of Gunpowder in war against Vijayanagar Kings.
Mahmud Gawan
● He was a great patron of arts and made endowments to build a
(1461–1481)
college at Bidar which was built in Persian style of architecture.
● Executed in 1481 by Muhammad Shah, Deccan nobles plotted
against him.
● After Gawan‘s execution, Bahmani kingdom began to disintegrate
and the provincial governors declared their independence.
● Bahmani kingdom disintegration
o Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar
o Adil Shahis of Bijapur
o Qutub Shahis of Golconda
o Imad Shahis of Berar
o Barid Shahis of Bidar
By the Year 1526, Bahamani Kingdom was split into 5 independent kingdoms:
Disintegration of
Bahmani Kingdom
1.Nizam Shahis
2. Adil Shahis 3.Qutub Shahis 3.Imad Shahis 3.Barid Shahis
of
Ahmadnagar of Bijapur of Golconda of Berar of Bidar
● Founded by Ahmad Nizam Shah

Nizam Shahis of
● Founded the city of Ahmadnagar
Ahmadnagar
● Annexed by Shah Jahan
● Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah
● Mohd. Adil Shah built world‘s second largest dome (Gol Gumbaz of
Adil Shahis of Bijapur Bijapur)
● Bijapur was annexed by Aurangazeb in 1686.
● Founded by Fatullah Khan Imad-ul-Mulk
Imad Shahis of Berar
● Later conquered by Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagar
● Annexed by the rulers of Ahmednagar.


● Founded by Quli Qutub Shah, who built the famous Golconda fort.
Qutub Shahis of ● Quli Qutub Shah Greatest of all Qutub Shahi who built the city of
Golconda Hyderabad and ‗Charminar‘.
● Kingdom annexed by Aurangzeb.
● Founded by Ali Barid.
Barid Shahis of Bidar
● Annexed by Adil Shahis of Bijapur
Salient Features of Bahmani Kingdom

● Same administrative structure as Delhi Sultanate.
● King is apex and assisted by number of officials for discharging his
duties, e.g.
o Wakil (Prime Minister)
o Wazir (Minister)
o Dabir (Secretary)
o Sarhaddar (Warden of Marches)
o Qiladar (Commander of Fortresses)
Administration o Bakshi (paymaster), Qazi (Judge)
o Mufti (interpreter of law)
o Kotwal (police)
o Muhtasib (censor of public morals) etc
● Muhammad I is credited with organizing administrative and institutional
structures of the time.
● Under him, the kingdom was partitioned into four tarafs or provinces
which had their headquarters at Daulatabad, Berar, Bidar and Gulbarga.
Each was placed under the charge of a governor
● Bahamani rulers depended for military support on their amirs
● There were two groups in ranks of amirs: One was the Deccanis who were
immigrant Muslims and had been staying for a long time in the Deccan
Military
region. The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis who had recently come
from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq.
● Bahamanis were familiar with the use of gunpowder in warfare.
● In the Bahmani kingdom, trade and commerce was in a flourishing state.
● Nikitin, the Russian traveller, who was in Deccan during 1469– 1474,
provides us with ample information regarding the commercial activities of
Bidar.
● Horses, cloth, silk and pepper were the chief merchandise.
● Nikitin mentions the Bahmani seaport Mustafabad-Dabul as a centre of
Economy and commercial activity.
Society ● Dabul was well connected with Indian as well as with African ports.
● Horses were imported from Arabia,Khurasan and Turkestaan.
● Trade and commerce was mostly controlled by Hindu merchants.
● The social structure of the Bahmanis was cosmopolitan in character.
● There were Muslims, Hindus, Iranians, Transoxonians, Iraqis and
Abyssinians.
● The Portuguese came during the early sixteenth century.


● Persian ,Arabic and Urdu literature flourished in this period.
● Mohammad Gawan wrote poems in the Persian language. Riyaz-ul-Insha,
Manazir-ul-insha are his works.
Literature
● A new dialect called ―Dakhini urdu ― became popular during this time.
● The famous sufi saint of Gulbarga, Khwaja Bande Nawaz Gesu Daraj
wrote in this language.
● They followed Indo-Islamic style of architecture with some
improvisation. Local materials were used to construct the buildings.
● The architecture was highly influenced by Persian architecture.
● Some features of this style are: Tall minarets, Strong arches, Huge
domes, Spacious Hazaras, Crescent moon at the top of the building.
● Examples:
Architecture o Monuments at Gulbarga: Shah bazaar mosque, Hafta Gumbaz, Jama
maszid etc
o At Bidar : Mohammad Gawan‘s madrasa, solah khamba mosque,
Rangeen mahal, Janata mahal etc
o At Bijapur : Gol gumbaz (built by Mohammad Adil shah in
1656AD), Ibrahim roza, Bara Kaman, Anand mahal, Chand Bawdi
etc.
******

Chapter-9
MUGHAL EMPIRE I [BABUR, HUMAYUN, SHER SHAH]
Arrival of Mughals
● The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur, a Central Asian ruler who claimed lineage from
Timur (the founder of the Timurid Empire)
● Mughals are also referred as Timurids [related to Timur from father‘s side and Chengiz Khan
from mother‘s side]
● The situation in Central Asia was not stable and Babur lost to the Uzbeks.
● Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur was forced to move towards India.
● India was already divided into many small states and lacked central authority.
● Daulat Khan Lodhi, who declared himself independent in Punjab, invited Babur to India.


Mughal Rule (c.1526–1857 CE):
Humayun Shah
Babur Sher Shah Akbar Aurangzeb
[1530-40 Jahangir Jahan
[1526- Suri [1540- [1556- [1658-
and [1605-27] [1628-
1530] 1555] 1605] 1707]
1555-56] 1658]
● Founder of Mughal Empire (descendants of Mongols)

● He became the Sultan of Farghana (Uzbekistan)
● He was invited to fight against Ibrahim Lodhi by Daulat Khan Lodhi
● First Battle of Panipat (c.1526 CE): fought between Ibrahim Lodhi
and Babur. Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated and he took control of Delhi
and Agra.
● He effectively applied the Rumi (Ottoman) method of warfare, also
known as Tulguma system of warfare
● Introduced gun-fires under Ottoman gunners Ustad Ali and Mustafa
● Battle of Khanwa (c.1527 CE, near Fatehpur Sikri): fought
between Babur and Rana Sanga of Mewar and his allies.
● Battle of Chanderi (c.1528 CE): This battle was fought between
Babur and Medini Rai, the Rajput ruler of Malwa.
● Battle of Ghagra (near Bihar, c.1529 CE): This battle was fought
Babur between Babur and Mahmud Lodhi
[1526-1530] Highlights of Rule:
● Established an all-India Empire by breaking the Rajput Confederacy.
● Introduced new mode of warfare and led to the popularisation of
gunpowder, cavalry, and artillery in India
● He wrote his memoir in a dialect of Turkish, it‘s called Tuzuk-i-
Babri/Babarnama
● Introduced Char-Bags and symmetrically laid out gardens with
running waters and fountains.
● He was a Naturalist and described the flora and fauna of India.
● Obtained Kohinoor diamond from Gwalior King, Rana Vikramjit
and gifted to Humayun
● Security from External invasions for almost 200yrs.
● Strengthened India‘s foreign trade.
● Re-established the authority of the king in Delhi, which had been
eroded since the death of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
● Eldest son of Babur, He succeeded Babur.
● ‗Humayun‘ means ‗fortune‘, but he remained the most unfortunate
ruler of the Mughal Empire.
● In 1531, he first invaded Kalinjar
Humayun ● Battle of Dauhariya (1532): He fought with afghans under
[1530-40 and leadership of Mahmud Lodhi
1555-56] ● Besieged powerful fort of Chunar from the Afghan sardar Sher Khan
● Battle of Chausa (near Buxar, c.1539 CE): Humayun was defeated
and Sher Khan adopted the title of Sher Shah.
● Battle of Bilgrama/Battle of Kannauj (c.1540 CE): Humayun
defeated by Sher Shah


● Humayun now became prince without a kingdom and had to flee from
Delhi, becoming an exile for the next 15 years (c.1540–1555 CE).
● In c.1555 CE, following the break-up of the Sur empire, Humayun
defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne.
● His half-sister, Gulbadan Begum, wrote Humayun-nama.
● Humayun built a new city at Delhi which he named Dinapanah.
● Constructed the Jamali mosque and mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi.
● Humayun‘s tomb in Delhi is called the prototype of the Taj Mahal,
and was built by his widow Haji Begum (UNESCO site).
● Humayun invited two Persian painters, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus
Samad, and made them his court painters.
● Founder of Sur dynasty and also 2nd Afghan Empire (after Lodhis)
● Earlier served under Afghan governor of Bihar, Bahar Khan Lohani.
● Adopted title of Sher Shah after defeating Humayun in the Battle of
Chausa.
● He adopted a tolerant attitude towards other religions.
● He borrowed the idea of Branding of Horses from Alauddin Khilji.
Administration of Sher Shah:
● The empire was divided in sarkars
● Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the
two officers of the sarkars.
● He adopted system of local responsibility for law and order.
● Each sarkar was divided into several parganas.
● Shiqdar (military officer), Amil (land revenue), Fotedar (treasurer),
and Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of the administration.
● He followed the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji and
maintained his personal royal force called Khasa Kail.
● Diwan-i- Wizarat: Also called Wazir, in charge of Revenue and
Sher Shah Suri Finance
[1540-1555] ● Diwan-i-Ariz: In charge of the Army.
● Diwan-i-Risalat: Foreign Minister
● Diwan-i-Insha: Minister for Communications
● Diwan-i-Barid: Intelligence Department
Revenue Administration:
● His land revenue system is known as Zabti System
● Revenue officers were called Amils
● Qanungo were the officials in charge of maintaining revenue records
● Sher Shah for the first time introduced a schedule of crop rates (ray).
● He improved the land revenue system by adopting Zabti-i-har-sal
(land assessment every year)
● Sher Shah also introduced new copper coins called Dam
● He was also the first ruler to introduce silver Rupayia.
● Introduced Patta (amount each peasant had to pay) and Qabuliyat
(deed of agreement).
● He also improved Postal System and built many sarais.
Highways for communication:
● Sonargaon to Sindhu river (later called as Grand Trunk Road)


● Agra to Burhampur
● Jodhpur to Chittor
● Lahore to Multan
Art and Architecture:
● He built the Purana Qila (Old Fort), Sher Mandal, an octagonal
building inside the Purana Qila complex
● He also built Rohtas Fort (UNESCO World Heritage Site in Pakistan)
● He built a new city, Bhera in modern day Pakistan
● Malik Mohammad Jaysi completed his Padmavat during his reign.
● Abbas Khan Sarwani wrote the Tarikh-i-Shershahi.
● He built the Shahi (Royal) road from the Indus Valley to the Sonar
Valley in Bengal. This road was renamed the Grand Trunk (GT) road
during the British period, connecting Calcutta and Peshawar.
******

Chapter-10
MUGHAL EMPIRE II
[AKBAR, JAHANGIR, SHAH JAHAN, AURANGAZEB]
● Son of Humayun and Hamida Banu Begum, born at Amarkot

● Bairam Khan represented Akbar in Second battle of Panipat (c.1556
CE) with Hemu Vikramaditya (Wazir of Mohd. Shah Adil of
Bengal)
● Battle of Haldighati (c.1576 CE): Rana Pratap was defeated by the
Mughal army led by Man Singh.
● Akbar‘s Rajput policy was combined with a broad religious
tolerance.
● Akbar was not liked for his political ideology by Shaikh Ahmad
Sirhindi (Sufi leader).
Major Conquests:
● Malwa(1560)- From Baz Bahadur
● Chunar: From afghans
● Gondwana region(1564): From Rani Durgavati
● Chittor (1568): from Rana Uday Singh
● Gujarat(1573): from Muzaffar Shah
● Haldighati(1576): Rana Pratap
● Bihar and Bengal(1576): From Daud Khan, the Afghan ruler
● Ahmadnagar(1597)- Chand Bibi
Major Reforms:
Akbar ● Abolition of Slavery
[1556-1605] ● Abolition of Jaziya
● Mansabdari system was introduced
● Ibadat khana was built
● Dashala system was introduced by Todarmal
Relations with Rajputs:
● He made matrimonial alliances with rajputs.
● Rajputs were a part of Mughal‘s administration (Man Singh- Military
general)
● Akbar‘s Rajput policy was combined with broad religious tolerance.
● He abolished the pilgrimage tax and Jaziya.
Religious Policy:
● He was pious muslim after marrying Jodhabai, he abolished
pilgrimage tax & Jiziya.
● He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their gods
● Ordered Construction of Ibadat khana (House of worship) at Fatehpur
sikri.
● He was in contact with Sufi saints.
● He invited learned scholars from all religions.
● He opposed the interference of Ulema in political matters.
● He promulgated a new religion called Din-I-Ilahi, in 1582.


Din-I-Ilahi:
● Akbar adopted the policy of ‗Sulh-i-kul‘ (peace for all)
● He united all religions, ‗Tauhid-i-Ilahi‘
● Granted freedom to people of all religions
● Christain missionaries were also allowed to propagate
● He changed jagirs to Khalisa land
Land Revenue System:
● It was largely based on Sher Shah‘s system but with slight
modifications and was called the Zabti or Bandobast system.
● Raja Todar mal introduced 'Dahsala system'- a land measurement
system.
● Land was divided into 4 categories: Polaj (Cultivated every year);
Parauti (once in a year); Chachar (once in 3-4 years); Banjar (more
years)
Mansabdari System:
● Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration.
● Every officer was assigned a rank (mansab).
● Ranks were divided into- Zat and sawar.
● Zat indicates the fixed personal status of a person.
● Sawar indicates the number of cavalrymen required to be maintained.
● Mansab's rank was not hereditary.
● Many Rajput mansabdars were assigned their own territories as
Watan Jagir, which was hereditary and non-transferable.
Akbar‘s Nine Ratna's in Court:
● Abu Fazl: author of Akbarnama
o Akbarnama: [Vol. 1&2- Akbar ancestor and Akbar Reign; Vol.
3- ‗Ain-i-Akbari‘ about administration, Revenue, Army system]
● Faizi: Translated Panchatantra, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Notable –
‗Leelawati‘ in Persian
● Todar Mal: Revenue minister, he introduced standard measurements
● Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan: translated ‗Babarnama in Persian‘
● Tansen: great musician, innovator of Milan ki Malhar Darbari
Kanada Raags
● Man Singh: fought Haldighati
● Mullah do Piaza: Intelligent advisor in court of Akbar
● Birbal: known as Court Jester
● Faqir Aziao-Din: one of the Chief advisors of Akbar and religious
minister
Architecture
● It was in order to commemorate the victory of Gujarat that Akbar
built the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri.
● Fatehpur sikri-Jodha Bai‘s palace, the Panch Mahal
● The most magnificent building in it is Jama Masjid and gateway to
it is called Buland Darwaza (the Lofty Gate)
● Constructed Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Aam, Sheikh Salim Chisti‘s
tomb
● Akbar built Agra fort, Lahore Fort, Allahabad fort, Humayun‘s


tomb
Art and Literature
● Hamzanama, consisted of 1200 paintings, belonged to his reign.
● European style of painting was introduced by Portuguese priests in
court.
● Jaswant & Daswan were famous painters in his court.
● Persian poets in his court: Abu Fazl and his brother Abul Faizi,
Tarikh Alfi, Utbi and Nazir.
● Hindi poets in his court: Tulsidas- wrote ―Ramcharitmanas‖.
● Akbar commissioned translation of Sanskrit works into Persian. For
this, Maktab Khana/translation bureau was also established at
Fatehpur Sikri.
● The Razmnamah is the Persian translation of the Mahabharata.
● His period was popularly known as ‗Renaissance of Persian
literature‘.
● Revolted against Akbar in c.1599 CE.
● Assumed title of Nur-ud-din Mohd Jahangir (Conqueror of World)
● Married Mehrunnisa- He gave her title of Nur Jahan
● She encouraged Persian art and culture in the court.
● 5th Sikh guru, Arjun Dev, was beheaded for supporting rebel prince
Khusrau.
● Introduction of ―du-aspah-sih-aspah‖ system. It was modification to
Mansabdari. Nobles were allowed to maintain a large number of
troops without raising their zat ranks.
Jahangir [1605-27] ● Mahtab Khan was his military general & had revolted against him
● The British visited Machilipatnam during Jahangir‘s reign. Captain
Hawkins (c.1608–11 CE) and Thomas Roe visited his court.
● Thomas Roe got farman for setting up an English factory at Surat.
● Autobiography: Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri in Persian
● He also patronised the valuable dictionary Farhang-i-Jahangiri.
● The practice of putting up buildings in marble and decorating the
walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones (known as
Pietra Dura) started during his reign.
● Jahangir built the Moti Masjid at Lahore.
● Also known as Khurram
● Shah Jahan‘s Deccan policy was more successful, he successfully
isolated Ahmadnagar by winning over Bijapur and the Marathas
● In c.1636 CE, ahdnama (treaties) were signed with Bijapur and
Golconda.
● Adil Shah accepted the Mughal suzerainty
Shah Jahan [1628- ● In c.1632 CE, Shah Jahan defeated the Portuguese near Hughli.
1658]
● Shah Jahan‘s reign is considered ‗Golden age‘ of Mughal Empire.
● His son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavad Gita and
Upanishads into the Persian language
● His reign is described by: French travellers – Bernier and
Tavernier, Italian traveller – Manucci and Peter Mundy
● ―Shah Jahan Nama‖ is written by Inayat Khan.


● His court historian Abdul Hameed Lohiri wrote ―Badshahnama‖.
● He built:
o Taj Mahal: design prepared by Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad
Effendi, Ismail Khan
o Moti Masjid at Agra (entirely in white marble), Sheesh Mahal
and Musamman Burj at Agra, Jama Masjid at Delhi (in red
stone)
o He built Shalimar Bagh in Lahore and city of Shahjahanabad.
o He also got Bebadal Khan to build the Peacock Throne
● Battle of Dharmat, Battle of Samugarh(c.1658 CE - fought between
Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh), Battle of Khajwah, and Battle of
Deorai(c.1659 CE -Dara fought against Aurangzeb) took place &
Finally Aurangzeb emerged victorious.
● Assumed title of ‗Alamgir‘
● He was called Zinda Pir.
● Maasir-i-Alamgiri book written by Mustaid Khan throws light on
Aurangzeb‘s rule.
● Aurangzeb built Bibi Ka Maqbara (replica of Taj) at Aurangabad,
Moti Masjid (Near Red fort, Delhi).
● Miraz Mohammad Qasim wrote ―Alamgirnama‖.
● He abolished Dahsala system of Akbar and introduced Izradari
System.
Conquest of Deccan:
● Attempt was to recover from Bijapur the territories belonging to the
Ahmadnagar state, Led by Jai Singh, the governor of Deccan
● Aurangzeb‘s efforts to contain the Marathas were not very successful
Aurangzeb [1658- as the tripartite alliance between Golconda, Shivaji, and Bijapur did
1707] not allow Aurangzeb to have his way
Religious Policy:
● He was staunach and orthodox sunni Muslim
● He issued Zawabit-i- Alamgir (decrees of Aurangzeb) and appointed
Muhtasibs to enforce moral codes given under it.
● Drinking was prohibited
● Drugs were banned
● No tolerance to other religions
● He also forbade music in the Mughal court and discontinued the
practice of Jharokha darshan
● Re-introduced Jaziya
● He executed ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, which resulted in
the rebellion of the Sikh community
● Aurangzed abolished solar calendar & introduced Arab lunar
Calendar
● Initially Aurangazeb banned the construction of new Hindu temples
and repair of old temples. Then he began a policy of destroying
Hindu temples.
******

Chapter - 11
MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION, ART AND CULTURE
Mughal Administration
● Mughal Empire was divided into Subas and further subdivided into Sarkar, Parganas and Gram.
● Subas (provinces): Head- Sipahsalar/ Subedar
● Daroga-i-dak (postal officer) was appointed at every subas
● Also other territorial units called Khalisa, Jagirs and Inams (based on ownership)
● Jahangir introduced a new provision in sawar rank. Part of the sawar rank was termed du-aspa
sih-aspa in case of select mansabdars.
● Officers of Mughal Empire:
o Wazir: Head of revenue department
o Diwan: Control on income and expenditure
o Mir Bakshi: Head of military department and intelligence agencies
o Diwan-i-Bayutat: Maintain road and constructions
o Sadr-us-Sadr: Incharge of charitable and religious endowments
o Mir-i-Arz: Officer in charge of petition
o Sadr: Judicial department
o Fauzdar: administrative head of district
o Amal: Revenue collection
o Shiqdar: administrative head of pargana
 Judicial system:
o Criminal court was normally known as ‗Diwan-i-Mazalim‘
o In Ain-i-Akbari, details of Akbar‘s judicial procedure is mentioned
o Principal court- settlement in Quazi‘s court
o Capital punishments and Harsh punishments were frequent
 Military Organisation:
o Soldiers supplied by Mansabdars
o Troops under mansabdar known as ‗Dakhii‘
o Babur introduced Gunpowder
 Jagirdari and Mansabdari System:
o Jagirs of Mughal period were same as Iqta of Delhi sultanate
o Assignment of Jagirdari was not a hereditary right
o Officers collecting Revenues in Jagirdars: Karkun, Amil, Fotedar
o All jagirdars were mansabdars but all mansabdars were not jagirdars
o Akbar introduced mansabdari system, to organise nobility and army
o Akbar introduced Dual rank- ‗Zat and ‗Sawar‘
o Mansab was based on merit and was not hereditary
 Land Revenue Administration:
o Sher shah‘s crop rate called- Dastur-ul-amal
o Todar Mal introduced a new land measurement system during Akbar‘s reign -introduced
system of Dahsala or Bandobast or Zabti system
o Dashala: Average produce per bigha of each category of land was ascertained based on past
10 years‘ produce
o Polaj: Lands that could be cultivated


oParauti: Land kept uncultivated for a while
oChachar: uncultivated land for some years
oKarori: Office of Karori concerned with assessment and collection of revenue
oAmil: During Shah Jahan‘s reign, it was responsible for assessment of revenue
oQanungo: Local revenue official of pargana
oShiqdar: under Shah Jahan, he was incharge of revenue collection and law and order
oMuqaddam and Patwari: Village level revenue officials
Economy During Mughals
● Agriculture:
o Extension of land under cultivation was encouraged
o Plenty of land available for cultivation, during the reign agriculture was prosperous.
o Crops: Wheat, rice, barley, gram, pulses
o Commercial crops: Cotton, indigo, sugarcane and oil seeds
o During the 17th century two new crops, namely Tobacco and Maize were added.
o Potato and Red chillies came in the 18th century.
o No agriculture techniques were available.
● Trade:
o There was a well organised and highly professional system.
o Bohra traders specialised in long distance trade, while local traders were known as Banik.
o Banjaras were specialised in carrying bulk goods on the back of oxen. Banjaras were
generally merchants. They referred to their caravans as tanda.
o Trading community did not belong to one caste or Religion.
o Multanis, Khatris and Afghanis conducted trade with Central Asia.
o Chettis on Coromandal coast and muslim merchants of Malabar were the most important
trading communities.
o The Coromandel coast became the centre of Textile production.
o Gujarat was the entry point of Foreign goods.
o Major imports: Metals such as tin and copper, war horses and luxury items such as ivory.
o Exports; Sugar, Rice, Muslin, Silk, Indigo, Foodgrains
o Balance of trade was tilted towards India because of imports of Gold and silver.
Art and Culture during Mughal period
 Famous literature works:
o Persian was the language of Mughals
o Babur wrote: Tuzuk-i-Babari
o Gulbadan Begum wrote: Humayunnama
o Abu fazl: Akbarnama, Ain-i-Akbari
o Badauni: Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh (Akbar‘s rule)
o Tulisdas was the greatest Hindi poet contemporary to Akbar
o Ghalib was attached to the court of Bahadur Shah
 Architecture:
o Architecture were mostly of Persian influence as well as Hindu Temple architecture
o Babur built two mosques in Kabuli Bagh in Panipat and Sambhal in Rohilkhand
o Use of Red sandstone is quite noticeable in Akbar‘s construction
o Akbar constructed Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore fort, Agra fort
o Jahangir‘s reign- gardens were built such as ‗Shalimar Bagh‘ and ‗Nishat bagh‘ in Kashmir.
o Climax of the fort building reached its peak during the reign of Shah Jahan.
o Floral designs made of Semi precious stones on white marble called the Pietra Dura


technique of architecture started from Jahangir and were popularised by Shah Jahan.
o Shah Jahan was the greatest builder among Mughals; he made use of White marbles.
o Shah Jahan‘s Famous buildings: Taj mahal, Pearl Mosque, Red Fort, Jama Masjid in Delhi
o Mosque building had reached to its peak during Shah jahan‘s reign.
o The Moti Masjid of Agra was built entirely in White Marble .
o The Jama Masjid at Delhi was built in red stone.
 Paintings:
o Humayun is founder of Mughal school of painting
o He persuaded Khwaja abdul Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali established studio painting
o Mughal Style was a synthesis of the Indian style of painting and the Safavid school of
Persian painting. Later European influence can also be noticed.
o The period also witnessed the flowering of portrait and miniature paintings.
o Seasons or baramasa paintings were similarly given artistic forms
o Tutinama(tales of a parrot) Painting, during Akbar times.
o Famous painters of Akbar‘s school: Dasvanath, Baswan, Miskina, Daswant, Mansur etc
o Hamzanama illustrations on cloth- cloth painting
o Akbar started a separate department for paintings, the concept of Karkhana.
o Miniature paintings in an art studio established by Akbar.
o Use of Calligraphy for sighting techniques prevails.
o Themes of Akbar paintings are mostly fairs and Festivals.
o Mughal paintings reached their pinnacle during Jahangir.
o Jahangir started Portrait paintings
o Jahangir's paintings were in most part inspired by nature and portraits of birds, flowers and
scenery.
o Portrait of Jahangir is a typical example of miniature painting during the period of Jahangir
Cause of decline of Mughal empire

● Aurangzeb's religious fanaticism
● Over-expansion of empire (difficult to administer)
● Weak successors (from Bahadur Shah I to Shah Alam II)
● Later Mughals have lacked commitment and motivation
● Degeneration of the Mughal Nobility
● Demoralisation of the Mughal Army
● Economic Bankruptcy(Shah Jahan‘s zeal for construction had depleted the treasury)
● Foreign invasions (Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali)
● Aurangzeb‘s Deccan Policy
● Jagirdari Crisis
******

Chapter-12
THE MARATHAS
 The single most important power that emerged in
the fading shadow of the Mughal dynasty was
the Marathas. Various factors contributed to the
rise of the Marathas in 16th and 17th centuries.
 The Marathas held important positions in the
administrative and military systems of Deccan
Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar, which
offered them a first hand experience of
administration, further facilitating in the
emergence and organisation of the Maratha state.
Shivaji Raje Bhonsle (c.1674–1680 CE)

● Founder of Maratha empire: Known as
‗Swarajya‘
● Shivaji was greatly influenced by: Jijabai (his
mother), Dadaji Kondev (his teacher), Sufi saint
Pir Shaikh Yacub, Guru Ramdas, Tukaram
(Bhakti Saint), Hazrat Baba of Ratnagiri
● Conquered many Forts: Singh Garh/
Kondana (1643), Rohind and Chakan (1644-
45), Toran (1646), Purandhar (1648),
Rajgarh/ Raigarh (1656), Supa (1656), Panhala (1659).
● Captured Javli from a Maratha chief named Chanda Rao More.
● He also raided a Portuguese settlement at Daman and received tribute from them.
● Battle of Pratapgarh (c.1659 CE): Fought between Afzal Khan (represented Adil Shah of
Bijapur) and Shivaji
● Battle of Kolhapur: Fought between General Rustemjaman (represented by Adil Shah of
Bijapur) and Shivaji.
● Battle of Pavankhind (c.1660 CE): Fought between Siddi Johar (represented by Adil Shah of
Bijapur) and Shivaji.
● Struggle with Aurangzeb: In 1660 CE, Aurangzeb sent the Mughal governor of the Deccan,
Shaista Khan, against Shivaji. Shivaji was defeated by Shaista Khan. Later he made a bold attack
on Shaista Khan‘s military camp at Poona in 1663 & wounded him.
● Treaty of Purander was signed in c.1665 CE: between Shivaji and Raja Jai singh (Shivaji
agreed to meet Aurangzeb)
● Battle of Salher: Defeated Mughals in Battle of Salher (1672). He was crowned & assumed the
title Maharaja Chhatrapati in 1674 at Raigad fort.
Salient features of Empire

● Helped by Ashtapradhan (council of 8 ministers)
o Peshwa: Finance and General administration
Administration
o Majumdar (Amaty): Revenue and Finance minister
o Waqia-navis (Mantri): Home minister


o Dabir (Sumant): Foreign Minister
o Suranavis (Sachiv): Head of Royal correspondence
o Pandit Rao: religious Affairs
o Sar-i-Naubat (Senapati): Military Commander
o Nyayadhish: Justice
● Division of Swaraj in number of ‗Prants‘
● Prants (Province)= Subedar supervised by Sarsubedar
𝖴
● Tarfs (Districts)= Havaldar (law and order)
𝖴
Provincial
● Parganas (sub-districts)= Deshpande(Account and record keeper) and
Administration
Deshmukh (law and order)
𝖴
● Mauzas (Village)= Kulkarni (Account and record keeper) and Patil (law and
order).
● The revenue system was based on that of Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar.
● Lands were measured by using a rod called ‗kathi‘.
● He drastically reduced the powers of the existing Deshmukhs and Kulkarnis
and appointed his own revenue officials called karkuns
Revenue
● Chauth: 1/4th of land revenue of land paid to Marathas so that it would not
be subjected to Maratha raids
● Sardeshmukhi: Additional levy of 10% on those land of Maharashtra over
which Maratha claim Hereditary rights
● Payment of soldiers in cash
● Recruited soldiers on merit in infantry, calvary and navy
Military ● Calvary was supervised by havildars.
Administration ● Two divisions of Maratha cavalry- 1. Bargirs: equipped and paid by state
and 2. Silahdars: maintained by the nobles.
● Guerrilla Warfare was the Uniqueness of his military expeditions
Factors that enabled the Rise of Maratha Rule

1. Political conditions: Mughal Invasion in Deccan and ensuing socio-economic backwardness
was the primary reason for discontent in the region which created conditions ripe for a rebellion.
● Waning Mughal strength after the death of Aurangzeb
● Factionalism within Mughal courts
● Divisions within Mughal nobility
● Inept successors.
2. Favourable physical environment: Presence of mountainous regions and dense forests helped
Marathas to adopt guerrilla tactics. This also provided a strong defence against Invaders.
3. Impregnable forts: Building of a number of forts on the mountains provided them stronger
defence which they used to their advantage against Mughal attacks and this enabled the rise of
Marathas.
4. Maratha Nationalism: The seeds of nationalism were sowed through a call for social unity
raised during the Bhakti movement by leaders like Tukaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit and Eknath.
This helped in unification of the Maratha Empire.
5. Able leadership of Peshwas


Succesors Of Shivaji:
1. Sambhaji (1680-89): Son of Shivaji; Provided protection to Akbar II son of Aurangzeb; In
1687, at Battle of Wai he defeated Mughal forces; In 1689, Sambhaji was captured, tortured and
executed by the Mughals.
2. Rajaram (1689-1700): He made Jinji as his capital; created new post of Pratinidhi, thus taking
the total number of the minister to nine
3. Tarabai (1700-07): Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II under guardianship of
his mother Tarabai
4. Shahu (1707-1749): Tarabai‘s army was defeated by Shahu in the Battle of Khed, and Shahu
occupied Satara.
5. Shahu‘s reign saw the rise of Peshwas and transformation of the Maratha kingdom into principle
confederacy.
 Scindia- Gwalior
 Holkar- Indore
 Pawar- Dhar
 Gaekwad- Baroda
 Bhonsale- Nagpur
 Peshwa- Poona
Office of the Peshwa (c.1640–1818 CE)

Moropant Trimbak ● Was appointed Peshwa by Chhatrapati Shivaji
Pingle (c.1657–1683)
Moreshwar Pingale ● Was Peshwa under Sambhaji
(c.1683–1689 CE)
● He is known in history for making the post of Peshwa, hereditary
● Helped Shahu become the Maratha ruler by seeking the support of
all Maratha leaders for Shahu
Balaji Vishwanath ● He got certain rights from the then Mughal Emperor, Farrukh Siyar,
Bhatt (c.1713–1719 CE) such as recognition of Shahu as Maratha king and the permission to
collect chauth and sardeshmukhi
● Assisted Saiyyad brothers in dethroning Farrukh Siyar from Delhi
● He was the most famous of all nine Peshwas and also known as
Baji Rao I ―Thorale‖, meaning ‗Elder‘ Baji Rao.
(c.1720–1740 CE) ● He was the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji.
● He preached and popularised the idea of Hindu-padpadshahi
● In c.1722 CE, he captured Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese
Balaji Baji Rao I/ ● Appointed as Peshwa by Shahuji.
Nana Sahib I ● Peshwa entered into agreement with Mughal Emperor in c.1752 CE
(c.1740–61 CE) ● In Third Battle of Panipat (c.1761 CE), Ahmad Shah Abdali
invaded India, andMarathas were defeated
● He defeated Nizam, compelled Haidar Ali of Mysore to pay tribute.
Madhav Rao ● Saw the division of the Maratha kingdom into semi-independent
(c.1761–1772 CE) states. Of these, the most important were Gaekwads (Gaekwars),
Holkars, and Scindias.
● There ensued a struggle for power between Raghunath Rao
Raghunath Rao (younger brother of Balaji Baji Rao) and Narayan Rao (younger
(c.1772–1773 CE) brother of Madhav Rao).


Narayan Rao ● He was murdered on the orders of Raghunath Rao.
(c.1772–1773 CE)
● Son of Narayan Rao, who was just 40 days old when crowned as
the Peshwa.
● The empire was managed by Nana Phadnavis, an able administrator
and a great warrior, with the help of the Barbhai Council (a twelve-
member regency council).
Sawai Madhav Rao ● Raghunath Rao sought the help of the British which led to the First
(c.1774–1795 CE) Anglo-Maratha War (c. 1775 – 1782 CE). Nana Phadnavis defeated
British at the Battle of Talegaon (c. 1776 CE) and then the famous
treaty of Purandar (c. 1776 CE) and treaty of Salbai (c. 1782 CE)
were signed.
● In c. 1800 CE, Nana Phadnavis died and thereafter, Marathas could
not sustain the British and could not restore their past glory.
● Son of Raghunath Rao and the last Peshwa.
● In c. 1802 CE, he signed the treaty of Bassein with the British
which allowed the British to take control over the Maratha region
Baji Rao II and also of Deccan and western India.
(c.1796–1818 CE) ● In the Third Anglo-Maratha War (c. 1818 CE), he was defeated by
East India Company and Peshwa‘s territory in central Maharashtra
was annexed to the British East India company‘s Bombay province.
● His adopted son Nana Sahib (Dhondu Pant) participated in the
famous revolt of c. 1857 CE against the British.
Anglo-Maratha Wars
There were three wars fought between Maratha Empire and British East India Company over territory.
● Struggle of Power between Sawai Madhav Rao and Raghunath Rao
First Anglo- was supported by British and resulted in First Anglo-Maratha War.
Maratha War ● Treaty of Salbai in May, 1782 – British acknowledged Madhavrao
(1775–1782) as the Peshwa of Maratha Empire and ended the Anglo-Maratha
War.
● The second war was caused by the Peshwa Baji Rao II defeat by
Second Anglo- the Holkar (one of the leading Maratha clans) and his acceptance
Maratha War subsidiary alliance (Treaty of Bassein) in 1802.
(1803–05) ● Unhappy Maratha confederacy challenged Britishers but got
defeated.
● Distressed by low income Pindaris made up of many castes and
started plundering neighbouring territories, including those of
Third Anglo-Maratha companies.
War ● Lord Hasting (Governor General) charged Marathas with giving
(1817-1818) shelter to the Pindaris and hence fought the war.
● Maratha warlords fought separately instead of forming a common
front and they surrendered one by one.


Causes for the downfall of Maratha Empire
● Military Losses(Third Battle of Panipat, 1761)
● Political division among Maratha Sardars(Bhonsle, Holkar etc. lacked unity and fought with one
another)
● Weak Revenue Administration(failed to develop an efficient system of revenue administration)
● Weak Diplomacy(No far-sighted statesmanship or effective strategy; failed to cultivate alliances)
● Military expansion minus consolidation(Marathas did not consolidate themselves in the vast
areas in northern and central India)
● No Progressivism (administration was along the lines of their predecessors).
Appendix: Important Keywords of Medieval History from Previous Year Questions
Year Term/Phrase Meaning

2014 Mahattara and Designations were used for village headmen
Pattakila
2014 Bijak Composition of the teachings of Saint Dadu Dayal.
2014 Pushtimarg The path of devotion, mentioned in the Bhagavadgita as the
direct and the simplest approach to achieve liberation.
2016 Banjaras Were traders during the medieval period of Indian history
2016 Araghatta Persian water wheel used for irrigation of land
2016 Siddhas (Sittars) Monotheistic from Tamil region and condemned idolatry.
2017 Eripatti Land revenue which was set apart for maintenance of the village
tank
2017 Ghatikas Colleges generally attached to the temples
2017 Taniyurs Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins.
2019 Kalyaana Notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of
Mandapas Vijayanagar
2020 Hundi Referred to ―A bill of exchange‖ in the sources of the post-
Harsha period
2022 Kulah-Daran The sayyids put on a pointed cap (kulah) and they were known
as 'Kulah Daran' during Delhi sultanate.
2022 Fanam Fanam was a gold currency used only in Southern India in 17th
– 19th c. The word Fanam is Europeanized version of the word
Panam which means coin.

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Medieval Indian History

Chapter-2: RAJPUT KINGDOMS AND ARAB INVASION_____________________ 14

Chapter-3: IMPORTANT REGIONAL KINGDOMS ____________________________ 21

Chapter-4: DELHI SULTANATE I (THE SLAVES AND KHILJI DYNASTY) _____ 23

Chapter-5: DELHI SULTANATE II [TUGHLAQS, SAYYIDS AND LODHIS] _____ 31

Chapter-6: INDIA UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE _________________________ 37

Chapter-7: BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT _______________________________ 41

Chapter-8: VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI EMPIRE _______________________ 54

Chapter-9: MUGHAL EMPIRE I [BABUR, HUMAYUN, SHER SHAH] __________ 64

Chapter-10: MUGHAL EMPIRE II __________________________________________ 68

Chapter-11: MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION, ART AND CULTURE ______________ 72

Chapter-12: THE MARATHAS_____________________________________________ 75

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Medieval Indian History

Northern India: Age of the Three Empires (750–1000)

The Palas of Bengal

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Important aspects of Palas of Bengal

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The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty (Western India)

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Decline of Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty

The Rashtrakutas (Deccan)

Important Rulers of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

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Important Aspects of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

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Chola Society and Economy:

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Chola‘s Cultural Contribution:

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Medieval Indian History