Fea

Finite Element Method
Lure Academy
Engineer Renato Carvalho Lure Academy |2022

Índice:
1 Fundamental Concepts
2 Why is FEM so important?
Lure Academy Lure Academy | Page 2

1 Introduction A physical problem is a problem of the real world
that you want to solve
Fixed Force
Physical Problem
A problem of the real world that

you want to solve, such as a bike
crank subjected to loads during
operation (in the context of a
structural analysis). We would like
to know if this mechanical
component will fail or not.
Crank

1 Introduction The finite element method is a numerical strategy
to solve a mathematical model (BVP)
Mathematical Model
Finite Element Method (FEM) or Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
It is the way we describe the
physical problem using
Approximate
mathematical concepts and
Solution
language. In the FEM, we are
interested in one specific type of
mathematical model: the Boundary Value Problem
Boundary Value Problem.

1 Introduction A boundary value problem is a differential equation (governing equation) defined in
a domain and boundary conditions defined in the boundaries of the domain
Boundary conditions defined in

Boundary Value Problem the boundaries of the domain.
A boundary value problem is a

differential equation (governing
equation) defined in a domain and
Region (domain) governed
boundary conditions defined in
by a differential equation
the boundaries of the domain. A
(governing equation).
solution to a boundary value
problem is a solution to the
differential equation which also
satisfies the boundary conditions.

1 Introduction One of the steps of FEM is to divide the domain into elements
(discretization). Nodes will be created in the vertices of each element
Nodes and Elements

Element Domain
Nodes
1 Introduction We are interested in finding the displacements at
the nodes in the context of a structural analysis
Attention!
• FEM is a numerical procedure to solve a Boundary Value Problem

approximately. Part of this procedure is to divide the domain into elements.
• In the context of a structural analysis (subject of this course), we are

interested in finding the displacements at the nodes.
• The displacements are called degrees of freedom.
• Somehow, we will find the displacements at the nodes using the FEM. We’ll
see how it is done later in this course.

1 Introduction A boundary value problem is a differential equation (governing equation) defined
in a domain and boundary conditions defined in the boundaries of the domain
Boundary Value Problem
Domain divided
into elements
Force (BC)
Lure Academy Blocked Displacement (BC) Lure Academy | Page 8

FEA Software (e.g., Ansys)
Mathematical Numerical Approximate Displacements Post Color pictures

User Inputs
Model (BVP) Solution (FEM) at the nodes Processing and other results
Physical principles
Assumptions
Physical Hand calculations

Compare to
Problem Experimental Data verify/validate the
results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results
Pre-analysis (before using the software):
1. Define mathematical model.

2. Hand calculations of expected results.
Lure Academy 3. What is the numerical solution procedure? Lure Academy | Page 10

User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results
Verification (Did I solve the model correctly?):
1. Results consistent with mathematical model?

2. Level of numerical errors acceptable?
Lure Academy 3. Compare the results with hand calculations. Lure Academy | Page 11

User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results
Validation (Did I solve the right model?):
1. Check against experimental data.

Índice:
1 Fundamental Concepts
2 Why is FEM so important?

2 Why is it so important? Developing a new product was a very long and
costly process before simulation technology
How developing a new product was before FEA?

Conception Analytical Calculus Construction Test
No
Ok?
• Problems are identified only after the prototype is ready; Yes

• High cost to solve problems and few solution options;
• Long-term, high-cost development cycle; End
• High safety factors and limited efficiency.
2 Why is it so important? Developing a new product is cheaper and faster
nowadays thanks to FEM and other new technologies
How developing a new project is nowadays?

Conception CAD Model FEA Validation
Yes
Ok?
No
No
Ok?
• Better understanding of the physical phenomena associated Yes

with the operation of the product;
• Products with better performance and more robust; End
• Lower costs with prototyping. Lure Academy | Page 15
Lure Academy
Thank you for your
attention!
Workshop 01
Lure Academy

Índice:
1 Problem Specification
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

1 Problem Specification We will perform a simple structural analysis just to see how it
works before we start with the theory about FEM
Exercise
Perform a bike crank structural analysis. The goal is to check if the part will fail. The failure criteria will be yielding, which
means that it isn’t supposed to yield. The part is made of ASTM A36 with yield tensile strength equals to 250 MPa,
Poissons Ratio equals to 0,26 and Young’s Modulus equals to 200 GPa.

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

2 Pre-analysis The finite element method is a numerical strategy

User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

2 Pre-analysis We should define the domain in a simulation. It is
part of the mathematical model
Bike Crank Dimensions (Domain)
21 mm
25 mm
*Thickness = 1/2” = 12,7 mm

2 Pre-analysis The boundary conditions are defined in the boundaries of
the domain, and is also part of the mathematical model
Boundary Conditions (BC)

Fixed displacements
Force = 1500 N
Let's imagine that a study was carried out to understand what

would be a good load to consider in the analysis

2 Pre-analysis A BVP is a type of MM. It is a governing equation is defined in a domain
and boundary conditions are defined in the boundaries of the domain
Mathematical Model (Boundary

Value Problem)
Governing Equations defined in Boundary Conditions defined in

the domain the boundaries of the domain
We didn’t study about it yet, so we will ignore it for now!

2 Pre-analysis We should perform hand calculations to compare with the
simulation results in the verification step
Hand calculations of expected results

12,7 mm
A 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
c = 12,5 mm
25 mm
A
A-A
𝑏ℎ3 12,7 ∗ 253

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 → 𝐼 = = = 16536,458 𝑚𝑚4
12 12
𝑐 ∗ 𝑀 12,5 ∗ (1500 ∗ 90) 𝑁
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 → 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 102,05 = 102,05 MPa
𝐼 16536,458 𝑚𝑚2
2 Pre-analysis Eventually, we will understand how the FEM
solve the mathematical model
What is the numerical solution procedure?


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

2 Pre-analysis Eventually, we will understand how the FEM
solve the mathematical model

Mathematical Numerical Approximate Displacements

Model (BVP) Solution (FEM) at the nodes
We didn’t learn about it yet! Eventually,

we will understand how it is done. This is
the main topic of this course.
Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

3 Verification The finite element method is a numerical strategy

User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

3 Verification Sum of all forces must be equal to zero in a static
structural analysis
Results consistent with mathematical model?
1500 N
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → −4203,4 + ⋯
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 1458 − 1500 + ⋯
structural analysis
1500 N
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → −4203,4 + 4203,5 + ⋯
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 1458 − 1500 + 1458,7 + ⋯

structural analysis
1500 N
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → −4203,4 + 4203,5 − 3,3226 ∗ 10−2 = 0,067 𝑁 ≈ 0
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 1458 − 1500 + 1458,7 − 1416,7 = 0

3 Verification We should compare the results with hand calculations to
check if the mathematical model was solved correctly
Compare the results with hand calculations
𝑐 ∗ 𝑀 12,5 ∗ (1500 ∗ 90) 𝑁

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 → 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 102,05 = 102,05 MPa
𝐼 16536,458 𝑚𝑚2

3 Verification There are some techniques to check if the
numerical errors are at acceptable levels
Level of numerical errors acceptable?
Techniques to check numerical errors
• Refine mesh and check if the results of interest

didn’t change considerably;
• Analyze mesh quality;
• Compare results with hand calculations.

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

4 Results The von-Mises Stress is one of the most used failure
criteria for ductile materials
Equivalent (von-Mises) Stress
222,36 < 250 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑑𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙/𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

4 Results The total deformation is a measure of
displacement, which is the degree of freedom
Total Deformation (mm)

Thank you for your
attention!
Lure Academy

Índice:
1 Linear Elastic Spring Element
2 System Assembly in Global Coordinates
3 Exercises

1 Linear Elastic Spring Element A linear spring supports only axial loading. The applied
force is linearly proportional to the deflection
Linear Elastic Spring
• A linear elastic spring is a mechanical device capable

of supporting axial loading only and constructed
such that, over a reasonable operating range
(meaning extension or compression beyond
undeformed length), the elongation or contraction
of the spring is directly proportional to the applied
axial load.
• The constant of proportionality between
deformation and load is referred to as the spring
constant, spring rate, or spring stiffness, generally
denoted as k, and has units of force per unit length.

𝐿
Applied
Force
2𝐹
∆𝐿
𝑭
𝐹
∆𝐿
𝟐𝑭 tg 𝜃
∆𝐿 ∆𝐿 Variation in
spring length
𝐹
tg 𝜃 = = 𝑘 → 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
∆𝐿
𝑭 = 𝒌∆𝑳
Linear elastic
spring element
𝑢1 𝑢2
𝑓1 𝑓2 x
1 2
Nodes
Element coordinate system or

Local coordinate system
𝑢1 𝑢2 (1) 𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝛿 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
(2) 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 → 𝑓 = 𝑘𝛿 = 𝑘(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )

𝑓1 𝑓2 x
1 2 (3) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 → 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 = 0 → 𝑓1 = −𝑓2
𝑅𝑒𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 :
𝑓1 = −𝑘 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 = 𝑘 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑠:
𝑘 −𝑘 𝑢1 𝑓1
=
−𝑘 𝑘 𝑢2 𝑓2
𝑢1 = 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑢2 = 5 mm 𝑢1 = 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑢2 = 7 mm
𝑘 = 1 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚 𝑘 = 1 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑓1 𝑓2 x 𝑓1 𝑓2 x
1 2 1 2
𝛿 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = −5 − 5 = −10 𝑚𝑚 (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝛿 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 7 − 5 = 2 𝑚𝑚 (𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑓1 = −𝑘 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 𝑓1 = −1 ∗ −10 = 10 𝑘𝑁 𝑓1 = −𝑘 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 𝑓1 = −1 ∗ 2 = −2 𝑘𝑁
𝑓2 = −𝑘 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 𝑓1 = 1 ∗ −10 = −10 𝑘𝑁 𝑓2 = −𝑘 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 𝑓1 = 1 ∗ 2 = 2 𝑘𝑁
𝑢1 = 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑢2 = 5 mm 𝑢1 = 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑢2 = 7 mm
𝑘 = 1 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚 𝑘 = 1 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑓1 = 10 𝑘𝑁 𝑓2 = 10 𝑘𝑁 x 𝑓1 = 2 𝑘𝑁 𝑓2 = 2 𝑘𝑁 x
1 2 1 2

𝑘 −𝑘 𝑢1 𝑓1 𝑘 −𝑘
𝑢 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑒 =
−𝑘 𝑘 2 𝑓2 −𝑘 𝑘
Element stiffness matrix in

the element coordinate Column matrix (vector) of Column matrix (vector) of
system (or local coordinate nodal displacements element nodal forces
system)

1 Linear Elastic Spring Element An element exhibiting N degrees of freedom has a
corresponding N × N, symmetric stiffness matrix
𝑘 −𝑘 Attention!
𝑘𝑒 =
−𝑘 𝑘
• The element stiffness matrix for the linear spring element is a 2 x 2 matrix.
• This corresponds to the fact that the element exhibits two nodal
displacements (or degrees of freedom).
• Furthermore, the matrix is symmetric. A symmetric matrix has off-diagonal

terms such that 𝑘𝑖𝑗 = 𝑘𝑗𝑖 .
• As will be seen as more complicated structural elements are developed, this

is a general result: An element exhibiting N degrees of freedom has a
corresponding N × N, symmetric stiffness matrix.

1 Linear Elastic Spring Element The element stiffness matrix is singular, and this also
proves to be a general result in most cases
𝑢1 𝑢2
• [𝑘𝑒 ]−1 is the inverse of the element stiffness

matrix.
𝑓1 𝑓2 x • However, this inverse matrix does not exist,
since the determinant of the element stiffness
1 2 matrix is identically zero.
𝑢1 𝑓1 • Therefore, the element stiffness matrix is
𝑘𝑒 𝑢2 = singular, and this also proves to be a general
𝑓2 result in most cases.
• That occurs because no displacement constraint
−1
𝑢1 −1 𝑓1 whatever has been imposed on motion of the
𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑒 𝑢2 = 𝑘𝑒 spring element.
𝑓2 • With no constraint, it is not possible to solve for
𝑢1 −1 𝑓1 the nodal displacements individually.
[𝐼] 𝑢 = 𝑘𝑒 • For unconstrained individual element, there will
2 𝑓2 have rigid body motion.
• Which means that we need to constrain at least
𝑢1 −1 𝑓1 one node to solve the problem.
𝑢2 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑓2
Índice:
3 Exercises

2 System Assembly in Global Coordinates In a system assembly, the nodes, displacements and
forces are global
Consider the system of two linear spring elements

connected as shown in the figure below
In a system assembly, the nodes, displacements and forces are global. Notice that the displacements and forces are
represented with upper case letters, which means that they are global to the system and not local to the element.

2 System Assembly in Global Coordinates Equilibrium condition is the physical principle that will
be used in the mathematical model
Free-body diagrams of elements and nodes for the two-element system

Equilibrium conditions for each spring
*Note: the superscript is element number.

2 System Assembly in Global Coordinates Connectivity between elements are guaranteed by the
compatibility conditions
Displacement compatibility conditions
Global
Local



Equilibrium condition for the whole system

Free-body diagrams of elements and nodes for the two-element system

Equilibrium conditions for nodes 1, 2, and 3


Attention!
• This equation is of the form 𝑲 𝑼 = 𝑭

• It represents the equations governing the system composed of two connected
spring elements.
• The physical principal used to create this set of equations was the equilibrium
condition (Newton’s second law → 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 ∗ 0 = 0 → σ 𝐹 = 0)

2 System Assembly in Global Coordinates System matrix is simply a superposition of the individual
element stiffness matrices
System stiffness matrix [K]

System stiffness matrix [K]
• The system stiffness matrix is symmetric, as

is the case with all linear systems referred to
orthogonal coordinate systems;
• It is singular, since no constraints are
applied to prevent rigid body motion of the
system;
• And the system matrix is simply a
superposition of the individual element
stiffness matrices with proper assignment
of element nodal displacements and
associated stiffness coefficients to system
nodal displacements.

Índice:
3 Exercises

3 Exercises A linear spring supports only axial loading. The applied
Exercise 01
Consider the two-element system depicted above. Node 1 is attached to a fixed support
𝑁 𝑁
yielding the displacement constraint 𝑈1 = 0. 𝑘1 = 50 𝑚𝑚 ; 𝑘2 = 75 𝑚𝑚 ; 𝐹2 = 𝐹3 = 75 𝑁

3 Exercises A constraint equation represents the equilibrium condition
of a node at which the displacement is constrained
Exercise 01
𝑲 𝑼 = {𝑭}
50 ∗ 0 + −50 ∗ 𝑈2 + 0 ∗ 𝑈3 = 𝐹1
−50 ∗ 𝑈2 = 𝐹1
3 Exercises A constraint equation represents the equilibrium condition
of a node at which the displacement is constrained
Exercise 01
−50 ∗ 𝑈2 = 𝐹1
Unknown reaction force
This is known as a constraint equation, as it

represents the equilibrium condition
of a node at which the displacement is constrained.

3 Exercises The active displacements are the ones that aren’t
constrained and must be calculated
Exercise 01
Let’s just consider the

equations of active
displacements
−50 ∗ 0 + 125 ∗ 𝑈2 + −75 ∗ 𝑈3 = 75 → 125 ∗ 𝑈2 − 75 ∗ 𝑈3 = 75
0 ∗ 0 + −75 ∗ 𝑈2 + 75 ∗ 𝑈3 = 75 → −75 ∗ 𝑈2 + 75 ∗ 𝑈3 = 75

Exercise 01
125 ∗ 𝑈2 − 75 ∗ 𝑈3 = 75
−75 ∗ 𝑈2 + 75 ∗ 𝑈3 = 75

3 Exercises The stiffness matrix for the active displacements is not singular,
since constraints were applied to prevent rigid body motion
Exercise 01
Active displacements
The stiffness matrix for the active

displacements is not singular, since constraints
were applied to prevent rigid body motion. That
means that this matrix can be inverted, and the
active displacements can be calculated.

3 Exercises The stiffness matrix for the active displacements is not singular,
since constraints were applied to prevent rigid body motion
Exercise 01
125 −75 𝑈2 75
=
−75 75 𝑈3 75
−1 −1
125 −75 125 −75 𝑈2 125 −75 75
=
−75 75 −75 75 𝑈3 −75 75 75
𝑈2 −1
125 −75 75
[𝐼] =
𝑈3 −75 75 75
𝑈2 1/50 1/50 75
=
𝑈3 1/50 1/30 75
𝑈2 1/50 1/50 75 𝑈 3
= → 2 = 𝑚𝑚
𝑈3 1/50 1/30 75 𝑈3 4
Exercise 01
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 → −50 ∗ 𝑈2 = 𝐹1 = −50 ∗ 3 = −150 𝑁
(1)
50 −50 0 𝑓1−150
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 1 → = (1) = 𝑁
−50 50 3 𝑓2 150
(2)
75 −75 3 𝑓2
−75
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 2 → = (2) = N
−75 75 4 𝑓3 75

Exercise 02
The figure depicts a system of three

linearly elastic springs supporting
three equal weights W suspended in a
vertical plane. Treating the springs as
finite elements, determine the
vertical displacement of each weight.

3 Exercises An element exhibiting N degrees of freedom has a
corresponding N × N, symmetric stiffness matrix

3 Exercises Connectivity between elements are guaranteed by the
compatibility conditions
The element-to-global displacement relations are:

3 Exercises System matrix is simply a superposition of the individual element stiffness
matrices with proper assignment of element nodal displacements
Individual element equations:

System assembly equations:
EL. (1)
EL. (2)
System matrix is simply a superposition of
the individual element stiffness matrices
with proper assignment of element nodal
displacements and associated stiffness
coefficients to system nodal displacements.
EL. (3)

3 Exercises A constraint equation represents the equilibrium condition of
a node at which the displacement is constrained
𝑈1 = 0 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡)
1𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) → −3𝑘𝑈2 = 𝐹1
Reaction Force

Nonsingular stiffness Active displacements

matrix of the assembly

→ 𝐾 𝑈 = 𝐹 → 𝑈 = [𝐾]−1 {𝐹}
Solving this set o algebraic equations yields the displacements as:
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 → −3𝑘𝑈2 = 𝐹1 → 𝐹1 = −3𝑊

3 Exercises There is a FEM general procedure that was used for the
spring element and will be used for more complex FEA
Attention!
FEM general procedure:
• Formulate the individual element stiffness matrices;

• Write the element to global displacement relations;
• Assemble the global equilibrium equation in matrix form;
• Reduce the matrix equations according to specified constraints;
• Solve the system of equations for the unknown nodal displacements;
• Solve for the reaction forces by back-substitution.

Thank you for your
attention!
Workshop 02
Lure Academy

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

1 Problem Specification We will perform a simple structural analysis of a spring
assembly using ANSYS
Exercise
The figure depicts a system of three linearly elastic springs
supporting three equal weights W suspended in a vertical
plane. Treating the springs as finite elements, determine the
vertical displacement of each weight using ANSYS and
compare the results with hand calculations. Consider:
𝑘 = 1000 𝑁/𝑚
𝑊 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑔 = 7,85 ∗ 9,8066 = 76,982 𝑁

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

2 Pre-analysis We should define the domain and BCs in a
simulation. It is part of the mathematical model
Spring Assembly Domain and Boundary Conditions (BC)

Fixed point
𝑘 = 3000 𝑁/𝑚
Rigid bodies with

density equals
𝑘 = 2000 𝑁/𝑚 Linear Spring
7850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚³ Elements
𝑘 = 1000 𝑁/𝑚
𝑔 = 9,8066 𝑚/𝑠²


Value Problem)

Equilibrium equations → σ 𝑭 = 𝟎 Body Force (Gravity) and Fixed

Displacement at the first node

→ 𝐾 𝑈 = 𝐹 → 𝑈 = [𝐾]−1 {𝐹}
Solving this set o algebraic equations yields the displacements as:
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 → −3𝑘𝑈2 = 𝐹1 → 𝐹1 = −3𝑊


𝑊 76,982
𝑈2 = = = 0,076982 m = 76,982 mm
𝑘 1000
2𝑊 2 ∗ 76,982
𝑈3 = = = 0,153964 m = 153,964 mm
𝑘 1000
3𝑊 3 ∗ 76,982
𝑈4 = = = 0,230945 𝑚 = 230,945 mm
𝑘 1000
𝐹1 = −3𝑊 = −3 ∗ 76,982 = 230,946 𝑁

2 Pre-analysis The finite element method is the numerical
approximate solution procedure


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results



Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

structural analysis
𝐹1 = 3𝑊 = 3 ∗ 76,982 = 230,946 𝑁
Equilibrium condition is the governing

equation of the mathematical model, so
the sum of all forces in the vertical
direction should be zero.


𝑊 76,982
𝑈2 = = = 0,076982 = 76,982 mm
𝑘 1000
2𝑊 2 ∗ 76,982
𝑈3 = = = 0,153964 = 153,964 mm
𝑘 1000
3𝑊 3 ∗ 76,982
𝑈4 = = = 0,230945 = 230,945 mm
𝑘 1000



Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


Thank you for your
attention!
Lure Academy

Índice:
1 Elastic Bar Element
2 Exercise
3 Strain Energy
4 Castigliano’s First Theorem
5 Minimum Potential Energy

1 Elastic Bar Element Element that can be subjected to axial forces only
(similar to the spring element)
Elastic Bar Element
• Element that can be subjected to axial

forces only (similar to the spring
element).
• Useful in the analysis of both two- and

three-dimensional frame or truss
structures.

1 Elastic Bar Element Forces should be applied only at the nodes (ends of the
bar) and in the direction of its axis
Formulation of the finite element characteristics of an

elastic bar element is based on the following assumptions:
• The bar is geometrically straight.
• The material obeys Hooke’s law.
• Forces are applied only at the ends of the bar.
• The bar supports axial loading only; bending, torsion, and

shear are not transmitted to the element via the nature of
its connections to other elements.

1 Elastic Bar Element The bar is connected to other structural members via
pins (2-D) or ball-and-socket joints (3-D)
Connection via pins (2D)
Ball-and-socket joint (3D)

1 Elastic Bar Element Interpolation functions are used to describe the displacement
along the length as a function of the displacement at the nodes
𝑢1 𝑢2
1 2
x 𝑢(𝑥)
L
We will use interpolation functions 𝑁1 (𝑥) and 𝑁2 (𝑥) (also known as shape functions) to evaluate 𝑢(𝑥):

The simplest forms for the interpolation

𝑢 𝑥 = 𝑁1 𝑥 𝑢1 + 𝑁2 𝑥 𝑢2 functions are polynomial forms:
𝑢 𝑥 = 0 = 𝑢1 𝑢 𝑥 = 𝐿 = 𝑢2 𝑁1 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥
𝑁1 0 = 1 𝑁2 𝑥 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥
𝑁1 𝐿 = 0 𝑁1 0 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 0 = 1 → 𝑎0 = 1
𝑁1 𝐿 = 1 + 𝑎1 𝐿 = 0 → 𝑎1 = −(1Τ𝐿)
𝑁2 0 = 0
𝑁2 0 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 0 = 0 → 𝑏0 = 0
𝑁2 𝐿 = 1
𝑁2 𝐿 = 𝑏1 𝐿 = 1 → 𝑏0 = 1Τ𝐿
𝑁1 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥/𝐿
𝑁2 𝑥 = 𝑥/𝐿
𝑢 𝑥 = (1 − 𝑥/𝐿)𝑢1 + (𝑥/𝐿)𝑢2
We can express this equation in matrix form as:
𝑢1
𝑢 𝑥 = 𝑁1 𝑥 𝑁2 𝑥 𝑢2 = 𝑁 {𝑢}

1 Elastic Bar Element The equivalent spring constant of an elastic bar is the
force needed to displace a unit length
The deflection 𝛿 of an elastic bar of length L and uniform cross-

sectional area A when subjected to axial load P is given by:
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
Where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material. We can

write this equation using the equivalent spring constant of an
elastic bar as:
𝑃𝐿 𝑃 𝐴𝐸
𝛿= → = =𝑘
𝐴𝐸 𝛿 𝐿

1 Elastic Bar Element Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the
direction of applied force, divided by the initial dimensions of the body
In uniaxial loading, as in the bar element, we need

consider only the normal strain component, defined as:
𝑑𝑢
𝜀𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 𝑥 = (1 − 𝑥/𝐿)𝑢1 + (𝑥/𝐿)𝑢2
𝑑𝑢 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜀𝑥 = = − 1Τ𝐿 𝑢1 + 1Τ𝐿 𝑢2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜀𝑥 =
𝐿
1 Elastic Bar Element One of the assumptions used is that the
material obeys Hooke’s law
The axial stress, by Hooke’s law, is then:
𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥 = 𝐸
𝐿
And the associated axial force is:
𝐴𝐸
𝑃 = 𝜎𝑥 𝐴 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝐿

1 Elastic Bar Element The applied forces at the nodes should have opposite
direction, which means opposite signs
𝑢1 𝑢2
𝑓1 𝑓2
1 2
x 𝑢(𝑥)
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝑓1 = − 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 𝑓2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝐿 𝐿

1 Elastic Bar Element We use matrix notation as a tool to organize systems of
equations. When the system is large, it is very helpful
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝑓1 = − 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 𝑓2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝐿 𝐿
These equations can be expressed in matrix form as:
𝐴𝐸 1 −1 𝑢1 𝑓1
𝑢 =
𝐿 −1 1 2 𝑓2
The stiffness matrix for the bar element is given by:
𝐴𝐸 1 −1
𝑘𝑒 =
𝐿 −1 1
1 Elastic Bar Element The element stiffness matrix is symmetric, singular, has an
order of 2 x 2 and is expressed in local coordinate system
𝐴𝐸 1 −1 Attention!
𝑘𝑒 =
𝐿 −1 1
• The element stiffness matrix for the bar element is symmetric.

• It is singular, which means that it can’t be inversed because the
determinant is equal to zero.
• It is of order 2 x 2 in correspondence with two nodal displacements or
degrees of freedom.
• It is expressed in element (local) coordinate system.

Índice:
2 Exercise
3 Strain Energy

2 Exercise Element that can be subjected to axial forces only
(similar to the spring element)
The figure below depicts a tapered elastic bar subjected to an applied tensile load P at one end and attached to a
fixed support at the other end. The cross-sectional area varies linearly from 𝐴0 at the fixed support at 𝑥 = 0 to 𝐴0 Τ2
at 𝑥 = 𝐿 . Calculate the displacement of the end of the bar (a) by modeling the bar as a single element having cross-
sectional area equal to the area of the actual bar at its midpoint along the length, (b) using two bar elements of equal
length and similarly evaluating the area at the midpoint of each, and (c) using integration to obtain the exact solution.

2 Exercise The element stiffness matrix is symmetric, singular, has an
Applying the constraint condition 𝑈1 = 0, we find

3𝐴0 𝐸 3𝐴0 𝐸
3𝐴0 𝐸 1 𝑈1 + − 𝑈2 = 𝐹1
−1 𝑈1 𝐹 4𝐿 4𝐿
= 1
4𝐿 −1 1 𝑈2 𝑃
3𝐴0 𝐸 3𝐴0 𝐸
− 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 = 𝑃
4𝐿 4𝐿
3𝐴0 𝐸 3𝐴0 𝐸
− 𝑈1 3𝐴0 𝐸 3𝐴0 𝐸
4𝐿 4𝐿 𝐹1 − 0+ 𝑈2 = 𝑃
= 4𝐿 4𝐿
3𝐴0 𝐸 3𝐴0 𝐸 𝑈2 𝑃
−
4𝐿 4𝐿
𝑃 4𝑃𝐿
𝑈2 = =
3𝐴0 𝐸 3𝐴0 𝐸
4𝐿

1
(b)

2 Exercise We should apply boundary conditions to
prevent rigid body motion
Solving this system of two equations, we find 3

2 Exercise We should perform hand calculations of expected
results to compare with the FEA results
𝐿
𝑑𝑢
→ 𝜀𝑥 = → 𝑑𝑢 = 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → 𝛿 = න 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 0

2 Exercise The displacement results are very similar compared to
the exact solution
One Element:
Two Elements:
Exact:

2 Exercise The stress results are not well represented by the FEA results.
We should use more elements to represent it properly

Índice:
2 Exercise
3 Strain Energy

3 Strain Energy Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
energy, which is also commonly referred to as strain energy
𝐿
𝑭
𝑭 = 𝒌𝜹
𝛿
𝑭
𝜹𝟎
𝛿0 𝛿0
1 2
𝑊 = න 𝐹 . 𝑑𝛿 = න 𝑘𝛿𝑑𝛿 = 𝑘𝛿0 = 𝑈𝑒
0 0 2
Elastic potential energy (strain energy)

3 Strain Energy Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential energy,
which is also commonly referred to as strain energy
When external forces are applied to a body, in the case of an elastic body constrained to
prevent motion, the mechanical work done by those forces is stored in the body as elastic
potential energy, which is also commonly referred to as strain energy. From elementary
statics, the mechanical work performed by a force 𝐹Ԧ as its point of application moves along a
path from position 1 to position 2 is defined as
2
𝑊 = න 𝐹Ԧ . 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = dxԦ𝑖 + d𝑦Ԧ𝑗 + d𝑧𝑘
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
𝐼𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 → 𝑊 = න 𝐹𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝐹𝑦 . 𝑑𝑦 + න 𝐹𝑧 . 𝑑𝑧
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
Strain energy for an axially loaded elastic bar

fixed at one end can immediately be written as
1 2 1 𝐴𝐸 2
𝛿 𝑈𝑒 = 𝑘𝛿 = 𝛿
2 2 𝐿
𝐹𝐿 𝐹 𝐴𝐸
𝛿= → = =𝑘
𝐴𝐸 𝛿 𝐿

However, for a more general purpose, this result is converted to a

different form (applicable to a bar element only) as follows:
2
1 2 1 𝐴𝐸 𝑃𝐿 1 𝑃 𝑃 1
𝑈𝑒 = 𝑘𝛿 = = 𝐴𝐿 = 𝜎𝜀𝑉
2 2 𝐿 𝐴𝐸 2 𝐴 𝐴𝐸 2
𝟏
𝑼𝒆 = 𝝈𝜺 𝑽
𝟐
Strain Energy Total volume of

per Unit volume deformed material

Índice:
2 Exercise
3 Strain Energy

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Castigliano’s First Theorem is a useful tool to find the stiffness
matrix of a whole system in a practical manner
𝑭𝒏
Castigliano’s First Theorem
For an elastic system in equilibrium, 𝑭𝟏

the partial derivative of total strain
energy with respect to deflection at a
point is equal to the applied force in
the direction of the deflection at that
point. 𝑭𝟑
𝑭𝟐

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
𝑭𝒊
Consider an elastic body subjected to N forces 𝐹𝑖

for which the total strain energy is expressed as
𝑁 𝛿𝑖
𝑈𝑒 = 𝑊 = ෍ න 𝐹𝑖 𝑑𝛿𝑖
𝑖=1 0

This point is made to deflect an 𝑭𝒊 + ∆𝑭𝒊

infinitesimal amount ∆𝜹𝒊 by an
incremental infinitesimal force ∆𝑭𝒊
The change in strain energy is:

∆𝛿𝑖
∆𝑈𝑒 = ∆𝑊 = 𝐹𝑖 ∆𝛿𝑖 + න ∆𝐹𝑖 𝑑𝛿𝑖
0
Fixed

𝐹1 𝐹2
𝐹3 𝐹4
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹1 𝐹2
Fixed
∆𝛿4
Free
𝐹3 𝐹4 + ∆𝐹4 𝐹3 𝐹4
4 Castigliano’s First Theorem The partial derivative of total strain energy with respect to deflection at a point
is equal to the applied force in the direction of the deflection at that point
The change in strain energy is:

∆𝛿𝑖
∆𝑈𝑒 = ∆𝑊 = 𝐹𝑖 ∆𝛿𝑖 + න ∆𝐹𝑖 𝑑𝛿𝑖
0
The integral term involves the product of
infinitesimal quantities and can be neglected
∆𝑈𝑒
∆𝑈𝑒 = 𝐹𝑖 ∆𝛿𝑖 → 𝐹𝑖 =
∆𝛿𝑖
Which in the limit as ∆𝛿𝑖 approaches zero becomes
𝜕𝑈𝑒
𝐹𝑖 =
𝜕𝛿𝑖
Strain of the bar element can be calculated as:

𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜀𝑥 =
𝐿
The axial stress, by Hooke’s law, is then:
𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥 = 𝐸
𝐿
Strain energy for the bar element is given by
1 1 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 2
𝑈𝑒 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 𝑉 = 𝐸 𝐴𝐿
2 2 𝐿
1 1 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 2
𝑈𝑒 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥 𝑉 = 𝐸 𝐴𝐿
2 2 𝐿
Applying Castigliano’s theorem with respect to each displacement yields
𝜕𝑈𝑒 𝐴𝐸
= 𝑓1 = − 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜕𝑢1 𝐿
𝜕𝑈𝑒 𝐴𝐸
= 𝑓2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜕𝑢2 𝐿

Exercise
a) Apply Castigliano’s first theorem to the system of four spring elements depicted in the
figure below to obtain the system stiffness matrix. The vertical members at nodes 2 and 3
are to be considered rigid.
b) Solve for the displacements and the reaction force at node 1 if



4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Castigliano’s First Theorem is a useful tool to find the
stiffness matrix of a whole system in a practical manner
Which can be written in matrix form as
System stiffness matrix obtained via Castigliano’s theorem

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem Castigliano’s First Theorem is a useful tool to find the
stiffness matrix of a whole system in a practical manner
𝑈2 = 5,0 𝑚𝑚 𝑈3 = 9,17 𝑚𝑚 𝑈4 = 25,83 𝑚𝑚

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem The constraint equation is used to calculate the reaction
forces after we find the active displacements
Constraint equation
4 . 0 − 4𝑈2 + 0𝑈3 + 0𝑈4 = 𝐹1
𝐹1 = −4𝑈2 = −4 . 5 = −20 𝑁

4 Castigliano’s First Theorem The sum of all forces must be equal to zero since it is a static
structural analysis where acceleration is equal to zero
𝐹1 = −20 𝑁
෍ 𝐹 = 0 → −20 − 30 + 0 + 50 = 0 ∴ 𝑂𝑘!

Índice:
2 Exercise
3 Strain Energy

5 Minimum Potential Energy The Principle of Minimum Potential Energy will be used to obtain
the algebraic equations and consequently the stiffness matrix
Minimum Potential Energy
Of all displacement states of a body or structure, subjected to external loading, that

satisfy the geometric boundary conditions (imposed displacements), the displacement
state that also satisfies the equilibrium equations is such that the total potential
energy is a minimum for stable equilibrium.

Π = 𝑈𝑒 + 𝑈𝐹
Total Potential Energy Strain Energy Potential Energy

of applied loads

Π = 𝑈𝑒 + 𝑈𝐹
𝑈𝐹 = −𝑊
The mechanical work done by a conservative force, is

reversed, and therefore recovered, if the force is released.
Therefore, the mechanical work of a conservative force is
considered to be a loss in potential energy.

Π = 𝑈𝑒 − 𝑊
Total Potential Energy Strain Energy Mechanical work of

a conservative force

If we have a total potential energy expression that is a

function of, say, N displacements 𝑈𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑁; that is,
Π = Π(𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , … , 𝑈𝑁 )
then the total potential energy will be minimized if
𝜕Π
=0 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑁
𝜕𝑈𝑖
Exercise
Apply the Principle of Minimum Potential Energy to the system of four spring elements
depicted in the figure below to obtain the system stiffness matrix. The vertical members at
nodes 2 and 3 are to be considered rigid.





Thank you for your
attention!
Workshop 03
Lure Academy

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

1 Problem Specification We will perform a simple structural analysis of a spring
assembly using ANSYS
Exercise
500 𝑚𝑚
𝑅1 = 20 𝑚𝑚
The figure depicts a system of two linearly elastic bars

supporting a concentrated mass of 2500 kg. Treating the bars
as finite elements, determine the displacements and axial
forces using ANSYS and compare the results with hand
calculations. Consider the bars massless, and the following
data:
500 𝑚𝑚
𝑅2 = 10 𝑚𝑚
Modulus of Elasticy → E = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑔 = 9,8066 𝑚Τ𝑠²

𝑚 = 2500 𝑘𝑔

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

Bar Assembly Domain and Boundary Conditions (BC)

(1) Fixed point
500 𝑚𝑚
𝑅1 = 20 𝑚𝑚
(2) Linear Bar

Elements
500 𝑚𝑚
𝑅2 = 10 𝑚𝑚
𝑔 = 9,8066 𝑚/𝑠²
(3)
𝑚 = 2500 𝑘𝑔

Value Problem)

Equilibrium equations → σ 𝑭 = 𝟎 Body Force (Gravity) and Fixed

Displacement at the first node


𝐴1 𝐸 1 −1 𝐴2 𝐸 1 −1
𝑘1 = 𝑘2 =
𝐿1 −1 1 𝐿2 −1 1
𝐴1 = 𝜋. 202 𝑚𝑚² 𝐴2 = 𝜋. 102 𝑚𝑚²
𝐿1 = 500 𝑚𝑚 𝐿2 = 500 𝑚𝑚
𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 200000 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 200000 𝑁/𝑚𝑚²


𝑘1 −𝑘1 0
𝐾 = −𝑘1 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2
0 −𝑘2 𝑘2
𝐴1 𝐸 𝐴2 𝐸
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘2 =
𝐿1 𝐿2


𝐾 𝑈 = 𝐹
𝑘1 −𝑘1 0 𝑈1 𝐹1
−𝑘1 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 𝑈2 = 𝐹2
0 −𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑈3 𝐹3
𝑘1 −𝑘1 0 0 𝐹1
−𝑘1 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 𝑈2 = 0
0 −𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑈3 𝑃
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 𝑈2
= 0
−𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑈3 𝑃

𝐾 𝑈 = 𝐹
𝐾 −1 𝐾 𝑈 = 𝐾 −1 𝐹
𝐼 𝑈 = 𝐾 −1 𝐹
𝑈 = 𝐾 −1 𝐹
−1
𝑈2 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 0
=
𝑈3 −𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑃

−1
𝑈2 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 0 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔 = 2500 ∗ 9,8066
=
𝑈3 −𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑃
−1
𝑈2 628318,531 −125663,706 0
=
𝑈3 −125663,706 125663,706 24516,5
𝑈2 0,04877
= 𝑚𝑚
𝑈3 0,24387


Constraint Equation 𝑘1 −𝑘1 0 0 𝐹1
−𝑘1 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 𝑈2 = 0
0 −𝑘2 𝑘2 𝑈3 𝑃
𝑘1 0 − 𝑘1 𝑈2 + 0𝑈3 = 𝐹1
−𝜋202 ∗ 200000
𝐹1 = −𝑘1 𝑈2 = ∗ 0,04877 = −24516,5 𝑁
500



User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results



Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

structural analysis
෍ 𝐹 = 0 → 𝐹1 + 𝑃 = 0 → 𝐹1 = −𝑃 = 24516,5 N


𝑈2 0,04877
= 𝑚𝑚
𝑈3 0,24387



Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


Thank you for your
attention!
Lure Academy

Índice:
1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations
2 Element Transformation
3 Direct Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix
4 Boundary Conditions, Constraint Forces
5 Element Strain and Stress
6 Comprehensive Example
7 Three dimensional Trusses

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations Truss structures are composed of straight elastic
members subjected to axial forces only
Truss Structure
• Structures composed of straight elastic

members subjected to axial forces
only.
• Satisfaction of this restriction requires
that all members of the truss be bar
elements and that the elements be
connected by pin joints such that each
element is free to rotate about the
joint.

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations Truss structures are composed of straight elastic
members subjected to axial forces only
Let’s get the 2D truss structure shown below to study

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑋 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖 → 𝑈2𝑖−1
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑌 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖 → 𝑈2𝑖

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations We can write nodal equilibrium equations to later find
expressions that relates forces with displacements
1
3

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations We can write nodal equilibrium equations to later find
expressions that relates forces with displacements
Equilibrium equations for node 1:

1
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹1 − 𝑓1 cos 𝜃1 = 0
1
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝐹2 − 𝑓1 sin 𝜃1 = 0
and for node 2:

2
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹3 − 𝑓2 cos 𝜃2 = 0
2
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝐹4 − 𝑓2 sin 𝜃2 = 0
and for node 3:

1 2
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹5 − 𝑓3 cos 𝜃1 − 𝑓3 cos 𝜃2 = 0
1 2
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝐹6 − 𝑓3 sin 𝜃1 − 𝑓3 sin 𝜃2 = 0

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations Due to the assumption of small, elastic deformations, we can
consider the angle of inclination of the bar constant
𝒀
Undeformed shape Deformed shape



1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations The 𝒗 displacement components are not associated with
element stiffness, hence not associated with element forces
The 𝒗 displacement components are not associated with element stiffness, hence not
associated with element forces, so we can express the axial deformation of the element as:
The net axial force acting on the element is then:

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations Remember that forces denoted with lowercase letter f
are forces in local coordinate system
For element 1, we have:
Then, the force is calculated as:

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations Remember that forces denoted with lowercase letter f
are forces in local coordinate system
Similarly, for element 2:
(2) (2) (2) (2)

𝑈1 = 𝑈3 , 𝑈2 = 𝑈4 , 𝑈3 = 𝑈5 , 𝑈4 = 𝑈6
Then, the force is calculated as:

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations If we substitute the force expressions in local coordinate system on the nodal
equilibrium equations, we obtain the equilibrium equation in global coordinate system
Equilibrium equations for node 1:

1
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹1 − 𝑓1 cos 𝜃1 = 0
1
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝐹2 − 𝑓1 sin 𝜃1 = 0
and for node 2:

2
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹3 − 𝑓2 cos 𝜃2 = 0
2 Substitute these equations into the equilibrium equations

෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝐹4 − 𝑓2 sin 𝜃2 = 0
and for node 3:

1 2
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 → 𝐹5 − 𝑓3 cos 𝜃1 − 𝑓3 cos 𝜃2 = 0
1 2
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝐹6 − 𝑓3 sin 𝜃1 − 𝑓3 sin 𝜃2 = 0

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations If we substitute the force expressions in local coordinate system on the nodal
equilibrium equations, we obtain the equilibrium equation in global coordinate system

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations If we represent the set of algebraic equilibrium equations in matrix
form, we obtain the stiffness matrix for the assembly
Which can be written in matrix form as:
And this matrix equation is of the form:

1 Nodal Equilibrium Equations If we represent the set of algebraic equilibrium equations in matrix
form, we obtain the stiffness matrix for the assembly
Which can be written in matrix form as:
We observe that the global stiffness matrix is a 6 × 6 symmetric

matrix corresponding to six possible global displacements.

Índice:

2 Element Transformation We will use a direct method for transforming the stiffness
matrix into global coordinate system in practical applications
Formulation of global finite element equations by

direct application of equilibrium conditions, as in
the previous section, proves to be quite cumbersome
except for the very simplest of models.
A direct method for transforming the stiffness

characteristics on an element-by-element basis is now
developed in preparation for use in the direct
assembly procedure of the following section.


2 Element Transformation The transformation matrix is used to transform displacements
in local coordinate system into global coordinate system
is:
[R] - Transformation matrix of

element axial displacements to
Lure Academy global displacements Lure Academy | Page 20
2 Element Transformation The transformation matrix is used to transform displacements
in local coordinate system into global coordinate system

2 Element Transformation The transformation matrix is also used to transform forces in
local coordinate into global coordinate

2 Element Transformation Using the transformation matrix, we can obtain the stiffness
matrix in global coordinate system
Element stiffness matrix in the

global coordinate system

2 Element Transformation Using the transformation matrix, we can obtain the stiffness
matrix in global coordinate system
Introduction the notation 𝒄 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 and 𝐬 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 and performing the matrix multiplications, we obtain:
Where 𝒌𝒆 = 𝑨𝑬Τ𝑳 is the characteristic axial stiffness of the bar element

2 Element Transformation The stiffness matrix expressed in global coordinate system is
symmetric and singular, as expected
• The stiffness matrix is symmetric.
• The determinant is equal to zero, so the matrix is

singular.

Exercise
Calculate the stiffness matrix in global coordinate system for the given bar element:
𝒀
𝐴 = 600 𝑚𝑚²
𝑿 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝜃 = 50°
Global coordinate
system

𝐴 = 600 𝑚𝑚²
𝑐𝑜𝑠 50° = 𝑐 = 0,643 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 50° = 𝑐 2 = 0,413 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎

𝜃 = 50°
𝑠𝑖𝑛 50° = 𝑠 = 0,766 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 50° = 𝑠 2 = 0,587
𝑠𝑖𝑛 50° 𝑐𝑜𝑠 50° = 𝑠𝑐 = 0,492
𝑘𝑒 = 𝐴𝐸 Τ𝐿 = 600 . 200000Τ500 = 240000 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚 = 240 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚
0,413 0,492 −0,413 −0,492

0,492 0,587 −0,492 −0,587
𝐾𝑒 = 240 kN/mm
−0,413 −0,492 0,413 0,492
−0,492 −0,587 0,492 0,587 Lure Academy | Page 27
Lure Academy
Índice:

3 Direct Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix We now address a method of obtaining the global equilibrium
equations via an element-by-element assembly procedure


3 Direct Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix Global displacement numbering are referenced to local
displacement numbering of each element
Nodal Displacement Correspondence Table

3 Direct Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix Our goal is to obtain the stiffness matrix in global coordinate
system in a practical way that can be used for larger systems
Assembly Stiffness matrix in Global Coordinate System
We observe that the global stiffness matrix is a 6 × 6 symmetric

matrix corresponding to six possible global displacements.

3 Direct Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix The subscript number of each term of the stiffness matrix
refers to the line and column position, respectively
Assembly Stiffness Matrix in Global Coordinate System
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(1) 𝐾11 𝐾12 𝐾13 𝐾14 𝐾15 𝐾16 𝑈1 𝐹1
(2) 𝐾21 𝐾22 𝐾23 𝐾24 𝐾25 𝐾26 𝑈2 𝐹2
(3) 𝐾31 𝐾32 𝐾33 𝐾34 𝐾35 𝐾36 𝑈3 𝐹3
=
(4) 𝐾41 𝐾42 𝐾43 𝐾44 𝐾45 𝐾46 𝑈4 𝐹4
(5) 𝐾51 𝐾52 𝐾53 𝐾54 𝐾55 𝐾56 𝑈5 𝐹5
(6) 𝐾61 𝐾62 𝐾63 𝐾64 𝐾65 𝐾66 𝑈6 𝐹6



Exercise
For the truss shown in the figure below, consider 𝜃1 = 𝜋Τ4 , 𝜃2 = 0 , and the element properties
such that 𝑘1 = 𝐴1 𝐸1 Τ𝐿1 , 𝑘2 = 𝐴2 𝐸2 Τ𝐿2 . Transform the element stiffness matrix of each element
into the global reference frame and assemble the global stiffness matrix.

3 Direct Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix We will use a direct method for transforming the stiffness

3 Direct Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix We will use a direct method for transforming the stiffness





3 Direct Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix A technique that is much more efficient and well-suited to
digital computer operations is now described
Attention!
• The previously described embodiment of the direct stiffness method is

straightforward but cumbersome and inefficient in practice.
• A technique that is much more efficient and well-suited to digital

computer operations is now described.


𝐾11 𝐾12 𝐾13 𝐾14 𝐾15 𝐾16

𝐾21 𝐾22 𝐾23 𝐾24 𝐾25 𝐾26
𝐾31 𝐾32 𝐾33 𝐾34 𝐾35 𝐾36
𝐾41 𝐾42 𝐾43 𝐾44 𝐾45 𝐾46
𝐾51 𝐾52 𝐾53 𝐾54 𝐾55 𝐾56
𝐾61 𝐾62 𝐾63 𝐾64 𝐾65 𝐾66

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(1) (1) (1) (1)
𝑘11 𝑘12 0 0 𝑘13 𝑘14 (1)
(1) (1) (1) (1)
𝑘21 𝑘22 0 0 𝑘23 𝑘24 (2)
(2) (2) (2) (2)
0 0 𝑘11 𝑘12 𝑘13 𝑘14 (3)
𝐾 = (2) (2) (2) (2)
0 0 𝑘21 𝑘22 𝑘23 𝑘24 (4)
(1) (1) (2) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)
𝑘31 𝑘32 𝑘31 𝑘32 𝑘33 + 𝑘33 𝑘34 + 𝑘34 (5)
(1) (1) (2) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)
𝑘41 𝑘42 𝑘41 𝑘42 𝑘43 + 𝑘43 𝑘44 + 𝑘44 (6)

For the 2-D truss modeled by spar elements, the

following conventions are adopted: 𝑼𝟐𝒋
• The global nodes at which each element is 𝒋 𝑼𝟐𝒋−𝟏

connected are denoted by 𝑖 and 𝑗.
• The origin of the element coordinate system is

located at node 𝑖 and the element 𝑥 axis has a 𝜃
positive sense in the direction from node 𝑖 to
node 𝑗. 𝑼𝟐𝒊 𝒙
• The global displacements at element nodes are

𝑼𝟐𝒊−𝟏 , 𝑼𝟐𝒊 , 𝑼𝟐𝒋−𝟏 and 𝑼𝟐𝒋 . 𝒊
𝑼𝟐𝒊−𝟏

Element-Node Connectivity Table

Using the nodal data from the element-node connectivity table, we define, for
each element, a 1 x 4 element displacement location vector as:

For the truss assembly we are studying, the element

displacement location vectors are:

Índice:

4 Boundary Conditions, Constraint Forces A more general approach to application of boundary
conditions and computation of reactions is as follows
Having obtained the global stiffness matrix via

either the equilibrium equations or direct
assembly, the system displacement equations for
the example truss are of the form:
In this example, we observe the displacement

boundary conditions:

𝐾11 𝐾12 𝐾13 𝐾14 𝐾15 𝐾16 𝑈1 𝐹1

𝐾21 𝐾22 𝐾23 𝐾24 𝐾25 𝐾26 𝑈2 𝐹2
𝐾31 𝐾32 𝐾33 𝐾34 𝐾35 𝐾36 𝑈3 𝐹3
=
𝐾41 𝐾42 𝐾43 𝐾44 𝐾45 𝐾46 𝑈4 𝐹4
𝐾51 𝐾52 𝐾53 𝐾54 𝐾55 𝐾56 𝑈5 𝐹5
𝐾61 𝐾62 𝐾63 𝐾64 𝐾65 𝐾66 𝑈6 𝐹6

4 Boundary Conditions, Constraint Forces Firstly, we find the active displacements to then find the
reaction forces using the constraint equtions
Use constraint equations

to find reaction forces
Solve the equations of active

displacements and known external forces

4 Boundary Conditions, Constraint Forces The letter c denote constrained displacements and the letter a
denotes active displacements
A more general approach to application of boundary conditions and

computation of reactions is as follows:
• Letting the subscript c denote constrained displacements;
• And subscript a denote unconstrained (active) displacements;
• The system equations can be partitioned to obtain:
(c) (a)
(c) 𝑲𝒄𝒄 𝑲𝒄𝒂 𝑼𝒄 𝑭
= 𝒄
(a) 𝑲𝒂𝒄 𝑲𝒂𝒂 𝑼𝒂 𝑭𝒂

Known displacements, but not

necessarily zero
𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝐾𝑐𝑎 𝑈𝑐 𝐹𝑐
=
𝐾𝑎𝑐 𝐾𝑎𝑎 𝑈𝑎 𝐹𝑎
Known external forces
𝑭𝒄 = [𝑲𝒄𝒄 ] 𝑼𝒄 + 𝑲𝒄𝒂 𝑼𝒂
[𝐾𝑎𝑐 ] 𝑈𝑐 + 𝐾𝑎𝑎 𝑈𝑎 = 𝐹𝑎
𝑼𝒂 = [𝑲𝒂𝒂 ]−𝟏 𝑭𝒂 − [𝑲𝒂𝒄 ] 𝑼𝒄

Índice:

5 Element Strain and Stress The final computational step in finite element analysis of a truss structure is to utilize the global
displacements obtained in the solution step to determine the strain and stress in each element of the truss
(𝒆)
For an element connecting nodes i and 𝑼𝟒 𝒖𝟐
(𝒆)
j, the element nodal displacements in

the element coordinate system are 𝒋 (𝒆)
𝐿(𝑒) 𝑼𝟑
given by:
𝑼𝟐
(𝒆) 𝒙
(𝒆) 𝒊 (𝒆)
𝒖𝟏 𝑼𝟏

5 Element Strain and Stress The continuous displacement function is used to compute the
displacements along the length of the bar
(𝒆)
The continuous displacement function 𝑼𝟒 (𝒆)
𝒖𝟐
is represented by the discretization
𝒋 (𝒆)
𝐿(𝑒) 𝑼𝟑
𝜃
That can be expressed in matrix form as
𝑼𝟐
(𝒆) 𝒙
(𝒆) 𝒊 (𝒆)
𝒖𝟏 𝑼𝟏
Interpolation/Shape Functions

5 Element Strain and Stress Strain is computed as the derivative of displacement
with respect to x

5 Element Strain and Stress Stress is calculated using Hooke’s law that relates stress and
strain using the modulus of Young
(𝒆)
𝑼𝟒 𝒖𝟐
(𝒆)
The element axial stress is then obtained

𝒋 (𝒆)
via application of Hooke’s law as 𝐿(𝑒) 𝑼𝟑
𝑼𝟐
(𝒆) 𝒙
(𝒆) 𝒊 (𝒆)
𝒖𝟏 𝑼𝟏

5 Element Strain and Stress We can use the transformation matrix to transform local
displacements into global displacements
[R] - Transformation matrix of

element axial displacements to
global displacements

5 Element Strain and Stress Strain is computed as the derivative of
displacement with respect to x
(𝑒)
𝑈1
(𝑒)
𝑈2
𝑢(𝑒) 𝑥 = 𝑁1 (𝑥) 𝑁2 (𝑥) [𝑅] (𝑒)
𝑈3
(𝑒)
𝑈4
(𝑒)
𝑈1
(𝑒)
𝑒
𝑑𝑢(𝑒) 𝑥 𝑑 𝑈2
𝜀 = = 𝑁1 (𝑥) 𝑁2 (𝑥) [𝑅] (𝑒)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑈3
(𝑒)
𝑈4

5 Element Strain and Stress We can use these expressions to find strain and stress as a
function of node displacements
(𝒆)
𝑼𝟏
(𝒆)
𝒆
𝒅𝒖(𝒆) 𝒙 𝒅 𝑼𝟐
𝜺 = = 𝑵𝟏 (𝒙) 𝑵𝟐 (𝒙) [𝑹] (𝒆)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑼𝟑
(𝒆)
𝑼𝟒
(𝒆)
𝑼𝟏
(𝒆)
𝒆 𝒆
𝝈 = 𝑬𝜺 =𝑬 =𝑬 𝑵𝟏 (𝒙) 𝑵𝟐 (𝒙) [𝑹] (𝒆)
(𝒆)
𝑼𝟒

5 Element Strain and Stress Let’s do this simples exercise to practice. In the next session,
we’ll solve a bigger truss structure
The two-element truss in the figure to

the right is subjected to external loading
as shown. Determine the displacement
components of node 3, the reaction force
components at nodes 1 and 2, and the
element displacements, stresses, and
forces. The elements have modulus of
elasticity 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = 10 𝑥 106 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛² and
cross-sectional areas 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 1,5 𝑖𝑛²

5 Element Strain and Stress The characteristic element stiffnesses are calculated using the
cross-section area, modulus of elasticity and bar length

5 Element Strain and Stress The stiffness matrix can be obtained either by application of
nodal equilibrium equations or by the direct method
As the element orientation angles and numbering scheme are

the same as in the two-bar element system used before, we use
the result of that example to write the global stiffness matrix as

5 Element Strain and Stress We can apply the partitioning technique to
facilitate the solution of the matrix equation
𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝐾𝑐𝑎 𝑈𝑐 𝐹𝑐
=
𝐾𝑎𝑐 𝐾𝑎𝑎 𝑈𝑎 𝐹𝑎

𝑈5 −1
5.075 1.325 500
=
𝑈6 1.325 1.325 300


5 Element Strain and Stress Stress can be calculated using the expression that related
stress with nodal global displacements
For element one, the stress can be computed using the following equation:
(𝒆)
𝑼𝟏
(𝒆)
𝒆
𝝈 = 𝑬𝜺 𝒆 =𝑬 =𝑬 𝑵𝟏 (𝒙) 𝑵𝟐 (𝒙) [𝑹] (𝒆)
(𝒆)
𝑼𝟒
(𝑒)
𝑈1
(𝑒)
1 1
𝑑𝑢(1) 𝑥 𝑑 𝑈2
𝜎 = 𝐸1 𝜀 = 𝐸1 = 𝐸1 1 − 𝑥/𝐿1 𝑥/𝐿1 [𝑅(1) ] (𝑒)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑈3
(𝑒)
𝑈4



5 Element Strain and Stress The element nodal forces are calculated using the element
equilibrium equations in local coordinate system
The element nodal forces are calculated as

5 Element Strain and Stress A positive value for force/tension means tension and a
negative value means compression

Índice:

6 Comprehensive Example Let’s solve a bigger 2D-truss structure to practice
everything we studied by now
As a comprehensive example of two-dimensional truss analysis, the structure

depicted in the figure below is analyzed to obtain displacements, reaction
forces, strains, and stresses. For each element, 𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒊𝒏2 , 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒑𝒔𝒊

6 Comprehensive Example Step 1: Specify the global coordinate system, assign node
numbers, and define element connectivity
Step 1: Specify the global coordinate system, assign

node numbers, and define element connectivity

Step 2: Compute individual element stiffness values
Step 2: Compute individual element stiffness values:

6 Comprehensive Example Step 3: Transform element stiffness
matrices into the global coordinate system
Step 3: Transform element stiffness








6 Comprehensive Example Step 4a: Construct the element-to-global
displacement correspondence table
Step 4a: Construct the element-to-global

displacement correspondence table.

6 Comprehensive Example Step 4b: Form the element-node connectivity table and the corresponding
element global displacement location vector for each element
Step 4b: Alternatively and more efficiently, form the element-

node connectivity table and the corresponding element global
displacement location vector for each element

Assemble the global stiffness matrix per either Step 4a or 4b
Step 5: Assemble the global stiffness matrix per either Step 4a or 4b.










(1) (2) (5) (6)

(1)
(2)
(5)
(6)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
3.75(105 ) −3.75(105 ) (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
−3.75(105 ) 3.75(105 ) (5)
(6)
𝐾 =
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)

6 Comprehensive Example Step 6: Apply the constraints as dictated by the boundary conditions. In
this example, nodes 1 and 2 are fixed so the displacement constraints are
Step 6: Apply the constraints as dictated by the boundary conditions.

In this example, nodes 1 and 2 are fixed so the displacement
constraints are

6 Comprehensive Example Step 6: Apply the constraints as dictated by the boundary conditions. In
this example, nodes 1 and 2 are fixed so the displacement constraints are
Step 6: Apply the constraints as dictated by the boundary conditions.

In this example, nodes 1 and 2 are fixed so the displacement
constraints are
c a 𝑼𝒄
𝑭𝒄
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
(1) 0 𝐹1
(2) 0 𝐹2
c (3) 𝑲𝒄𝒄 𝑲𝒄𝒂 0 𝐹3
(4) 0 𝐹4
(5) 𝑈5 0
(6) 𝑈6
= −2000
(7) 𝑈7 0
(8) 𝑈8 0
a (9) 𝑲𝒂𝒄 𝑲𝒂𝒂 𝑈9 𝑭𝒂
2000
(10) 𝑈10 0
(11) 𝑈11 4000
(12) 𝑈12 6000
𝑼𝒂 Lure Academy | Page 99
Lure Academy
6 Comprehensive Example Step 7: Solve the equations corresponding to the
unconstrained (active) displacements
Step 7: Solve the equations corresponding to the unconstrained

(active) displacements. For the current example, the equations are
solved using a spreadsheet program, inverting the (relatively small)
global stiffness matrix to obtain
𝑼𝒂 = [𝑲𝒂𝒂 ]−𝟏 𝑭𝒂

6 Comprehensive Example Step 8: Back-substitute the displacement data into the
constraint equations to compute reaction forces
Step 8: Back-substitute the displacement data into the constraint

equations to compute reaction forces.
𝑭𝒄 = 𝑲𝒄𝒂 𝑼𝒂

Step 9: Compute strain and stress in each element
Step 9: Compute strain and stress in each element.

Step 9: Compute strain and stress in each element
Step 9: Compute strain and stress in each element.

Índice:

7 Three dimensional Trusses The unit vector along the element axis can be used to obtain the
cosines that will be used to obtain the element stiffness matrix
The unit vector along the element axis

(i.e., the element reference frame)
expressed in the global system is

7 Three dimensional Trusses Firstly, we write the expressions that related local to global
displacements at each node
Relation between nodal displacements in

local and global coordinate system

7 Three dimensional Trusses The expression can be written in matrix form using the
transformation matrix [R]
Relation between nodal displacements in local and global coordinate system
Transformation matrix [R]

7 Three dimensional Trusses The element stiffness matrix can be obtained using the
transformation matrix too
Following the identical procedure used for the 2-D case, the
element stiffness matrix in the element coordinate system
is transformed into the 3-D global coordinates via

7 Three dimensional Trusses The element stiffness matrix is a 6x6 matrix due to 6 degrees
of freedom (3 displacements per node)
Following the identical procedure used for the 2-D case, the element stiffness matrix
in the element coordinate system is transformed into the 3-D global coordinates via
Where:

7 Three dimensional Trusses In this simple exercise, you’ll notice that to solve a 3-D truss
structure we should follow the same steps as before
Exercise
The three-member truss shown in the figure

is connected by and fixed at nodes 1,
2, and 3. A 5000-lb force is applied at node
4 in the negative Y direction, as shown. Each
of the three members is identical and
exhibits a characteristic axial stiffness of
3 105 𝑙𝑏/𝑖𝑛. Compute the displacement
components of node 4 using a finite
element model with bar elements.

7 Three dimensional Trusses Firstly, we need to define a global coordinate system and
number each node and element

7 Three dimensional Trusses In order to assemble the global stiffness matrix, we can build
the element-to-global displacement correspondence table
Element-to-Global Displacement Correspondence

7 Three dimensional Trusses We can partition the matrix equation to divide the global
stiffness matrix and use just the needed parts
c a 𝑼𝒄
𝑭𝒄
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
(1) 0 𝐹1
(2) 0 𝐹2
(3) 0 𝐹3
(4) 𝑲𝒄𝒄 0 𝐹4
c (5) 𝑲𝒄𝒂 0 𝐹5
(6) 0 𝐹6
=
(7) 0 𝐹7
(8) 0 𝐹8
(9) 0 𝐹9 𝑭𝒂
(10) 𝑈10 0
a (11) 𝑲𝒂𝒄 𝑲𝒂𝒂 𝑈11 −5000
(12) 𝑈12 0
𝑼𝒂

7 Three dimensional Trusses We should evaluate each element stiffness matrix using the
unit vector along the element axis to find the cosines



7 Three dimensional Trusses Now we can find the global stiffness matrix terms using the
element-to-global displacement correspondence table

7 Three dimensional Trusses Finally, we can find the active displacements solving the
resultant matrix equation

Thank you for your
attention!
Workshop 04
Lure Academy

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

1 Problem Specification We will perform a simple structural analysis of a 2-D truss
structure
Exercise
Solve the 2D truss structure configured as shown in the next slide. Consider the same node and element
numbers as in the figure shown below. Consider Modulus of Elasticy → E = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎. Find active
displacements, reaction forces, strain and stress of each bar element on ANSYS and compare with the
results obtained using the excel spreadsheet “2-D Truss Calculator”
Consider circular cross-section for each element

and radius equals:
𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅5 = 𝑅7 = 25,4 𝑚𝑚
𝑅4 = 𝑅8 = 19,05 𝑚𝑚
𝑅2 = 𝑅6 = 15,88 𝑚𝑚

structure
𝑼𝟑 = −𝟎, 𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝑼𝟒 = 𝟎 9𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝑭𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓°
𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝑼𝟏 = 𝟎
𝜽 = 𝟑𝟕, 𝟖𝟕𝟓° 𝑭𝟗 = −𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝑼𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝟑 𝒎𝒎
𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝑭𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝑭𝟔 = −𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐍

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

Truss Structure Domain and Boundary Conditions (BC)

𝑼𝟑 = −𝟎, 𝟓 𝒎𝒎
𝑼𝟒 = 𝟎 9𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝑭𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓°
𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝑼𝟏 = 𝟎
𝜽 = 𝟑𝟕, 𝟖𝟕𝟓° 𝑭𝟗 = −𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝑼𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝟑 𝒎𝒎
𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝑭𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝑭𝟔 = −𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐍

Value Problem)

Equilibrium equations → σ 𝑭 = 𝟎 Constrained displacements and

external forces





User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results



Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

structural analysis
𝑭𝟏 = 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟖, 𝟔 𝑵
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵

structural analysis
𝑭𝟑 = −𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟐𝟗 𝑵
𝑭𝟒 = 𝟎 𝑵

structural analysis
෍ 𝑭𝑿 = 𝟎 → 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟑 + 𝑭𝟓 + 𝑭𝟕 + 𝑭𝟗 + 𝑭𝟏𝟏 = 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟖, 𝟔 − 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟐𝟗 + 𝟎 + 𝟎 − 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎
෍ 𝑭𝒀 = 𝟎 → 𝑭𝟐 + 𝑭𝟒 + 𝑭𝟔 + 𝑭𝟖 + 𝑭𝟏𝟎 + 𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎



X direction displacement at each node


Y direction displacement at each node


Axial Force at each element



Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


4 Results Bar elements can only be subjected to axial forces
(traction if positive and compression if negative)
Axial Force (N)

Thank you for your
attention!
Lure Academy

Índice:
1 Elementary Beam Theory
2 Beam Element
3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix
4 Element Load Vector
5 Work Equivalence for Distributed Loads
6 Flexure Element with Axial Loading
7 A General Three-Dimensional Beam Element

1 Elementary Beam Theory Beam element supports bending in two different
planes, axial loading and torsion
Beam Element
• Element capable of properly exhibiting

transverse bending effects.
• Bending can be applied to two

different planes.
• Also supports axial loading and torsion.

1 Elementary Beam Theory Beam element supports bending in two different
planes, axial loading and torsion
Simply supported beam Deflected beam element Sign convention

subjected to arbitrary for shear force and
(negative) distributed load bending moment

1 Elementary Beam Theory Small displacements and linearly elastic materials are
assumptions used throughout this whole course
Assumptions:
• The beam is loaded only in the y direction (eventually we will extend the
concepts for z direction loading).
• Deflections of the beam are small in comparison to the characteristic

dimensions of the beam.
• The material of the beam is linearly elastic, isotropic, and homogeneous.
• The beam is prismatic, and the cross section has an axis of symmetry in the
plane of bending.

1 Elementary Beam Theory The beam is prismatic, and the cross section has an axis
of symmetry in the plane of bending
Beam cross sections

1 Elementary Beam Theory We can get a differential length of the beam and study it
to understand how to calculate strain and stress
Center of curvature
Radius of curvature
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒚

→ 𝒅𝒔 = (𝝆 − 𝒚)𝒅𝜽
Neutral surface
𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 → 𝒅𝒙 = 𝝆𝒅𝜽
1 Elementary Beam Theory Strain is calculated as the variation in length divided by
the initial length of the small piece in study
𝑼𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 → 𝒅𝒙 = 𝝆𝒅𝜽
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒚 → 𝒅𝒔 = (𝝆 − 𝒚)𝒅𝜽

1 Elementary Beam Theory Radius of curvature can be calculated using basic
calculus by the expression shown below

1 Elementary Beam Theory Notice how the assumption of small displacements
affects the expressions used
In keeping with small deflection

theory, slopes are also small

1 Elementary Beam Theory Now we can obtain one expression for strain and
another for stress using the modulus of elasticity
Normal strain in the direction of the longitudinal axis as a result of bending is:
−𝑦 −𝑦 𝑑2 𝑣
𝜀𝑥 = = = −𝑦 2
𝜌 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑣
𝑑𝑥 2
and the corresponding normal stress is: Modulus of Elasticity

or Young’s Modulus
𝑑2 𝑣
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥 = −𝐸𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥

1 Elementary Beam Theory It is also important to find an expression that calculates
bending along the length of the bar
The internal bending moment at a cross section must be equivalent to the

resultant moment of the normal stress distribution, so:
Moment of Inertia
of the cross-
sectional area
about the z axis
The bending moment expression becomes:

1 Elementary Beam Theory We can combine the bending and stress expressions to find
one very important equation that related stress with bending
𝑑2 𝑣
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥 = −𝐸𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥

1 Elementary Beam Theory Let’s now practice with a simple exercise of a beam fixed
at one end and subjected to a load at the other end
Exercise
Calculate axial
stress due to
bending here
𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑵
A
ℎ = 80 𝑚𝑚
𝑦
𝑥
𝑧
𝑏 = 100 𝑚𝑚
𝑥 = 1000 𝑚𝑚
𝐿 = 1500 𝑚𝑚

Exercise
ℎ = 80 𝑚𝑚
𝑦
𝑏ℎ3 100 ∗ 803
𝐼𝑧 = = = 4266666,67 𝑚𝑚4 𝑧
12 12
𝑏 = 100 𝑚𝑚

Exercise
Calculate axial
stress due to
bending here
𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑵
A
𝑀 𝑥 = 1000 𝑚𝑚 = −10000 ∗ 1000 = −107 𝑁. 𝑚𝑚
𝑥
𝑀𝑦 −107
A 𝜎=− =− 𝑦 = 2,34𝑦
𝐼𝑧 4266666,67
𝑥 = 1000 𝑚𝑚
𝐿 = 1500 𝑚𝑚

Exercise
𝜎 = 2,34𝑦
𝜎 40 = 2,34 ∗ 40 = 93,75 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎 −40 = 2,34 ∗ −40 = −93,75 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎 40 = 93,75 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎 −40 = −93,75 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Índice:
2 Beam Element

2 Beam Element We should follow some assumption to obtain the governing
equations of the mathematical model
Assumptions:
The assumptions and restrictions underlying the development are

the same as those of elementary beam theory with the addition of:
• The element is of length L and has two nodes, one at each end.
• The element is connected to other elements only at the nodes.
• Element loading occurs only at the nodes.

2 Beam Element The 2-D beam element contains 2 degrees of freedom per
node: one transversal displacement and one rotation
Beam element nodal displacements

shown in a positive sense

2 Beam Element We should define a function for deflection that obeys some
boundary conditions related to displacements at the nodes
𝑥1 = 0
𝑥2 = 𝐿

2 Beam Element Clearly, with the specification of four boundary conditions, we can determine
no more than four constants in the assumed displacement function
Considering the four boundary conditions and the one-dimensional nature of the problem
in terms of the independent variable, we assume the displacement function in the form:
Application of the boundary conditions in succession yields

2 Beam Element The constants of the displacements function can be found
applying the boundary conditions

2 Beam Element The displacement function is of the form of an interpolation
matrix multiplied by the displacement vector
Interpolation Functions Lure Academy | Page 24

Lure Academy
2 Beam Element It is convenient to introduce the dimensionless length
coordinate to turn the displacement function more friendly
For the flexure element, it is convenient to introduce the dimensionless length coordinate
So that we get the following equation for deflection along the length of the element

2 Beam Element The engineer is most often interested in examining the
stresses associated with given loading conditions

2 Beam Element The engineer is most often interested in examining the
stresses associated with given loading conditions
𝑑𝑣 6𝑥 6𝑥 2 4𝑥 3𝑥 2 6𝑥 6𝑥 2 3𝑥 2 2𝑥
= − 2 + 3 𝑣1 + 1 − + 2 𝜃1 + 2 − 3 𝑣2 + − 𝜃2
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿2 𝐿
𝑑2 𝑣 6 12𝑥 4 6𝑥 6 12𝑥 6𝑥 2
= − 2 + 3 𝑣1 + − + 2 𝜃1 + 2 − 3 𝑣2 + 2 − 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 2

Índice:
2 Beam Element

3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix Castigliano’s first theorem can be used to find the stiffness
matrix coefficients in an efficient way
Before we develop the beam element

stiffness matrix, let’s review
Castigliano’s First Theorem introduced
in Module 3 – Elastic Bar Element

𝐿
𝑭
𝑭 = 𝒌𝜹
𝛿
𝑭
𝜹𝟎
𝛿0 𝛿0
1 2
𝑊 = න 𝐹 . 𝑑𝛿 = න 𝑘𝛿𝑑𝛿 = 𝑘𝛿0 = 𝑈𝑒
0 0 2
Elastic potential energy (strain energy)

However, for a more general purpose, this result is converted to a

different form (applicable to a bar element only) as follows:
2
1 2 1 𝐴𝐸 𝑃𝐿 1 𝑃 𝑃 1
𝑈𝑒 = 𝑘𝛿 = = 𝐴𝐿 = 𝜎𝜀𝑉
2 2 𝐿 𝐴𝐸 2 𝐴 𝐴𝐸 2
𝟏
𝟐


𝑭𝒏
Castigliano’s First Theorem
For an elastic system in equilibrium, 𝑭𝟏

the partial derivative of total strain
energy with respect to deflection at a
point is equal to the applied force in
the direction of the deflection at that
point. 𝑭𝟑
𝑭𝟐

3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix We should firstly calculate total strain energy in
order to use Castigliano’s First Theorem
The total strain energy for the beam element is expressed as
𝑑2 𝑣 𝑑2 𝑣
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥 = −𝐸𝑦 2 𝜀𝑥 = −𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix We should firstly calculate total strain energy in
order to use Castigliano’s First Theorem

3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix For the strain energy of the finite element being developed,
we substitute the discretized displacement relation

3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix The partial derivative of total strain energy with respect to deflection at a point
Applying the first theorem of Castigliano to the strain energy function with respect to
nodal displacement 𝑣1 gives the transverse force at node 1 as:
while application of the theorem with respect to the rotational displacement gives
the moment as

3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix The partial derivative of total strain energy with respect to deflection at a point

3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix The stiffness matrix is a 4x4 matrix since we
have 4 degrees of freedom (2 per node)
The previous equations relate the four nodal displacement values to the four applied
nodal forces (here we use force in the general sense to include applied moments) and
are of the form
𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 → 𝑘𝑚𝑛 → 𝑚, 𝑛 = 1,4

3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix Prior to computing the stiffness coefficients, it is convenient to
convert the integration to the dimensionless length variable
Prior to computing the stiffness coefficients, it is convenient to convert the integration to the
dimensionless length variable 𝝃 = 𝒙/𝑳 by noting
𝑥 𝑑𝜉 1
𝜉= → = → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐿𝑑𝜉
𝐿 𝑑𝑥 𝐿
𝑥 𝑑 1 𝑑
𝜉= → =
𝐿 𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝑑𝜉
3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix Prior to computing the stiffness coefficients, it is convenient to
convert the integration to the dimensionless length variable
𝑥 𝑑 1 𝑑
𝜉= → =
𝐿 𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝑑𝜉





Continuing the direct integration gives the remaining stiffness coefficients as

3 Beam Element Stiffness Matrix The stiffness matrix is symmetric and singular since rigid body motion
is possible unless the element is constrained in some manner

Índice:
2 Beam Element
4 Element Load Vector and Exercise

4 Element Load Vector and Exercise The sign convention used in the finite element formulation of the
beam element is different than the one used in the beam theory
The column matrix (vector) on the left represents

positive nodal forces and moments per the finite
element formulations. The right-hand side contains
the corresponding signed shear forces and bending
moments per the beam theory sign convention.

4 Element Load Vector and Exercise Statically indeterminate beam is the one that the amount of
equilibrium equations is less than the amount of reaction forces
Exercise
The figure depicts a statically indeterminate beam subjected to a transverse load applied
at the midspan. Using two flexure elements, obtain a solution for the midspan deflection.

4 Element Load Vector and Exercise The stiffness matrix can be obtained directly since the beam element is
horizontal and does not need any type of transformation
Since the flexure element requires loading only at nodes, the elements are taken to be of length L/2, as shown.
The individual element stiffness matrices are then:

4 Element Load Vector and Exercise We can use the element-to-system displacement correspondence table
to assemble the global stiffness matrix
(1) (3) (5)

(4)
(6)
(2)
Element-to-System Displacement Correspondence




4 Element Load Vector and Exercise We should constrain some degrees of freedom in order to prevent rigid
body motion and turn the problem solvable
The appropriate boundary conditions are:
𝑣1 = 𝜃1 = 𝑣3 = 0

4 Element Load Vector and Exercise We should constrain some degrees of freedom in order to prevent rigid
body motion and turn the problem solvable
B.C
𝑣1 = 𝜃1 = 𝑣3 = 0

4 Element Load Vector and Exercise After applying the boundary conditions, we can solve the set of
algebraic equations to find the active displacements
Substitution of the nodal displacement values into the constraint equations gives the reactions as

4 Element Load Vector and Exercise We should verify if equilibrium conditions are satisfied by calculating
the sum of all forces in the y direction, for example

4 Element Load Vector and Exercise In general, the finite element method is an approximate method, but in the case
of the flexure element (beam element), the results are exact in certain cases.
Attention!
• In general, the finite element method is an approximate method, but in

the case of the flexure element (beam element), the results are exact in
certain cases.
• In this example, the deflection equation of the neutral surface is a cubic
equation and, since the interpolation functions are cubic, the results are
exact.
• When distributed loads exist, however, the results are not necessarily
exact, as will be discussed next.

Índice:
2 Beam Element

5 Work Equivalence for Distributed Loads Replace the distributed load with nodal forces and moments such that the mechanical
work done by the nodal load system is equivalent to that done by the distributed load
• The restriction that loads be applied only at element

nodes for the flexure element must be dealt with if a
distributed load is present.
• The usual approach is to replace the distributed load

with nodal forces and moments such that the
mechanical work done by the nodal load system is
equivalent to that done by the distributed load

The mechanical work performed by the distributed load can be expressed as

The objective here is to determine the equivalent nodal loads so that the work
expressed by the previous equation is the same as
𝐹1𝑞 𝐹2𝑞
𝑀1𝑞 𝑀2𝑞



For example, for a uniform load q(x) = q = constant, integration of these equations yields:


Exercise
The simply supported beam shown in the figure below is subjected to a uniform transverse load, as
shown. Using two equal-length elements and work-equivalent nodal loads, obtain a finite element
solution for the deflection at midspan and compare it to the solution given by elementary beam theory.


5 Work Equivalence for Distributed Loads We can use the element-to-system displacement correspondence table to
assemble the global stiffness matrix


5 Work Equivalence for Distributed Loads We should constrain some nodes to prevent rigid motion turn the problem
solvable, that is, the stiffness matrix can be inversed
B.C
𝑣1 = 𝑣3 = 0

5 Work Equivalence for Distributed Loads After applying the boundary conditions, we solve the remaining system of
algebraic equations e find the active displacements

5 Work Equivalence for Distributed Loads The general deflected shape as given by the finite element solution is not the
same as the strength of materials result
Attention!
• The nodal displacement results from the finite element analysis of this
example are exactly the results obtained by a strength of materials
approach.
• However, the general deflected shape as given by the finite element
solution is not the same as the strength of materials result.
• The equation describing the deflection of the neutral surface is a
quartic function of x and, since the interpolation functions used in the
finite element model are cubic, the deflection curve varies somewhat
from the exact solution.

Índice:
2 Beam Element

6 Flexure Element with Axial Loading The major shortcoming of the flexure element developed so far is that force
loading must be transverse to the axis of the element
Axial Stiffness Matrix Bending Stiffness Matrix
𝐴𝐸 1 −1
𝑘𝑒 =
𝐿 −1 1

6 Flexure Element with Axial Loading For a beam subjected to axial loading, the effects of buckling and stress stiffening
can occur, and we should analyze if it is important to take it into account.
Attention!
• If the axial load is compressive, the element could buckle.

• If needed, one should perform a buckling analysis. However, this is not
done automatically. You need to do it separately using the analysis
system named Eigenvalue Buckling on Ansys, for example.
• If the axial load is tensile and significantly large, a phenomenon known
as stress stiffening can occur.
• In the case of small elastic deflection, the effect of stress stiffening is
negligible.

6 Flexure Element with Axial Loading The phenomenon of stress stiffening can be likened to tightening of a guitar string. As the tension
is increased, the string becomes more resistant to motion perpendicular to the axis of the string
Stress Stiffening

6 Flexure Element with Axial Loading We can simply add the spar element stiffness matrix to the flexure element stiffness matrix
to obtain the 6 × 6 element stiffness matrix for a flexure element with axial loading
For the present purpose, we assume the axial loads are such that these secondary effects are
not of concern and the axial loading is independent of bending effects. This being the case,
we can simply add the spar element stiffness matrix to the flexure element stiffness matrix
to obtain the 6 × 6 element stiffness matrix for a flexure element with axial loading as

6 Flexure Element with Axial Loading If the element has a specific orientation with respect to the global
coordinate system, we should transform the stiffness matrix of the element
Transformation Matrix Evaluation

6 Flexure Element with Axial Loading If the element has a specific orientation with respect to the global
coordinate system, we should transform the stiffness matrix of the element
Transformation Matrix Evaluation
Transformation Matrix

6 Flexure Element with Axial Loading If the element has a specific orientation with respect to the global coordinate
system, we should transform the stiffness matrix of the element
Before proceeding, note that it is convenient here to reorder the element stiffness matrix so that
the element displacement vector in the element reference frame is given as

6 Flexure Element with Axial Loading If the element has a specific orientation with respect to the global coordinate
system, we should transform the stiffness matrix of the element
In a manner exactly analogous to that of the bar element, it is readily shown that the 6 × 6 element
stiffness matrix in the global system is given by
Stiffness matrix expressed in

global coordinate system
Assembly of the system equations for a finite element model using the beam-axial
element is accomplished in an identical fashion to the procedures followed for trusses

6 Flexure Element with Axial Loading Let’s now practice what we have learned so far by doing one exercise that
involves distributed load, beam-axial element and oriented element
Exercise
The frame shown in the figure below is composed of identical beams having a 1-in. square cross section and a
modulus of elasticity of 10 𝑥 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖. The supports at O and C are to be considered completely fixed. The
horizontal beam is subjected to a uniform load of intensity 10 lb/in., as shown. Use two beam-axial elements to
compute the displacements and rotation at B.



Choosing the global coordinate system and displacement numbering as in the figure of the problem
specification, we observe that element 2 requires no transformation, as its element coordinate system is
aligned with the global system. However, element 1 requires transformation. Using 𝜓 = 𝜋/2, we have:

Displacement Correspondence Table

System Stiffness Matrix


Taking the constraints into account, the equations to be solved for the active
displacements are then

For the beam element with axial capability, the stress computation must take into account the
superposition of bending stress and direct axial stress. For element 1, for example, we use the
transformation matrix with 𝜓 = 𝜋/2 to compute the element displacement as:

𝑑2 𝑣 6 12𝑥 4 6𝑥 6 12𝑥 6𝑥 2
= − 2 + 3 𝑣1 + − + 2 𝜃1 + 2 − 3 𝑣2 + 2 − 𝜃
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 2

Node 1 – Combination of bending stress and direct axial stress
𝝈𝒙=𝟎 = +𝟒𝟗𝟓. 𝟐 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝝈𝒙=𝟎 = +𝟒𝟎𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝝈𝒙=𝟎 = −𝟒𝟗𝟓. 𝟐 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝝈𝒙=𝟎 = −𝟖𝟕. 𝟑𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝝈𝒙=𝟎 = −𝟓𝟖𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊

Node 2 – Combination of bending stress and direct axial stress
𝝈𝒙=𝑳 = +𝟗𝟗𝟐. 𝟐 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝝈𝒙=𝑳 = +𝟗𝟎𝟒. 𝟖𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝝈𝒙=𝑳 = −𝟗𝟗𝟐. 𝟐 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝝈𝒙=𝑳 = −𝟖𝟕. 𝟑𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝝈𝒙=𝑳 = −𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟗. 𝟓𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊

Índice:
2 Beam Element

7 A General Three-Dimensional Beam Element A general three-dimensional beam element is capable of both axial and torsional
deflections as well as two-plane bending
Beam Element for Bending about the Y axis
12 −6𝐿 −12 −6𝐿

𝐸𝐼𝑦 −6𝐿 4𝐿² 6𝐿 2𝐿²
𝑘𝑒 𝑥𝑧 = 3
𝐿 −12 6𝐿 12 6𝐿
−6𝐿 2𝐿² 6𝐿 4𝐿²

Beam Element for Bending about the Z axis
12 6𝐿 −12 6𝐿
𝐸𝐼𝑦 6𝐿 4𝐿² −6𝐿 2𝐿²
𝑘𝑒 𝑥𝑦 = 3
𝐿 −12 −6𝐿 12 −6𝐿
𝑦 6𝐿 2𝐿² −6𝐿 4𝐿²
𝑣1 𝑞𝑦 (𝑥) 𝑣2
𝜃𝑧2
𝜃𝑧1
𝑥
(a) Three-dimensional beam element. (b) Nodal displacements in

element xy plane. Lure Academy | Page 98
Lure Academy
Combining the spar element stiffness matrix, the xy plane flexure stiffness matrix, and the xz plane
flexure stiffness matrix, the element equilibrium equations for a two-plane bending element with axial
stiffness are written in matrix form as
[𝒌𝒆 ]

Torsional Finite Element

From elementary strength of materials, it is well known that the angle of twist per unit length of a uniform,
elastic circular cylinder subjected to torque T is given by
where J is polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area and G is the shear modulus of the material.

As the angle of twist per unit length is constant, the total angle of twist of the element can be expressed
in terms of the nodal rotations and twisting moments as

Consideration of the equilibrium condition 𝑀𝑥1 + 𝑀𝑥2 = 0 lead directly to the element equilibrium
equations:
so the torsional stiffness matrix is:

While this development is, strictly speaking, applicable

only to a circular cross section, an equivalent torsional
stiffness 𝐽𝑒𝑞 𝐺/𝐿 is known for many common structural
cross sections and can be obtained from standard
structural tables or strength of materials texts.

Adding the torsional characteristics to the general beam element, the element equations become
12 x 12 symmetric stiffness matrix

Thank you for your
attention!
Workshop 05
Lure Academy

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

structure
Exercise
The steel frame structure shown in the image to the
right is going to be used as an office. Verify if the
stresses are below the yield strength and if the
displacements are below the imposed limit. Use the
following information:
• Beam Material: ASTM A572-Gr50 (YS = 345 MPa, E

= 200 GPa, Poisson’s ratio = 0,3).
• Distributed load of 3 kN/m² should be applied
downwards over the floor area.
• Maximum deflection allowed = L/350, where L is
the beam length.
Observation: In a real situation, one should perform buckling analysis for the elements subjected to
compressive loads. In addition, if the displacements are large, one should consider non-linear effects

structure
We will simplify the structure so we can

focus on studying about the beam element.
In a real situation, one must not simplify it
the way we will do.
• Instead of considering the stairs’ domain,

consider equivalent forces applied to the
structure.
• For the columns and floor beams,
consider just the I-shaped beams.
• For the diagonal bracings, consider a
circular cross-section bar.

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

Steel Frame Structure Domain and Boundary Conditions (BC)

4000 mm Area of distributed load application
Load/Area = 3 kN/m²
Obs.: This load should be transformed
into load per unit length (kN/m)
1500 mm
AISC W 8x24 I-shaped beams
12 kN
for all I-shaped beams (ASTM
12 kN A572 Gr-50)
25 kN
6000 mm 25 kN Fixed nodes
2000 mm
R12,7 diagonal bracings (ASTM A36) – Bar Elements
Middle beams load calculation
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
=3 ∗ 1,5 𝑚 = 4,5
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑚² 𝑚
Side beams load calculation
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
=3 ∗ 0,75 𝑚 = 2,25
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑚² 𝑚


Value Problem)


external forces



User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results



Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

structural analysis
෍ 𝐹𝑋 = 0 → 25 ∗ 2 − 23,846 − 1,7625 − 4,6411 − 19,751 = 0
෍ 𝐹𝑌 = 0 → 9,8485 − 13,747 − 10,084 + 13,983 = 0
෍ 𝐹𝑍 = 0 → −4,5 ∗ 4 ∗ 3 − 2,25 ∗ 4 ∗ 2 − 12 ∗ 2 + 18,681 + 21,071 + 17,562 + 38,686 = 0

structural analysis

structural analysis

structural analysis

structural analysis



Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


4 Results Bar elements can only be subjected to axial forces
(traction if positive and compression if negative)
Equivalent von Mises Stress

Thank you for your
attention!
Lure Academy

Índice:
1 Strain-Displacement Relations
2 Stress-Strain Relations
3 Equilibrium Equations
4 Summary

1 Strain-Displacement Relations The displacements in the x, y and z directions may vary
with position in the solid body
𝑥𝑏
𝑥𝑎
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑢 = 𝑢 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
(a) (b)
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑣 = 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 → 𝑤 = 𝑤 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝒙
The displacements in the x, y and z directions 𝑢𝑎 𝑢𝑏
may vary with position in the solid body
𝑭
(a) (b)

1 Strain-Displacement Relations Normal strain is calculated as the variation in length
divided by the initial length

1 Strain-Displacement Relations Normal strain is calculated as the variation in length
divided by the initial length

1 Strain-Displacement Relations Shear strain is calculated as the distortion of the original
rectangular shape of the solid
Small angles due to

small displacements
Shear Strain
1 Strain-Displacement Relations Shear strain is calculated as the distortion of the original
rectangular shape of the solid
Similar consideration of distortion in xz and yz planes results in

1 Strain-Displacement Relations As continually is the case as we proceed, it is convenient to
express the strain-displacement relations in matrix form
This vector describes a

Displacement vector
continuous displacement field
Strain Vector



Índice:
4 Summary

2 Stress-Strain Relations For a homogeneous, isotropic, linearly elastic material, it is readily shown that only two
independent material constants (𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜈) are required to completely specify the relations
Stress-Strain Relations:
• The equations between stress and strain applicable to a

particular material are known as the constitutive equations for
that material.
• In the most general type of material possible, it is shown in
advanced work in continuum mechanics that the constitutive
equations can contain up to 81 independent material constants.
• However, for a homogeneous, isotropic, linearly elastic material,
it is readily shown that only two independent material constants
(𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜈) are required to completely specify the relations.

2 Stress-Strain Relations Modulus of elasticity E is defined as the slope of the stress-strain
curve in the elastic region
Again, referring to the simple uniaxial tension test, the

modulus of elasticity E is defined as the slope of the
stress-strain curve in the elastic region or
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

2 Stress-Strain Relations Poisson’s ratio is a measure of the well-known phenomenon that an elastic body
strained in one direction also experiences strain in mutually perpendicular directions
Poisson’s ratio is a measure of the well-known

phenomenon that an elastic body strained in one direction
also experiences strain in mutually perpendicular
directions. Formally, Poisson’s ratio is defined as:
Thus, in the tension test, if 𝜀𝑥 represents the strain

resulting from applied load, the induced strain components
are given by:

The general stress-strain relations for a homogeneous, isotropic, linearly elastic material subjected to a general
three-dimensional deformation are as follows:
Where we introduce the shear modulus or

modulus of rigidity, defined by:

The stress-strain relations can easily be expressed in matrix form by defining the material property matrix [D] as

Those 6 algebraic equations can be expressed in matrix notation as follows:
Material Property Matrix Derivative Operator Matrix

Índice:
4 Summary

3 Equilibrium Equations To obtain the equations of equilibrium for a deformed solid body, we examine the general
state of stress at an arbitrary point in the body via an infinitesimal differential element
𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝟏
𝑭𝟑
𝑭𝒏
A three-dimensional element in a general state of stress
3 Equilibrium Equations The most common body force is that of gravitational attraction while magnetic and
centrifugal forces are also examples
Body Force
• In addition to the stress components shown,

dy
it is assumed that the element is subjected
to a body force having axial components
𝐵𝑥 , 𝐵𝑦 , 𝐵𝑧 . dz
• The body force is expressed as force per unit
dx
volume and represents the action of an
external influence that affects the body as a
whole. 𝑭𝒙 = 𝑩𝒙 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒙 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
• The most common body force is that of
gravitational attraction while magnetic and 𝑭𝒚 = 𝑩𝒚 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒚 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛
centrifugal forces are also examples.
𝑭𝒛 = 𝑩𝒛 𝑽 = 𝑩𝒛 𝒅𝒙𝒅𝒚𝒅𝒛

3 Equilibrium Equations The equilibrium equations states that for the body to be in static
equilibrium, the sum of all forces in all directions should be equal to zero
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
Expanding and simplifying yields:

3 Equilibrium Equations The equilibrium equations states that for the body to be in static
equilibrium, the sum of all forces in all directions should be equal to zero
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
෍ 𝐹𝑧 = 0

Índice:
4 Summary

4 Summary In summary, we have equations that relates strain with displacement,
stress with strain and finally the equilibrium equations
Stress-strain relations
15 equations and 15 variables
1−𝜈 𝜈 𝜈 0 0 0
𝜎𝑥 𝜈 1−𝜈 𝜈 0 0 0 𝜀𝑥
𝜎𝑦 𝜈 𝜈 1−𝜈 0 0 0 𝜀𝑦
1 − 2𝜈
Strain-displacement relations 𝜎𝑧 𝐸 0 0 0 0 0 𝜀𝑧
𝜎 = 𝐷 {𝜀} → 𝜏 = 2 𝛾𝑥𝑦
𝑥𝑦 (1 − 𝜈)(1 − 2𝜈) 1 − 2𝜈
𝜏𝑥𝑧 0 0 0 0 0 𝛾𝑥𝑧
𝜏𝑦𝑧 2 𝛾𝑦𝑧
1 − 2𝜈
0 0 0 0 0
2
Equilibrium equations

Thank you for your
attention!
Lure Academy

Índice:
1 Matrix Mathematics
2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations

1 Matrix Mathematics The position of each element inside a matrix is identified by
the row subscript i and the column subscript j
1 3 −7 2 𝑎11 = 1
𝐴 = 13 12 −6 3 𝒂𝒊𝒋
𝑎23 = −6
33 −1 5 −17
𝑎32 = −1 𝒊 = 𝒓𝒐𝒘
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎14
𝑎21 = 13 𝒋 = 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐧
𝐴 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎24
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎34
𝑎34 = −17

1 Matrix Mathematics The number of rows and columns determine the order of a matrix. A matrix having m
rows and n columns is said to be of order “m by n” (usually denoted as m × n)
3 rows and 4 columns
1 3 −7 2
𝐴 = 13 12 −6 3
33 −1 5 −17
Matrix of order “3 by 4”
(usually denoted as 3 x 4)

1 Matrix Mathematics A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix or row vector. Similarly, a
matrix with a single column is a column matrix or column vector.
𝐵 = 1 3 −7 2 Row matrix or row vector
1
𝐶 = 13 Column matrix or column vector
33

1 Matrix Mathematics If the rows and columns of a matrix [A] are interchanged, the
resulting matrix is known as the transpose of [A], denoted by [𝑨]𝑻
1 13 33
1 3 −7 2
𝑇 3 12 −1
𝐴 = 13 12 −6 3 𝐴 =
−7 −6 5
33 −1 5 −17
2 3 −17
Transpose of [A]

1 Matrix Mathematics A square matrix has the same number of rows and
columns
Square Matrix
Number of rows = m
2 −1 0
𝐴 = 5 1 0 Number of columns = n
−3 0 3
Square matrix: 𝑚 = 𝑛

1 Matrix Mathematics A diagonal matrix has all terms out of the main diagonal
equal to zero
Diagonal Matrix
2 0 0
𝐴 = 0 1 0 𝐼𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 → 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0
0 0 3

1 Matrix Mathematics An identity matrix has all terms out of the main diagonal equal
to zero and the main diagonal terms equal to 1
Identity Matrix [I]
1 0 0 𝐼𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 → 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0
𝐼 = 0 1 0
0 0 1 𝐼𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗 → 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 1

1 Matrix Mathematics A null matrix (also known as a zero matrix [0]) is a matrix of
any order in which the value of all elements is 0
Null Matrix
0 0 0 0
𝐴 = 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

1 Matrix Mathematics A symmetric matrix is a square matrix composed of elements such that
the nondiagonal values are symmetric about the main diagonal
Symmetric Matrix
2 −1 −3
𝐴 = −1 1 0
−3 0 3
𝐼𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 → 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖

1 Matrix Mathematics To add/subtract two matrices, one should just add/subtract the terms
positioned in the same row and column of each matrix
Addition of Matrices
2 −1 −3 3 −7 2
𝐴 = −1 1 0 𝐵 = 12 −6 3
−3 0 3 −1 5 −17
5 −8 −1
𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 11 −5 3
−4 5 −14

1 Matrix Mathematics To add/subtract two matrices, one should just add/subtract the terms
positioned in the same row and column of each matrix
Subtraction of Matrices
2 −1 −3 3 −7 2
𝐴 = −1 1 0 𝐵 = 12 −6 3
−3 0 3 −1 5 −17
−1 6 −5
𝐶 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 = −13 7 −3
−2 −5 20

1 Matrix Mathematics To perform the product of a scalar and a matrix, one should multiply
all terms of the matrix by the scalar value
Product of a scalar value and a matrix
2 −1 −3
𝐴 = −1 1 0 𝑢 = 2 (𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
−3 0 3
2 −1 −3 4 −2 −6
𝐶 = 𝑢 𝐴 = 2 −1 1 0 = −2 2 0
−3 0 3 −6 0 6

1 Matrix Mathematics In matrix multiplication operation, one should multiply the terms of the
row of the first matrix by the terms of the column of the second matrix
Matrix Multiplication
3 11
1 3 −7
𝐴 = [𝐵] = 9 99
13 12 −6
2 −26
3 11
1 3 −7
𝐶 = 𝐴 [𝐵] = 9 99
13 12 −6
2 −26

1 Matrix Mathematics In matrix multiplication operation, one should multiply the terms of the
row of the first matrix by the terms of the column of the second matrix
Matrix Multiplication
3 11
1 3 −7
𝐶 = 𝐴 [𝐵] = 9 99
13 12 −6
2 −26
1.3 + 3.9 − 7.2 1.11 + 3.99 − 7. −26

𝐶 =
13.3 + 12.9 − 6.2 13.11 + 12.99 − 6. (−26)
16 490
𝐶 =
135 1487
1 Matrix Mathematics The determinant of a square matrix is a scalar value that is unique for a
given matrix and is evaluated according to a very specific procedure
Determinant of a Matrix
3 −7
𝐴 =
12 −6
𝐴 = 3 ∗ −6 − −7 ∗ 12 = 66

3 −7 2
𝐴 = 12 −6 3
−1 5 −17
3 −7 2 3 −7
𝐴 = 12 −6 3 12 −6
−1 5 −17 −1 5
𝐴 = 3 ∗ −6 ∗ −17 + −7 ∗ 3 ∗ −1 + [2 ∗ 12 ∗ 5)]
− 2 ∗ −6 ∗ −1 − 3 ∗ 3 ∗ 5 − [ −7 ∗ 12 ∗ −17 ] = −1038
𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 → |𝑀11 | = 𝑎 𝑎33
32


Cofactor of an element
3 −7 2
𝐴 = 12 −6 3
−1 5 −17
𝐶11 = −1 1+1 ∗ −6 ∗ −17 − 3 ∗ 5 = 87
𝐶23 = −1 2+3 ∗ 3 ∗ 5 − −7 ∗ −1 = −8

1 Matrix Mathematics The concept of the inverse of a matrix is of prime importance in solving
simultaneous linear equations by matrix methods
Matrix Inversion

Matrix Inversion

Matrix Inversion
3 −7 2
𝐴 = 12 −6 3
−1 5 −17
𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13 87 201 54
𝐶 = 𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 = −109 −49 −8
𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33 −9 15 66
87 −109 −9
𝑇
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 = 201 −49 15
54 −8 66
Matrix Inversion
87 −109 −9
201 −49 15
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 1 87 −109 −9
𝐴 −1 = = 54 −8 66 = −
201 −49 15
|𝐴| −1038 1038
54 −8 66
−0.084 0.105 0.009

𝐴 −1 = −0.194 0.047 −0.014
−0.052 0.008 −0.064

Matrix Inversion
If the determinant of [A] is 0, the equation above shows that the inverse does not
exist. In this case, the matrix is said to be singular, and the equation above
provides no solution for the system of equations. Singularity of the coefficient
matrix indicates one of two possibilities: (1) no solution exists or (2) multiple
(nonunique) solutions exist. In the latter case, the algebraic equations are not
linearly independent.

Índice:
1 Matrix Mathematics
2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations

2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations Gauss elimination utilizes simple algebraic operations (multiplication, division, addition,
and subtraction) to successively eliminate unknowns from a system of equations
GAUSS ELIMINATION
Gauss elimination utilizes simple algebraic operations (multiplication, division, addition, and
subtraction) to successively eliminate unknowns from a system of equations generally described by
so that the system of equations is transformed to the form

GAUSS ELIMINATION
3 −7 2 𝑥1 10
12 −6 3 𝑥2 = −2
−1 5 −17 𝑥3 3
𝑥 12Τ3 3 −7 2 𝑥1 10 12 −28 8 𝑥1 40
12 −6 3 𝑥2 = −2 → 12 −6 3 𝑥2 = −2
−1 5 −17 𝑥3 3 −1 5 −17 𝑥3 3
12 −28 8 𝑥1 40 12 −28 8 𝑥1 40
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡
12 −6 3 𝑥2 = −2 → 0 22 −5 𝑥2 = −42
−1 5 −17 𝑥3 3 −1 5 −17 𝑥3 3

GAUSS ELIMINATION
(𝑥) −1Τ12 12 −28 8 𝑥1 40 −1 2.3 −0.7 𝑥1 −3.3

0 22 −5 𝑥2 = −42 → 0 22 −5 𝑥2 = −42
−1 5 −17 𝑥3 3 −1 5 −17 𝑥3 3
−1 2.3 −0.7 𝑥1 −3.3 −1 2.3 −0.7 𝑥1 −3.3
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 0 22 −5 𝑥2 = −42 → 0 22 −5 𝑥2 = −42
−1 5 −17 𝑥3 3 0 2.7 −16.3 𝑥3 6.3

GAUSS ELIMINATION
−1 2.3 −0.7 𝑥1 −3.3 −1 2.3 −0.7 𝑥1 −3.3

𝑥 2.7/22 0 22 −5 𝑥2 = −42 → 0 2.7 −0.61 𝑥2 = −5.16
0 2.7 −16.3 𝑥3 6.3 0 2.7 −16.3 𝑥3 6.3
−1 2.3 −0.7 𝑥1 −3.3 −1 2.3 −0.7 𝑥1 −3.3
0 2.7 −0.61 𝑥2 = −5.16 → 0 2.7 −0.61 𝑥2 = −5.16
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡
0 2.7 −16.3 𝑥3 6.3 0 0 −15.7 𝑥3 11.46

GAUSS ELIMINATION
−1 2.3 −0.7 𝑥1 −3.3

0 2.7 −0.61 𝑥2 = −5.16
0 0 −15.7 𝑥3 11.46
−15.7𝑥3 = 11.46 → 𝑥3 = −0.73

−5.16 − 0.61 ∗ 0.73
2.7𝑥2 − 0.61 ∗ (−0.73) = −5.16 → 𝑥2 = = −2.07
2.7
−1𝑥1 + 2.3𝑥2 − 0.7𝑥3 = −3.3 → −𝑥1 + 2.3 ∗ (−2.07) − 0.7 ∗ (−0.73) = −3.3
𝑥1 = −1

2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations The direct solver used by ANSYS in most of the static structural analyzes
is the Sparse Direct Solver, also known as LU Decomposition
Direct Solver – Sparse Direct Solver
The direct solver that is available is the Sparse Direct Solver
LU DECOMPOSITION

2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations LU decomposition method is the direct solver used by ANSYS, also
called The Sparse Direct Solver. It solves the matrix equation exactly
LU DECOMPOSITION
3 −7 2 𝑥1 10
𝐴 𝑥 = {𝑓} → 12 −6 3 𝑥2 = −2
−1 5 −17 𝑥3 3
Lower Triangular Matrix Upper Triangular Matrix

2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations LU decomposition method is the direct solver used by ANSYS, also called
The Sparse Direct Solver. It solves the matrix equation exactly
LU DECOMPOSITION
𝐿𝑖𝑖 = 1

LU DECOMPOSITION
3 −7 2 1 0 0 𝑈11 𝑈12 𝑈13

𝐴 = 12 −6 3 = 𝐿21 1 0 0 𝑈22 𝑈23
−1 5 −17 𝐿31 𝐿32 1 0 0 𝑈33
𝑎11 = 3 = 1 ∗ 𝑈11 → 𝑈11 = 3
𝑎12 = −7 = 1 ∗ 𝑈12 → 𝑈12 = −7
12 12
𝑎21 = 12 = 𝐿21 ∗ 𝑈11 → 𝐿21 = = =4
𝑈11 3
𝑎22 = −6 = 𝐿21 ∗ 𝑈12 + 1 ∗ 𝑈22 → 𝑈22 = −6 − 𝐿21 ∗ 𝑈12 = −6 − 4 ∗ (−7) = 22
𝑎13 = 2 = 1 ∗ 𝑈13 → 𝑈13 = 2

1 1
𝑎31 = −1 = 𝐿31 ∗ 𝑈11 → 𝐿31 = − =−
𝑈11 3
LU DECOMPOSITION
3 −7 2 1 0 0 𝑈11 𝑈12 𝑈13

𝐴 = 12 −6 3 = 𝐿21 1 0 0 𝑈22 𝑈23
−1 5 −17 𝐿31 𝐿32 1 0 0 𝑈33
5 − 𝐿31 ∗ 𝑈12 5 − − 1Τ3 ∗ −7

𝑎32 = 5 = 𝐿31 ∗ 𝑈12 + 𝐿32 ∗ 𝑈22 → 𝐿32 = = = 4/33
𝑈22 22
𝑎23 = 3 = 𝐿21 ∗ 𝑈13 + 1 ∗ 𝑈23 → 𝑈23 = 3 − 𝐿21 ∗ 𝑈13 = 3 − 4 ∗ 2 = −5
8
𝑎33 = −17 = 𝐿31 ∗ 𝑈13 + 𝐿32 ∗ 𝑈23 + 1 ∗ 𝑈33 → 𝑈33 = −17 − 𝐿31 ∗ 𝑈13 − 𝐿32 ∗ 𝑈23 = −15 −
11

LU DECOMPOSITION
3 −7 2 1 0 0 𝑈11 𝑈12 𝑈13

𝐴 = 12 −6 3 = 𝐿21 1 0 0 𝑈22 𝑈23
−1 5 −17 𝐿31 𝐿32 1 0 0 𝑈33
3 −7 2
3 −7 2 1 0 0
0 22 −5
𝐴 = 12 −6 3 = 4 1 0 8
−1 5 −17 −1/3 4/33 1 0 0 −15 −
11

LU DECOMPOSITION
𝐴 𝑥 = 𝑓 → 𝐿 𝑈 𝑥 = {𝑓}
𝑈 𝑥 = {𝑧}
3 −7 2 3𝑥1 − 7𝑥2 + 2𝑥3

𝑥1 22𝑥2 − 5𝑥3
0 22 −5 𝑥2
8 = 8 = {𝑧}
0 0 −15 − 𝑥3 −15 − 𝑥3
11 11

LU DECOMPOSITION
𝐿 𝑈 𝑥 = 𝑓 → 𝐿 𝑧 = {𝑓}
1 0 0 𝑧1 10
𝐿 𝑧 = 𝑓 = 4 1 0 𝑧2 = −2
−1/3 4/33 1 𝑧3 3
𝑧1 = 10
4𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = −2 → 𝑧2 = −2 − 4 ∗ 10 = −42
1 4 14
− 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 = 3 → 𝑧3 = 11 +
3 33 33
LU DECOMPOSITION
3𝑥1 − 7𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 10

22𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 −42
𝑧 = 8 = 14
−15 − 𝑥3 11 +
11 33
8 4
−15 − 𝑥3 = 11 + → 𝑥3 = −0.726
11 7

LU DECOMPOSITION
3𝑥1 − 7𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 10

22𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 −42
𝑧 = 8 = 14
−15 − 𝑥3 11 +
11 33
22𝑥2 − 5 ∗ −0.726 = −42
𝑥2 = −2.074

LU DECOMPOSITION
3𝑥1 − 7𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 10

22𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 −42
𝑧 = 8 = 14
−15 − 𝑥3 11 +
11 33
3𝑥1 − 7(−2.074) + 2(−0.726) = 10
𝑥1 = −1.022

2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations The iterative solver used by ANSYS in most of the static structural
analyzes is the Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient (PCG) solver
Iterative Solver – Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient (PCG)
Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient (PCG) Solver
Iterative method that solves the system of algebraic

equations (Matrix Equation) approximately.

2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations The iterative solver used by ANSYS in most of the static structural
analyzes is the Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient (PCG) solver
Iterative Solver – Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient (PCG)
FROM ANSYS HELP

2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations An iterative solver starts with an initial guess for all DOF and solves by
iterating until convergence is achieved. The solution is approximated
Gauss Seidel Method
10 2 1 𝑥1 7
𝐴 𝑥 = {𝑓} → 1 5 1 𝑥2 = −8
2 3 10 𝑥3 6
7 − 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3
10𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 7 → 𝑥1 =
10
−8 − 𝑥1 − 𝑥3
𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −8 → 𝑥2 =
5
6 − 2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 10𝑥3 = 6 → 𝑥3 =
10

2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations An iterative solver starts with an initial guess for all DOF and solves by iterating
until convergence is achieved. The solution is approximated
Gauss Seidel Method

𝑥1 0
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑠 → 𝑥2 = 0
𝑥3 0
7 − 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 7 − 2 ∗ 0 − 0 7
𝑥1 = = = = 0.7
10 10 10
−8 − 𝑥1 − 𝑥3 −8 − 0.7 − 0
𝑥2 = = = −1.74
5 5
6 − 2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 6 − 2 ∗ 0.7 − 3 ∗ (−1.74)

𝑥3 = = = 0.982
10 10

Gauss Seidel Method

𝑥1 0.7
𝑥2 = −1.74
𝑥3 0.982
7 − 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 7 − 2 ∗ (−1.74) − 0.982

𝑥1 = = = 0.95
10 10
−8 − 𝑥1 − 𝑥3 −8 − 0.95 − 0.982
𝑥2 = = = −1.986
5 5
6 − 2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 6 − 2 ∗ 0.95 − 3 ∗ (−1.986)

𝑥3 = = = 1.006
10 10

2 Solution Techniques for Linear Algebraic Equations An iterative solver starts with an initial guess for all DOF and solves by iterating
until convergence is achieved. The solution is approximated
Gauss Seidel Method

𝑥1 0.95
𝑥2 = −1.986
𝑥3 1.006
𝑥1 = 0.997
𝑥2 = −2.001
𝑥3 = 1.001

Gauss Seidel Method

𝑥1 0.997
𝑥2 = −2.001
𝑥3 1.001
𝑥1 = 1.000
𝑥2 = −2.000
𝑥3 = 1.000

Gauss Seidel Method

𝑥1 1.000
𝑥2 = −2.000
𝑥3 1.000
𝑥1 = 1.000
𝑥2 = −2.000 Converged!
𝑥3 = 1.000

Thank you for your
attention!
Lure Academy

Índice:
1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Stress
2 Finite Element Formulation: Constant Strain Triangle
3 Stiffness Matrix Evaluation
4 Distributed Loads
5 Body Forces

1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Stress A commonly occurring situation in solid mechanics, known as
plane stress, is defined by the following assumptions
Plane Stress Assumptions
• The body is small in one coordinate direction (the z

direction by convention) in comparison to the other
dimensions; the dimension in the z direction
(hereafter, the thickness) is either uniform or
symmetric about the xy plane; thickness t, if in
general, is less than one-tenth of the smallest
dimension in the xy plane, would qualify for “small.”
• The body is subjected to loading only in the xy plane.
• The material of the body is linearly elastic, isotropic,

and homogeneous.

1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Stress The only nonzero stress components are normal stresses in the
x and y directions and shear stress xy
Equilibrium Equations for Plane Stress:

1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Stress Utilizing the elastic stress-strain relations, we can find
expressions that relate stress with strain

1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Stress Utilizing the elastic stress-strain relations, we can find
expressions that relate stress with strain

1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Stress Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
𝟏
𝟐

𝟏
𝒖𝒆 = 𝝈𝜺
𝟐

1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Stress Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
For a state of plane stress, the strain energy per unit volume becomes:

Índice:
4 Distributed Loads
5 Body Forces

2 Finite Element Formulation: Constant Strain Triangle Constant Strain Triangle is a linear triangular element
composed by 3 nodes, one at each vertex
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦
𝑢 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 = 𝑢1
𝑢 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 = 𝑢2
𝑢 𝑥3 , 𝑦3 = 𝑢3
𝑢1 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑎0
𝑢2 = 1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑎1
𝑢3 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑎2

𝑢1 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑎0
𝑢2 = 1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑎1
𝑢3 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑎2
−1
𝑎0 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑢1
𝑎1 = 1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑢2
𝑎2 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑢3

1
𝑎0 = 𝑢1 𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑢2 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 + 𝑢3 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1
2𝐴
1
𝑎1 = 𝑢1 𝑦2 − 𝑦3 + 𝑢2 𝑦3 − 𝑦1 + 𝑢3 𝑦1 − 𝑦2
2𝐴
1
𝑎2 = 𝑢1 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 + 𝑢2 𝑥1 − 𝑥3 + 𝑢3 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
2𝐴
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦

2 Finite Element Formulation: Constant Strain Triangle The interpolation functions are used to relate the displacement
field with the nodal displacements

2 Finite Element Formulation: Constant Strain Triangle Strain is calculated using the first derivative of the
displacement functions with respect to x and y
The element strain components are then:

Strain-displacement Matrix

Since the interpolation functions are linear in the spatial variables (in the
case of the Constant Strain Triangle, CST), we observe that the partial
derivatives appearing in the Strain-displacement Matrix are constants.

2 Finite Element Formulation: Constant Strain Triangle Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential
The elastic strain energy of the element is:

2 Finite Element Formulation: Constant Strain Triangle Work is calculated as force multiplied by the displacement in
the direction of the applied force
The work done by the applied forces can be expressed as

2 Finite Element Formulation: Constant Strain Triangle Work is calculated as force multiplied by the displacement in
the direction of the applied force
To simplify the notation, we use the force notation
so that we can express the work of the external forces as

2 Finite Element Formulation: Constant Strain Triangle The total potential energy of the element must be minimum if
the element is in equilibrium
The total potential energy for an element is then

2 Finite Element Formulation: Constant Strain Triangle The stiffness matrix is obtained using the Principle of Minimum
Potential Energy
If the indicated mathematical operations (derivatives) are carried out, the result is
the matrix relation:
and this matrix equation is of the form
where [k] is the element stiffness matrix defined by

Potential Energy

Potential Energy

Potential Energy

Índice:
4 Distributed Loads
5 Body Forces

3 Stiffness Matrix Evaluation The stiffness matrix is obtained using the Principle of Minimum
Potential Energy

3 Stiffness Matrix Evaluation The interpolation functions are used to find displacements in
any position as a function of nodal displacements

3 Stiffness Matrix Evaluation The partial derivatives of the interpolation functions with
respect to x or y yield to constant values in the case of the CST

3 Stiffness Matrix Evaluation The strain-displacement matrix is used to relate strains with
nodal displacements

Potential Energy
Noting that, for constant thickness, element volume is tA, the

stiffness matrix is calculated as:

Potential Energy
Performing the matrix multiplications gives the element stiffness matrix as
Where 𝐶 = 1 − 𝜈 Τ2

Índice:
4 Distributed Loads
5 Body Forces

4 Distributed Loads Frequently, the boundary conditions for structural problems involve
distributed loading on some portion of the geometric boundary
Tangential load per unit area
Normal load per unit area

4 Distributed Loads Frequently, the boundary conditions for structural problems involve
distributed loading on some portion of the geometric boundary
First, the distributed loads are converted to equivalent loadings in the global coordinate directions via:
with 𝑛𝑥 and 𝑛𝑦 corresponding to the components of the unit outward normal vector to edge 2-3.
4 Distributed Loads The mechanical work done by the distributed forces should be
equal to the mechanical work done by the equivalent nodal forces
The mechanical work done by the distributed loads is

The mechanical work done by the distributed loads is


4 Distributed Loads The interpolation function of the opposite node from the edge
where the load is applied is equal to zero
1
𝑁1 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 = 𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦3 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 𝑦2 = 0
2𝐴 2 3
1
𝑁1 𝑥3 𝑦3 = 𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦3 𝑥3 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 𝑦3 = 0
2𝐴 2 3
The interpolation function 𝑁1 𝑥, 𝑦 is zero along edge 2-3

4 Distributed Loads The interpolation function of the opposite node from the edge
where the load is applied is equal to zero

4 Distributed Loads The mechanical work done by the distributed forces should be equal
to the mechanical work done by the equivalent nodal forces

4 Distributed Loads Equivalent nodal forces represent the effect of distributed loads over the
edges of elements, since we can only have loads applied at the nodes

Those previous expressions can be written in compact form as

Example
Given the triangular plane stress

element shown, determine the
nodal forces equivalent to the
distributed loads shown via the
method of work equivalence
discussed previously. Element
thickness is 0.2 in. and uniform.

Example

Example
Along edge 1-2, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑝𝑥 = 0 , 𝑝𝑦 = −100 𝑝𝑠𝑖; hence, we have

Example
0 0
1
(2 − 𝑦) 0
2
𝑦
0
2 150𝑦
𝑓 (𝑝) =න 𝑡𝑑𝑆
0 0 0
1
0 (2 − 𝑦)
2
𝑦
0
2

Example
0 0
1
(2 − 𝑦) 0 0
2
𝑦 20
2 0
2 150𝑦 40
𝑓 (𝑝) = 0.2 න 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑙𝑏
0
0 0 0 0
1 0
0 (2 − 𝑦)
2 0
𝑦
0
2

4 Distributed Loads Equivalent nodal forces represent the effect of distributed loads over the edges
of elements, since we can only have loads applied at the nodes
Example
Combining the results, the nodal force vector arising

from the distributed loads for the element shown is then

Índice:
4 Distributed Loads
5 Body Forces

5 Body Forces In addition to distributed edge loads on element boundaries,
so-called body forces may also arise
Considering a differential mass 𝜌𝑡𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 undergoing displacements (u, v) in

the coordinate directions, mechanical work done by the body forces is:

5 Body Forces The most commonly encountered body forces are gravitational attraction
(weight), centrifugal force arising from rotational motion, and magnetic force
The total work done by the body forces acting on the element is expressed
in terms of nodal displacement as
As desired, the above equation is of the form

Comparison of the last two equations yields the nodal force components as
The nodal force components equivalent to the applied body forces can also
be written in the compact matrix form

Example
Determine the nodal force components 3 (1, 2)

representing the body force for the element
shown, if the body force is gravitational
attraction in the y direction, so that
given the density of the element material is 1 2

𝜌 = 7.3 𝑥 10−4 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑖𝑛.3 (0, 0) (1, 0)

Example
As the x component of the body force is zero, the x components of the nodal
force vector will be, too, so we need not consider those components. The y
components are computed using the following expression

Example

Example

Example

Example

Nodal force equivalents for Nodal force equivalents

distributed edge loadings for body forces

Thank you for your
attention!
Workshop 06
Lure Academy

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

1 Problem Specification We will perform a simple structural analysis of a rectangular
plate with circular hole
Exercise
Consider a rectangular plate with central hole as shown below. Calculate analytically the stress at point A
and B. Create FEM model and compare the results with analytical (exact) results. Perform a convergence
study until error < 3%.

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results



Value Problem)


Assumptions: small displacements, external forces
material is linearly elastic, isotropic
and homogenous.



User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results


• Post-process the displacement results to find stress, strain, etc.

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

structural analysis
100000 𝑁 100000 𝑁



3 Verification One should perform analytical calculation whenever is
possible to later compare with the FEA results
Compare Results with Hand Calculations

The stress is maximum at A and B. It can be calculated
analytically using the nominal stress at the section
with the hole multiplied by the stress concentration
factor, that in this case is known to be equal to 2.4.
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 100000 𝑁
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = = = 1.25 . 108 𝑃𝑎 = 125 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (1 − 0.2) ∗ 0.001 𝑚²
𝜎𝐴,𝐵 = 125 ∗ 2.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 300 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 Lure Academy | Page 14

Lure Academy
3 Verification In a convergence study, we refine the mesh in the regions of
interest until the error reaches acceptable value

3 Verification Many metrics can be used to analyze the quality of the mesh.
Let’s start learning about Element Quality Metric from ANSYS
Analyze Mesh Quality


𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐶
σ(𝐸𝑑𝑔𝑒𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)²
1,5 ∗ 3 ∗ cos 30°

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∗ 2 = 3.897 3 3
2
3.897
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 6.92820323 ∗ 2 =1
3 + 32 + 32
3

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐶
σ(𝐸𝑑𝑔𝑒𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)²
3∗3
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = = 4.5 3
2
4.5
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 6.92820323 ∗ 2 = 0.866
3 + 32 + 4.2432
3



Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

4 Results The result of interest is the normal stress in the x direction,
so we can extract the maximum stress near the hole

4 Results The result of interest is the normal stress in the x direction,
so we can extract the maximum stress near the hole

Thank you for your
attention!
Lure Academy

Índice:
1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Strain
2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle
3 Numerical Integration: Gaussian Quadrature

1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Strain A commonly occurring situation in solid mechanics, known as
plane strain, is defined by the following assumptions
Plane Strain Assumptions
• The body is large in one coordinate direction (the z direction by convention) in comparison to the
other dimensions; the dimension in the z direction is either uniform or symmetric about the xy plane;
• The body is subjected to loading only in the xy plane;
• The material of the body is linearly elastic, isotropic, and homogeneous.
Water
Hydroelectric Dam
Linearly increasing
pressure

1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Strain The body is so long in the z direction that the normal strain, induced
by only the Poisson effect, is so small as to be negligible
Mathematically, plane strain is defined as a state of loading and geometry such that
Physically, the interpretation is that the body is so long in the z

direction that the normal strain, induced by only the Poisson effect,
is so small as to be negligible and, as we assume only xy-plane
loadings are applied, shearing strains are also small and neglected.

1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Strain The body is so long in the z direction that the normal strain,
induced by only the Poisson effect, is so small as to be negligible
Under the prescribed conditions for plane strain, the constitutive equations for the
nonzero stress components become
And, while not zero, the normal stress in the

z direction is considered negligible in
comparison to the other stress components.
1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Strain The elastic property matrix contains the material properties
considering linear, isotropic and homogenous material
𝜎𝑥 1−𝜈 𝜈 0 𝜀𝑥
𝐸 𝜈 1−𝜈 0
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜀𝑦 = [𝐷] 𝜀
1 + 𝜈 (1 − 2𝜈) 1 − 2𝜈
𝜏𝑥𝑦 0 0 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2
Elastic Property Matrix
1 Equations of Elasticity for Plane Strain Mechanical work is stored in the body as elastic potential energy,

𝜎𝑥 1−𝜈 𝜈 0 𝜀𝑥
𝐸 𝜈 1−𝜈 0
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜀𝑦 = [𝐷] 𝜀
1 + 𝜈 (1 − 2𝜈) 1 − 2𝜈
𝜏𝑥𝑦 0 0 𝛾𝑥𝑦
2



Índice:

2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle The pascal triangle can be used to find polynomials in two
dimensions
Pascal Triangle
As there are four nodes and 4 degrees of freedom, a four-term polynomial expression for the field variable is appropriate:
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑥𝑦
𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑥𝑦

2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle The displacements in any position is calculated by interpolating
the nodal displacements
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑥𝑦
Applying the four nodal conditions and writing in matrix form gives
𝑢1 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑎0
𝑢2 1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑎1
𝑢3 = 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑎2
𝑢4 1 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑎3
which formally gives the polynomial coefficients as

−1
𝑎0 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑢1
𝑎1 1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑢2
𝑎2 = 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑢3
𝑎3 1 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑢4

2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle The displacements in any position is calculated by interpolating
the nodal displacements
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑥𝑦
𝑎0
𝑎1
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑎2
𝑎3
−1
1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑢1
1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑢2
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝑢3
1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑥3 𝑦3
1 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑢4
𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑁1 𝑢1 + 𝑁2 𝑢2 + 𝑁3 𝑢3 + 𝑁4 𝑢4 = 𝑁 𝑢

2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle For the rectangular element, we introduce the normalized coordinates
(also known as natural coordinates or serendipity coordinates) r and s
The form of the previous equation suggests that expression of the interpolation functions in
terms of the nodal coordinates is algebraically complex. Fortunately, the complexity can be
reduced by a more judicious choice of coordinates. For the rectangular element, we introduce the
normalized coordinates (also known as natural coordinates or serendipity coordinates) r and s as
Where 2a and 2b are the width and height of the rectangle, respectively.

𝒖 𝒓, 𝒔 = 𝑵𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝑵𝟐 𝒖𝟐 + 𝑵𝟑 𝒖𝟑 + 𝑵𝟒 𝒖𝟒 = 𝑵 𝒖

2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle Strain is calculated as the partial derivatives of
displacement with respect to x and y

2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle Strain is calculated as the partial derivatives of
displacement with respect to x and y

2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle The stiffness matrix of the four-node rectangular element is calculated
using the same expression of the triangular element
Hence, total strain energy of an element is
and the element stiffness matrix is again given by

2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle The interpolation functions are expressed in natural coordinates, so we
need to apply the chain rule to calculate strain

2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle The interpolation functions are expressed in natural coordinates, so we
need to apply the chain rule to calculate strain
To compute the strain components in terms of the

natural coordinates, the chain rule is applied to obtain

2 Finite Element Formulation: Four-node Rectangle The normal strain 𝜀𝑥 varies linearly in the y direction, normal strain 𝜀𝑦 varies linearly in
the x direction, and shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 varies linearly in both coordinate directions
The normal strain 𝜀𝑥 varies linearly in the y direction, normal strain 𝜀𝑦 varies linearly in the x
direction, and shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 varies linearly in both coordinate directions (realizing that the
natural coordinate r corresponds to the x axis and natural coordinate s corresponds to the y axis)



The element stiffness matrix is an 8 × 8 symmetric

matrix, which therefore, contains 36 independent terms. Hence, 36 integrations are
required to obtain the complete stiffness matrix. The integrations are straightforward but
algebraic tedious. Here, we develop only a single term of the stiffness matrix in detail.
If we carry out the matrix multiplications just indicated, the first diagonal term of the stiffness
matrix is found (after a bit of algebra) to be:


Índice:

3 Numerical Integration: Gaussian Quadrature An integration is required to obtain the value of every component of the stiffness matrix of a finite
element. In addition, integrations are required to obtain nodal equivalents of nonnodal loadings
The concept of Gaussian quadrature is first illustrated in one dimension in the

context of an integral of the form
Via the change of variable 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, above equation can be converted to

3 Numerical Integration: Gaussian Quadrature The Gaussian integration procedure is a numerical way to calculate an integral
approximately, and in the case of polynomials, it can yield to exact values
Per the Gaussian integration procedure, the integration can be approximated by
where 𝑊𝑖 are Gaussian weighting factors and 𝑟𝑖 are known as sampling points
or Gauss points.

Sampling points and weighting factors for Gaussian quadrature

1
numerical integration of ‫׬‬−1 𝑓 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 ≈ σ𝑚𝑖=1 𝑊𝑖 𝑓 𝑟𝑖 .

Example

Example
Use of m sampling points and weighting factors results in an exact value
of the integral for a polynomial of order 2m − 1
As the integrand is a polynomial of order 2, we have, for exact

integration, 2𝑚 − 1 = 2, which results in the required number of
sampling points as 𝑚 = 3Τ2
The calculated number of sampling points must be rounded up to the

nearest integer value, so in this case, we must use two sampling points

Example

Example

The Gaussian quadrature numerical integration procedure is by no means limited to

one dimension. In finite element analysis, integral of the form
Is frequently encountered. In this case, we integrate first with respect to r (using the
Gaussian technique) to obtain

which, in turn, is integrated via quadrature to obtain


Example

Example
Considering first the integration with respect to r, we have a cubic order

that requires two sampling points.

Example

Example
Similarly, for the integration with respect to s, the order is quadratic, so

the factors are the same.

Example

0.577
0.577
0.577 0.577


The Gauss integration procedure can be applied directly to obtain the

entire element stiffness matrix as
where the matrix triple product is evaluated four times, in accordance

with the number of integration points required. The summations and
matrix multiplications required are easily programmed and ideally suited
to digital computer implementation

Thank you for your
attention!
Workshop 07
Lure Academy

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

1 Problem Specification We will analyze a C-Clamp shaped device under
plane strain condition
Exercise
Consider a C-Clamp shaped device that during its operation is subjected to loads as shown in the picture
below (deformed shape). Create a FE model considering plane strain condition and compare with hand
calculations. Also analyze how the stress varies in the circled areas when the mesh is refined. More
information about this model is given later.
Fixed

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

C-Clamp Domain and Boundary Conditions (BC)
All DOF fixed
100 mm
100 kN 100 kN
Material is Structural Steel


Value Problem)


Assumptions: small displacements, external forces
material is linearly elastic, isotropic and
homogenous. Plane Strain Condition.



User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results


• Post-process the displacement results to find stress, strain, etc.

Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results


User Inputs
Physical principles
Assumptions

Compare to
results

structural analysis
The reaction force at the fixed support is almost equal to zero. This is
expected because the external forces in the X direction cancel with each other
and there’s no forces in the Y direction. The reaction force is not exactly equal
to zero because there are always numerical errors involved in a FEM solution,
but when we have a very small value, we can consider it to be equal to zero.


100 𝑘𝑁
𝜎𝐴 = = 4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
50 𝑚𝑚 ∗ 500 𝑚𝑚
All DOF fixed
𝑀𝑦
𝜎𝑀 =
𝐼
𝑀 = 100 𝑘𝑁 ∗ 100 𝑚𝑚 = 10000 𝑘𝑁𝑚𝑚

100 mm
3
500 𝑚𝑚 ∗ 50 𝑚𝑚
𝐼= = 5.208 ∗ 106 𝑚𝑚4 100 kN 100 kN
12
10000 𝑘𝑁𝑚𝑚 ∗ 25 𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝑀 = = 48 𝑀𝑃𝑎
5.208 ∗ 106 𝑚𝑚4
𝜎𝑇 = 48 + 4 = 52 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎𝐶 = −48 + 4 = −44 𝑀𝑃𝑎


The normal stress in the X axis direction in that section varies
from 52 MPa (bottom surface) to -44 MPa (top surface)
𝜎𝑇 = 52 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎𝐶 = −44 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Let’s use Element Quality Metric from ANSYS

In this case, all elements are perfect since there are no
distorted elements, and the elements are all perfect
squares. Using Element Quality as the Mesh Metric on
Ansys, we can see that all elements have Element Quality = 1

Mesh Convergence Study
Notice that even using a very coarse mesh we can have the results converged in that section
we performed hand calculations. That happens because the normal strain in the x direction
for the Four-node Rectangle element varies linearly in the y direction, which is what also
happens when we calculate it analytically. However, if we were interested in calculating
stresses in other more complex regions, we would have to refine more this mesh.


Let’s now analyze what happens with the von-Mises Stress
in the regions highlighted when we refine the mesh
Element Size = 50 mm

Element Size = 25 mm

Element Size = 12.5 mm



The von-Mises Stress at Node 12, for example,

tends toward an infinite value when we refine
the mesh. This happens because Node 12 and
the other 3 nodes are positioned in
Singularities of the model.

3 Verification Singularities refer to localized regions where the solution or governing
equations become unbounded or exhibit extremely high values
Singularities in the FEM

In structural analysis, singularities refer to localized regions where the solution or governing equations
become unbounded or exhibit extremely high values. These can arise due to material properties,
geometric irregularities, or numerical approximation issues within the FEM. Singularities can manifest
as stress concentrations, infinite displacements, or discontinuities in the solution.
Causes of Singularities in Structural Analysis:
1. Material Singularities:
• Structures with materials exhibiting infinite stiffness or sudden changes in behavior (e.g.,
brittle materials).
• Problems involving contact or friction with localized areas of high pressure.
2. Geometric Singularities:
• Sharp corners, edges, or cracks in the structure.
• Re-entrant corners where the boundary of a structure turns inward.
3. Numerical Singularities:
• Inadequate element size or shape that fails to capture localized effects accurately.
• Errors arising from inappropriate modeling assumptions or boundary conditions.
Índice:
2 Pre-analysis
3 Verification
4 Results

4 Results The FEM solution calculates displacements at the nodes.
We can post-process this results and find other results.




Thank you for your
attention!
Lure Academy

Índice:
1 Four-node quadrilateral element
2 Exercise
3 Singularity of the Jacobian Matrix

1 Four-node quadrilateral element 3-node Triangular elements can be used to represent curved
boundaries, but the accuracy of these elements isn’t good

1 Four-node quadrilateral element One better way to mesh this domain is using the four-node
quadrilateral element

1 Four-node quadrilateral element The four-node quadrilateral element is derived from the four-node rectangular
element (known as the parent element) element via a mapping process
Parent element
The four-node quadrilateral element is derived from the four-node rectangular

element (known as the parent element) element via a mapping process.

1 Four-node quadrilateral element One better way to mesh this domain is using the four-node
quadrilateral element
The geometry of the quadrilateral element is described by:
𝑥 = ෍ 𝐺𝑖 (𝑟, 𝑠)𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑦 = ෍ 𝐺𝑖 (𝑟, 𝑠)𝑦𝑖
𝑖=1
where the 𝐺𝑖 (𝑥, 𝑦) can be considered as geometric interpolation functions, and

each such function is associated with a particular node of the quadrilateral element.


1 Four-node quadrilateral element The interpolation functions used for the parent metal can be used as the geometric
interpolation functions since the conditions imposed are exactly the same
𝑥 = ෍ 𝐺𝑖 (𝑟, 𝑠)𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1
4
𝑦 = ෍ 𝐺𝑖 (𝑟, 𝑠)𝑦𝑖
𝑖=1
The interpolation functions used for the parent element

(rectangular element) can be used as the geometric interpolation
functions since the conditions imposed are exactly the same.

1 Four-node quadrilateral element The interpolation functions used for the parent metal can be used as the geometric
interpolation functions since the conditions imposed are exactly the same

Example
The figure below shows a quadrilateral element in global coordinates. Show that the mapping described correctly
describes the line connecting nodes 2 and 3 and determine the (x, y) coordinates corresponding to (r, s) = (1, 0.5).

First, we determine the equation of the line passing

through nodes 2 and 3 strictly by geometry, using the
equation of a two-dimensional straight line:
Using the known coordinates of nodes 2 and 3, we

have:
Solving simultaneously, we have:
and

Using the interpolation functions given in and substituting

nodal x and y coordinates, the geometric mapping becomes:

Noting that edge 2-3 corresponds to r = 1, the last two equations become
Eliminating s gives
which is the same as


1 Four-node quadrilateral element In the isoparametric approach, the geometric mapping functions are identical
to the interpolation functions used to discretize the displacements
In the isoparametric approach, the geometric mapping functions are

identical to the interpolation functions used to discretize the displacements.
The geometric mapping is defined by: And the displacements are described as:

Now, the mathematical complications arise in computing the strain components:

The partial derivatives of displacement in the x direction (u) with

respect to the natural coordinates can be expressed formally as:
Writing in matrix form:

Jacobian Matrix

For example:
First-order polynomial in the natural (mapping) coordinate s.

The other terms are similarly first-order polynomials.

Formally, the equation below can be solved for the partial derivatives of displacement component u
with respect to x and y by multiplying by the inverse of the Jacobian matrix. Finding the inverse of the
Jacobian matrix in algebraic form is not an enviable task. Instead, numerical methods are used, again
based on Gaussian quadrature.
After applying a numerical method to inverse J, we find the following result:
Jacobian Lure Academy | Page 20

Lure Academy
For the partial derivatives of u with respect to x and y, we have:
Since the interpolation functions are the same for both displacement
components, an identical procedure for displacement v results in:

Let us return to the problem of computing the strain components. The strain
components are expressed as:
Geometric mapping matrix


Combining the two previous equations, we obtain the sought-after relation for the strain
components in terms of nodal displacement components as:
And, by analogy with previous developments, matrix

has been determined such that:
And the element stiffness matrix is defined by

The integration indicated is in the x-y global space, but the [B] matrix is defined in terms of the natural
coordinates in the parent element space. Therefore, a bit more analysis is required to obtain a final form:
This derivation will not be shown here because the situation is not quite so simple. Using this relation, we have:

The terms in the stiffness matrix represented, in fact, are integrals of ratios of
polynomials and the integrations are very difficult, usually impossible, to perform
exactly. Instead, Gaussian quadrature is used. For p integration points in the variable
r and q integration points in the variable s, the stiffness matrix is approximated by

Índice:
2 Exercise

2 Exercise In the isoparametric approach, the geometric mapping functions are identical
Evaluate the stiffness matrix for the isoparametric quadrilateral element shown in the figure below for plane
stress with 𝐸 = 30 ∗ 106 psi, 𝜐 = 0.3, 𝑡 = 1 𝑖𝑛. Note that the properties are those of steel.
Dimensions in inches
Parent Element



Jacobian





Let’s use 2 integration points for each variable (r and s), yielding to 4 IP in total.


Índice:
2 Exercise

3 Singularity of the Jacobian Matrix When the Jacobian is equal to zero or near to it, we have the
condition named Singularity of the Jacobian Matrix.
After applying a numerical method to inverse J, we find the following result:

[𝑱]−𝟏
If the Jacobian is equal or approximately equal to zero, the

calculation of derivatives of u and v with respect to x and y will not
be calculated correctly (or even it won’t be possible to calculate it).
If the Jacobian is equal or approximately equal to zero, the

element stiffness matrix will not be evaluated correctly.

Attention!
• The inverse of the Jacobian Matrix must exist, which means that the
determinant (Jacobian) can’t be equal to zero.
• When the Jacobian is equal to zero or near to it, we have the condition
named Singularity of the Jacobian Matrix.
• Elements that are too distorted can yield to Singularity of the Jacobian
Matrix.
• Commercial softwares generate the mesh in a way that it avoids this type of
problem. However, the elements can get distorted during the analysis.

Example
𝜃 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
Perfect Element Distortion Increase
Singularity of the Jacobian Matrix
cause. We should have 𝜃 < 180°
for it to not happen.

Thank you for your
attention!
Lure Academy
General Three-Dimensional Stress Elements

Índice:
1 Introduction
2 Equations of Elasticity
3 Finite Element Formulation
4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral
5 Stress and Strain Computation

While the conditions of plane stress and plane strain are frequently
1 Introduction encountered, more often than not the geometry of a structure and the
applied loads are such that a general three-dimensional state of stress exists
Four-Node (Linear) Tetrahedral Element
We can have forces in

3 possible directions
Displacement components for a point
in any region inside the element
After Tetrahedral Nodal Displacements

Before
Nodal Forces for Node 2

Eight-Node (Linear) Brick Element
Displacement
We can have forces in components for a
3 possible directions point in any region
inside the element
After Hexahedron Nodal

Displacements
Before
Nodal Forces
for Node 2

Ten-Node (Quadratic) Tetrahedral Element
We can have forces in Displacement components

3 possible directions for a point in any region
inside the element
Tetrahedron Nodal
Displacements
After
Before
Nodal forces of
node 2
Nodal displacement
of node 5
Twenty-Node (Quadratic) Hexahedral Element
Twenty-node hexahedral element

represented in natural coordinates. Note
that to represent the curves
sides/surfaces, we need to use the
isoparametric approach. In that way, we
will have the x and y coordinates of the
element represented as an interpolation
of nodal coordinates. We will have
second-order interpolation functions,
which allows curves sides/surfaces.

Índice:
1 Introduction

2 Equations of Elasticity The Strain-Displacement relations are accomplished through
the 6 x 3 matrix of derivative operators
Matrix [L] is the 6 x 3 matrix of derivative operators

2 Equations of Elasticity The Stress-Strain relations are accomplished through the 6 x 6
Material Property Matrix
Matrix [D] is the 6 x 6 Material Property Matrix

Índice:
1 Introduction

3 Finite Element Formulation The displacements can be computed at any position inside the
element by using an interpolation with the nodal displacements

3 Finite Element Formulation The displacements can be computed at any position inside the
element by using an interpolation with the nodal displacements

3 Finite Element Formulation The total potential energy of the element is calculated because
it can be used later to find the element stiffness matrix
The total potential energy of an element can be expressed as:
The element nodal force vector is defined in the column matrix:
and may include the effects of concentrated forces applied at

the nodes, nodal equivalents to body forces, and nodal
equivalents to applied pressure loadings.

Considering the foregoing developments, the total

potential energy of an element can be expressed as:
As the nodal displacement components are independent of the

integration over the volume, the above equation can be written as:


6 x 3M Strain-Displacement Matrix

Application of the principle of minimum potential energy will yield to:
as the system of nodal equilibrium equation for a general three-dimensional stress

element. From the previous expression, we identify the element stiffness matrix as:
and the element stiffness matrix so defined is a 3M × 3M symmetric and singular

matrix, as expected for a linear elastic element.

Índice:
1 Introduction

4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral The order of the stiffness matrix is equal to the total number of degrees of freedom,
which is calculated as number of nodes times number of degrees of freedom per node
4 nodes
3 degrees of freedom per node

Displacement components for a point
in any region inside the element
12 degrees of freedom in total
Tetrahedral Nodal Displacements
Nodal Forces for Node 2

4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral The Pascal pyramid should be used to find the polynomials
that can be used for the field variables
12 degrees of freedom in total
The chosen polynomial should

have 12 unknown coefficients.
There’s one polynomial for each

displacement field (x, y and z).
Each polynomial should have

12/3 = 4 unknown coefficients.
Pascal “pyramid” for polynomials

in three dimensions.

4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral Notice that the displacements vary linearly in the x, y and z direction.
That’s why this element is also called Linear Tetrahedral
Notice that the displacements vary linearly

in the x, y and z direction. That’s why this
element is also called Linear Tetrahedral.
Pascal “pyramid” for polynomials
in three dimensions.

4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral Notice that the displacements vary linearly in the x, y and z
direction. That’s why this element is also called Linear Tetrahedral
𝐶1
[𝐻] 𝐶2
𝐶3
𝐶4
𝐶5
𝑢 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝐶6
𝑣 = 0 0 0 0 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 0 0 0 0
𝐶7
𝑤 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝐶8
𝐶9
𝐶10
𝐶11
𝐶12
𝑢
𝑣 = 𝐻 {𝐶}
𝑤

4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral The nodal boundary conditions can be applied to find the
unknown coefficients of each polynomial
𝑢1 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝐶1
𝑣1 0 0 0 0 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑤1 0 0 0 0 𝐶2
𝑤1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1 𝐶3
𝑢2 1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝐶4
𝑣2 0 0 0 0 1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 0 0 0 0 𝐶5
𝑤2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 𝐶6
𝑢3 =
1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝐶7
𝑣3 0 0 0 0 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3 0 0 0 0 𝐶8
𝑤3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3 𝐶9
𝑢4 1 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑧4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝐶10
𝑣4 0 0 0 0 1 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑧4 0 0 0 0 𝐶11
𝑤4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 𝑥4 𝑦4 𝑧4 𝐶12
[𝐴]
𝛿 = 𝐴 𝐶 → 𝐶 = [𝐴]−1 {𝛿}

4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral The polynomials can be rearranged in a way that we get the
interpolation functions multiplied by nodal displacements
𝛿 = 𝐴 𝐶 → 𝐶 = [𝐴]−1 {𝛿}
𝑢
𝑣 = 𝐻 {𝐶}
𝑤
𝑢
𝑣 = 𝐻 [𝐴]−1 {𝛿}
𝑤
[𝑁3 ]
4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral The polynomials can be rearranged in a way that we get the
interpolation functions multiplied by nodal displacements
𝑢
𝑣 = 𝐻 [𝐴]−1 {𝛿}
𝑤 𝑢1
[𝑁3 ] 𝑢2
𝑢3
𝑢4
𝑣1
𝑢 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑣2
𝑣 = 0 0 0 0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁4 0 0 0 0 𝑣3
𝑤 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁4 𝑣4
𝑤1
𝑤2
𝑤3
𝑤4
4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral All strain components are constant for the 4-node Tetrahedral.
This element is similar to the CST element studied before
Deformation Evaluation

4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral All strain components are constant for the 4-node Tetrahedral.
This element is similar to the CST element studied before
Deformation Evaluation
All strain components are constant for the

4-node Tetrahedral. This element is similar
to the CST element studied before.

4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral Stress is constant throughout the whole element, which
is not a good thing!
Stress Evaluation
All stress components are constant for the 4-node Tetrahedral.

4 Example: 4-node Tetrahedral Stress is constant throughout the whole element,
which is not a good thing!
Stress Evaluation
Stress is constant throughout the whole

element, which is not a good thing!

Índice:
1 Introduction

5 Stress and Strain Computation After calculating the active displacements, stress and
strain can be computed in the post-processing step
After calculating nodal displacements, the strains can be evaluated using the following expression:
And the stress components are computed as:

5 Stress and Strain Computation There are several commonly accepted failure theories for yielding in a general state of stress. The
two most commonly applied are the maximum shear stress theory and the distortion energy theory
To determine the critical loading on any

model, we must apply one of the so-called
failure theories. As we limit the discussion
to linearly elastic behavior, the “failure” in
our context is yielding of the material.
There are several commonly accepted
failure theories for yielding in a general
state of stress. The two most commonly
applied are the maximum shear stress
theory and the distortion energy theory.

In a general, three-dimensional state of stress, the principal stresses 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , and 𝜎3 are

given by the roots of the cubic equation represented by the determinant:
Customarily, the principal stresses are ordered so that 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 𝜎3 . Via the usual
convention, a positive normal stress corresponds to tension, while a negative normal
stress is compressive.

Mohr’s Circle
𝜎1
𝜎2
𝜎
𝜎2 − 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
𝜏23 = 𝜏12 =
2 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎3
Lure Academy 𝜏 Lure Academy | Page 34
The maximum shear stress theory (MSST) holds that failure (yielding) in a general state of
5 Stress and Strain Computation stress occurs when the maximum shear stress as given by the above equation equals or
exceeds the maximum shear stress occurring in a uniaxial tension test at yielding
Having computed the principal stress components, the maximum shear stress is
The three shear stress components are known to occur on

planes oriented 45° from the principal planes.
The maximum shear stress theory (MSST) holds that failure (yielding) in a general state
of stress occurs when the maximum shear stress as given by the above equation equals
or exceeds the maximum shear stress occurring in a uniaxial tension test at yielding.

The maximum shear stress theory (MSST) holds that failure (yielding) in a general state of
5 Stress and Strain Computation stress occurs when the maximum shear stress as given by the above equation equals or
exceeds the maximum shear stress occurring in a uniaxial tension test at yielding
The maximum shear stress in a tensile test at yielding has value equal to one-half the
tensile yield strength of the material. Hence, the failure value in the MSST is:
𝑆𝑦
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝑆𝑦𝑠
2
In this notation, 𝑆𝑦 is tensile yield strength and 𝑆𝑦𝑠 represents yield strength in shear.

5 Stress and Strain Computation The distortion energy theory (DET) is based on the strain energy stored in a
material under a given state of stress.
The distortion energy theory (DET) is based on the strain energy stored in a material under a
given state of stress. The theory holds that a uniform tensile or compressive state of stress (also
known as hydrostatic stress) does not cause distortion and, hence, does not contribute to
yielding. If the principal stresses have been computed, total elastic strain energy is given by:

5 Stress and Strain Computation The distortion energy theory (DET) is based on the strain energy
stored in a material under a given state of stress.
To arrive at distortion energy, the average (hydrostatic) stress is defined as
and the corresponding strain energy is

The distortion energy is then defined as
After a considerable amount of algebraic manipulation, the distortion energy

in terms of the principal stress components is found to be given by:

The DET states that failure (yielding) occurs in a general state of stress when
the distortion energy per unit volume equals or exceeds the distortion
energy per unit volume occurring in a uniaxial tension test at yielding.
At yielding in a tensile test, the distortion energy is given by:
Hence, the failure (yielding) criterion for the DET is:

5 Stress and Strain Computation The DET leads to the concept of an equivalent stress (known
historically as the Von Mises stress)
The DET as described in the previous equation leads to the concept of an

equivalent stress (known historically as the Von Mises stress) defined as:
and failure (yielding) can then be equivalently defined as:

Thank you for your
attention!

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