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Validity and reliability of a empathy and identification with characters scale

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Psicothema, 1998. Vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 423-436

ISSN 0214 - 9915 CODES PSOTEG
Copyright © 1998 Psicothema

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A

EMPATHY AND IDENTIFICATION SCALE
WITH THE CHARACTERS
Juan Jose Igartua Perosanz and Darius Paez Rovira*
University of Salamanca, * University of the Basque Country

This article presents the results of an experimental investigation, designed to validate

and provide reliability to a self-applied scale of identification with
the characters of fictional audiovisual stories (EDI scale). The scale in question
(made up of 17 items) obtains adequate internal consistency, structural validity,
discriminant and concurrent. Affective empathy emerged as a central dimension
of this construct. On the other hand, the experimental manipulation of exposure to film
segments (positive and negative valence) induced an identification response
with the characters according to the type of instruction given to the subjects (identification or
distancing). Finally, the emotional experience experienced by the vision of the
film segments was significantly associated with the degree of identification
with the characters.

Validity and reliability of a empathy and identification with characters scale. This
paper discuss the results of an experimental research about the validity and reliability of
a self-report scale that measures the empathy and identification with characters of au-
diovisual fictional stories (EDI scale). This scale, that was composed of 17 items, had a
satisfactory internal consistency, structural, discriminat and concurrent validity. Affecti-ve
empathy was a very important dimension to define this construct. Moreover, the ex-
perimental manipulation of the exposition to filmic segments (with positive and negati-ve
valence) induced a different level of identification with characters depending on the
type of instruction given to the subjetcs (identification versus distant observation). Fi-nally,
the emotional experience provoked by the exposition to the filmic segments was
significantly associated with the degree of identification with the characters.

The concept of identification with characters (such as television series or feature films).
is mentioned very frequently This concept was originally proposed within
when addressing the study of the impact psychoanalysis to understand how the
produced by audiovisual communications, reception of the
particularly of a dramatic type (co- work of art in general and literature in parti-
cular (Freud, 1974, 1985; Paradise, 1994).
Likewise, the importance of taking the
Correspondence: Juan José Igartua Perosanz perspective of the characters of the narrative
Faculty of Social Sciences
plots (of an audiovisual type in particular)
University of Salamanca
37007 Salamanca (Spain)
in the induction of aesthetic pleasure and
Email: jigartua@gugu.usal.es emotions associated with the reception of these

423
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VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A SCALE OF EMPATHY AND IDENTIFICATION WITH CHARACTERS
is currently shared by an entire
line of research (Hoffner and Cantor,
1991; Tan, 1996).
Construct dimensions
identification with the characters
Identification with the characters has been
defined as a multidimensional concept that
refers to a series of psychological processes
(Davis, 1983; Davis, Hull, Young and
Warren, 1987; Eron and Huesmann, 1986;
Hoffner and Cantor, 1991; Huesmann, Lagers-
petz and Eron, 1984; Jose and Brewer, 1984;
Tannenbaum y Gaer, 1965; Turner y Berko-
witz, 1972; Wilson y Cantor, 1985; Zill-mann y
Cantor, 1977):
• “Cognitive” empathy. It refers to the fact of
understanding, comprehending or putting oneself into They are appreciated and if they are attractive. By
the place of the protagonists, which is related
to the ability to take the perspective or adopt
the point of view of the other
(perspective-taking). This will make it possible to
perceive and follow the development of the story or the subject themselves are better evaluated. In
“plot” of the series or movie from the character's
point of view.
• “Emotional” empathy. It alludes to the
ability to feel what the protagonists
feel, become emotionally involved
vicarious or feeling concerned about their
problems (empathic concern). It will enable
the subject is capable of experiencing the
same feelings that the characters experience
("feeling with the characters"). Also
will allow the subject to feel worried
by the destiny or situation of said characters
("feeling for the characters"), which is
associated with feeling emotions such as
compassion, tension or suspense.
• Ability to “fantasize” or imagine. It consists
of the subject being capable
of anticipating the situations to which the
protagonists of the stories of
fiction or infer what the consequences of their
actions will be.
424
• The fact of “becoming a protagonist”
(become character). It refers to the sensation
of feeling as if oneself were
one of the protagonists during the vision of
the series or feature film.
Identification with the characters
It also relates, in a positive way, with the
degree of “personal” attraction felt toward
characters from series or movies
(Hoffner and Cantor, 1991). This attraction,
towards the characters of audiovisual dramatic
stories (television series or movies), is specified
in the following aspects or dimensions:
• The “positive evaluation” (liking) of
the protagonists as a whole. Consists
in evaluating to what extent the protagonists
subjects generally evaluate positively
to characters who present personal attributes
that are perceived favorably.
Furthermore, characters that are similar to the
this way, a basic condition for
produces the identification is that the subject
positively evaluate the character of the
series or movie in question.
• The “perception of similarity” with
characters. It involves evaluating what
measure the subject considers that it resembles
characters. This perception will be seen
facilitated if characters and audience share
characteristics such as sex,
age, social class or proximity or
cultural closeness. Personality traits or
attributes will also be important; For example,
a shy person, in
compared to another who is not, you may feel
more affinity with a
character who behaves shyly.
It has been pointed out that identification is
greater when the degree of similarity or
resemblance between the characters and the subject
it is too.
Psychothema, 1998
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JOHN JOSEPH IGARTUA PEROSANZ AND DARIUS PAEZ ROVIRA
• The fact of “desire to be like characters . ”
Normally, the
attractive characters, with prestige, who lead
a rewarding and successful life. In this case,
the attraction to this type of characters would
not be explained by the perception of
similarity (since these cannot be considered
similar to the average subject), but because
they are admired and reflect what is
would like to be or achieve (economic success
or in love, comfortable life, etc.). There is a
positive relationship between the desire to be
like the characters and identification with
the same while watching the series or
entertainment movies.
Identification with the characters
and aggression
One of the first inclusions of the variable
«identification with the characters»
in research on communication
masses, has been carried out within the area
of study on the impact of viewing violent
programs on aggression in children
(Bandura, Ross y Ross, 1963a, 1963b; Eron
y Huesmann, 1986; Huesmann, Lagerspetz
and Eron, 1984; Turner and Berkowitz, 1972;
Zuzul, 1985). Longitudinal studies carried out
from this perspective have
found that the degree of identification
with the main characters of violent programs,
correlates positively with the degree of
aggressiveness of children (Huesmann,
Lagerspetz and Eron, 1984).
Results similar to the previous ones
have obtained by manipulating the identification
with the characters experimentally.
Turner and Berkowitz (1972) exposed
university students to a segment of
seven minutes of a movie about boxing
("Champion"), establishing three different
conditions depending on the type of instructions
received by said subjects: a)
identification with the protagonist ("imagine
Psychothema, 1998
that you are the protagonist, try to put yourself
instead"); b) distanced observation
("Try to think that you are a judge or referee
of the combat who carefully observes the
behavior of the protagonist"); and, c) group
control, without instructions in this regard. HE
found that, after watching the film,
the subjects who had been given instructions
to identify with the character
(violent), compared to subjects
Of the other two groups, they behaved more
aggressively (the dependent variable was
the number of electric shocks
"gave" a subject in a subsequent, simulated
task on the effectiveness of punishment in the
learning).
Identification with the characters and impact
affective
It has also been considered that
"identification with the characters" constitutes
an intervening or mediating variable of the
affective impact produced by exposure to
entertainment series or feature films. In this
sense, the importance of
identification with the protagonists of
entertainment series and films lies in
that, as this increases, the affective impact of
these programs increases (Hoffner and Cantor,
1991; Tannenbaum and Gaer, 1965). Davis,
Hull, Young and
Warren (1987) found that, when
They gave the subjects instructions to
objectively observe a series of scenes of
dramatic films ("Who's Afraid of Virginia Wolf"
and "Brian's Song"), emotional responses of
lower intensity were induced (positive emotional
reactions
and compassion). Instead, instruct
Subjects to empathetically observe the
narration fundamentally produced a negative
emotional reaction.
The objective of the present study was to
estimate the reliability and validity of a scale
constructed to evaluate identification with
425
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VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A SCALE OF EMPATHY AND IDENTIFICATION WITH CHARACTERS
the characters, given the importance of this
construct to understand the process of
reception of dramatic narrative stimuli (and the
scarcity of appropriate scales). For this, an
experimental investigation was carried out in
which the
subject to different movie segments
of entertainment. After the vision of these
film fragments, the subjects completed (self-
administered) the scale
identification with the characters (along with
other scales discussed later). Of
In this way, a "retrospective" evaluation of the
degree of identification of
the subjects with the characters during
exposure to the film segments.
In order to estimate the reliability and validity
of the identification scale with the characters,
the following procedures were used:
a) Structural or dimensional validity. HE
was trying to determine if the
dimensions, theoretically raised, through
component factor analysis
main.
b) Reliability. To determine the degree
relationship between the different items of the
that the instrument was composed, it was calculated
Cronbach's alpha coefficient (ÿ). Without
However, given that identification with the
characters has been defined as a
multidimensional concept, this coefficient does not
provides an adequate estimate of the
internal consistency of the instrument, therefore
which the Theta coefficient was also estimated
(ÿ) (appropriate for the case of constructs
multidimensional).
c) Discriminant validity (using a
external criterion). It consisted of checking if
significant differences were observed in
the measurement of the construct (identification
with the characters) based on a criterion
external: in this case, the instructions of
exposure to film segments (taken from Davis
et al., 1987).
426
d) Concurrent validity. It consisted of
calculating the correlations between the
subjects' scores in the construct (in our case,
identification with the characters) with the
scores in other variables.
theoretically relevant. In numerous empirical
works it has been highlighted that emotional
and mood changes can be caused by different
stimuli
artistic or dramatic type (Isen, 1987;
Martin, 1990; Salovey y Rodin, 1985). Por
On the other hand, as previously mentioned,
identification with the characters constitutes
an intervening and explanatory variable of the
affective impact produced by exposure to
dramatic stimuli (Hoffner and Cantor, 1991).
Finally, Larsen and
Laszlo (1990), studying the response to
dramatic short stories, they found that
the historical-cultural proximity (Hungarians
in front of Danes reading a short story
Hungarian origin) provoked greater identification
and memories that were more emotionally
charged and had greater imaginative force. By
all this, it was expected to find a relationship
consistent between the degree of identification
with the characters of the film stimuli
and the emotional experience of them
(perception of bodily sensations and
felt emotions); and also a relationship
positive between identification with the
characters and cultural closeness.
Method
Subjects
64 student subjects were selected
of Psychology, with an average age of
22.93 years old and all the subjects were women.
res.
Design and procedure
A 2 x mixed factorial design was used
(2), the independent variables being:
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JOHN JOSEPH IGARTUA PEROSANZ AND DARIUS PAEZ ROVIRA
exposure instructions to the film segments
(identification or distancing) that constituted
a variable
intersubject, and the type of stimuli (pleasant
or positive and unpleasant or negative) that
constituted an intrasubject variable.
The subjects were randomly assigned to
the experimental conditions. Half of them
received instructions to identify with the
characters and the
the other half the observation instructions
distanced On the other hand, all subjects
They contemplated both types of stimuli,
establishing two different orders for the
presentation of these (positive-negative and
negative-positive).
The vision of the film segments is
performed collectively in the audiovisual
room of the Faculty of Psychology. To the
the subjects arrive at the audiovisual room
They sat down and received the
corresponding questionnaire, which included
the instructions for exposure to the stimuli.
film and also the dependent variables. The
subjects were informed that the objective of
the research was to analyze with
What criteria are used for aesthetic
evaluations regarding film materials and
how one reacts to them. Also, they were
told that throughout the questionnaire a
series of instructions appeared that they should Living", "The Predator"); its duration
read carefully. Once provided
this general information, the subjects were
asked to read the instructions twice
(exhibition) that appeared in the first
page of the questionnaire, after which they
witnessed the first group of film segments.
After the vision of them
completed the various scales used to
evaluate the dependent variables
of the study (among others the scale of
identification with the characters). Next,
They read the presentation instructions
again (the same ones they had read when
beginning of the experience), they watched
the second segment with excerpts from films
Psychothema, 1998
and answered the corresponding dependent
variables.
Materials linked to variables
independent
Two film segments were used that
were made from the selection of certain
scenes from different
entertainment films and commercials.
These excerpts were edited on tape.
video (VHS).
The positive segment contained a series
of comic scenes selected from a
same gag movie ("Funny people are
something else"); and its duration was 4
minutes and 58 seconds. Various funny and
extravagant situations appeared in the
that different people (not professional
actors) suffered a series of pranks. This
segment was intended to induce positive
emotions in the subjects such as joy,
but also negative emotions such as
shame, given that there was a certain
ridicule of the main characters. The negative
segment contained scenes from various
adventure films and/or
horror ("Raiders of the Lost Ark", "Indiana
Jones and the Temple of Doom", "Raiders
of Fire", "Return of the Dead"
It was 4 minutes and 44 seconds. Images
appeared in it that could be classified as
unpleasant. For example, in one of these
sequences the main characters appeared
surrounded by insects and snakes, and
They themselves expressed displeasure for their
situation (“Indiana Jones and the Temple of
Doom”). These stimuli were intended to
induce negative emotions such as disgust,
fear or anxiety in the subjects.
The positive or negative character of each
film segment was judged by ten audiovisual
communication professors (external
to the investigation). The experts consulted
showed high consistency in the evaluation
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VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A SCALE OF EMPATHY AND IDENTIFICATION WITH CHARACTERS
tion of audiovisual stimuli, so
that his judgment was taken as a valid reference
to determine the positive or negative character
of said film segments.
Instructions for viewing
film segments (to adopt a
certain perspective of identification or
distanced observation with respect to
the characters), were taken from the study of
Davis et al. (1987). As in the research of these
authors, they were used
two types of instructions. These appeared
written in the questionnaire and had a
similar length: 121 words the identification
instructions with the characters
and 118 those of distanced observation.
The text of the “identification” instructions
was as follows:
«In a few moments, you will see
some video sequences in which a
series of characters find themselves in
different situations. We ask that, while
watching these sequences, you try to
imagine how the characters feel in the scenes.
situations they face. Think
that you are one of the characters, that you are
you who faces those situations and
feel the same emotions as them. Try to
focus on your own experience
or experience of the characters, try to
visualize how they feel when facing the
situations. In short, try
to identify with their feelings and reactions.
After viewing the video sequences we will
ask you a question
series of questions about them.
The text of the “distancing” instructions
was as follows:
«In a few moments, you will see
some video sequences in which a
series of characters find themselves in
different situations. We ask that you,
While watching these sequences, observe
428
with great attention to everything they do
said characters. Carefully observe all the
nuances or aspects of your
behaviors. Try to observe as much
the frequency of certain behaviors
such as the non-verbal reactions of
characters. For example, look at your
gestures, changes in body posture,
their looks, etc. In short, observe
conduct these characters as carefully as
you can but do not try to
to identify or empathize with them.
After viewing the sequences of
video we will ask you a series of
questions about them.
Dependent variables
The dependent variables considered
in this investigation were the following:
1.– Identification with the characters. HE
evaluated using the EDI scale, made up of
17 items whose response format was
five points (where 1 means "nothing" and 5
it means a lot"). In this way, the greater
score on the scale as a whole greater
identification with the characters. In it
The EDI scale is included in its entirety.
2.– Closeness or cultural proximity
(Larsen and Laszlo, 1990). It was evaluated
using 2 items whose response format was a
five-point Likert-type scale (where 1
was “strongly disagree” and 5 was “strongly agree.”
agreement"). The subjects were asked if,
the scenes from the movie segments that
they had just seen, "they dealt with situations
very similar or similar to the ones you can
find in your daily life" and if "they reflect
culturally surrounding ways or lifestyles». Both
items will be added to
form an indicator of cultural closeness
regarding the film segments.
3.– Aesthetic evaluation. The subjects had
to evaluate each film segment using a
semantic differential composed of
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JOHN JOSEPH IGARTUA PEROSANZ AND DARIUS PAEZ ROVIRA
12 bipolar scales (five points) defined at their
ends by antonym adjectives such as
"unpleasant-pleasant", "bad-bad-good", "long-
short", etc.
4.– Self-perceived bodily sensations. The
subjects had to answer in what
measure they had felt, during the vision of
the film segments, 14 specific bodily sensations
("lump in the throat",
"muscle relaxation", etc.). The format of
response was a six point scale
(where 0 meant "not having felt the
sensation" and 5 meant "feel that sensation
very intensely"). The PILL inventory was taken
as a reference for the selection of body
sensations.
(Pennebaker Inventory of Limbic Languid-
ness; Echevarría and Paez, 1989).
5.– Felt emotions. They were evaluated
using a modified version (abbreviated and
already used in previous research) of Izard's
Differential Emotions Scale (Igartua, Álvarez,
Adrián and Paez,
1994; Kotsch, Gerbing y Schwartz, 1982).
The subjects had to indicate to what extent
They had felt each of the 11 emotions that
were presented ("joy", "distress", etc.). The
response format to evaluate affective intensity
was six points.
(where 0 meant "not having felt the
emotion" and 5 meant "feeling that emotion
very intensely").
The order of presentation of the variables
dependents included in the questionnaire
was always the same for all subjects:
identification with the characters, closeness
cultural, aesthetic evaluation, sensations
self-perceived bodily functions and felt
emotions. Furthermore, two (identical) groups
of dependent variables appeared in each
questionnaire: one to be answered later
of the positive film segment and another for
after seeing the negative segment (given
that all subjects were exposed to
both audiovisual segments).
Psychothema, 1998
Results
Checking the effectiveness of the manipulation
experimental (positive-negative character of
the film segments)
To verify that the experimental manipulation
(the "positive" and "negative" character of the
film stimuli) had been
effective, the evaluation carried out was analyzed
by the subjects on each segment, as well as
the affective induction (self-perceived bodily
sensations and felt emotions) produced by
them. For this, various analyzes of variance
of repeated measures (MANOVA) were carried
out, since all the
subjects watched the two film segments, also
introducing as a factor
I intersubject the order of presentation of said
stimuli.
No significant differences were observed
depending on the order of presentation of
film stimuli nor in the evaluation
aesthetics, nor in the induction of sensations
bodily, nor in the induction of emotions
felt; They were not significant either.
order by type interaction effects
segment (all minor univariate F
than 1.20, with 1 and 62 degrees of freedom and
p>.10).
Subjects evaluated differently
both film segments. The positive segment
compared to the negative was
evaluated as more “relaxed” (F(1.62)=
322.27, p <.001), "pleasant" (F(1,62)=
307.32, p <.001), “fun” (F(1,62)=
136.86, p <.001), "good" (F(1,62)= 76.91,
p <.001), «realistic» (F (1,62)= 66.57, p
<.001), «simple» (F(1,62)= 54.44, p <.001),
“sorted” (F(1,62)= 50.89, p < .001),
«understandable» (F(1,62)= 34.70, p <.001),
«good» (F(1,62)= 26.25, p <.001), «fast»
(F (1,62)= 24.74, p<.001) and "short"
(F(1,62)= 14.66, p<.001). were not observed
significant differences in the degree of “clarity-
confusion” perceived in each of
429
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VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A SCALE OF EMPATHY AND IDENTIFICATION WITH CHARACTERS
the film segments (F(1,62)= 1.50, p=
.225).
Regarding the induction of sensations
self-perceived body values, the first data to
What stands out was the low average score in
each of the sensations considered. He
highest mean value achieved was 2.95 (in
a scale of 0 to 5) and the vast majority of
averages were at values less than 1
(the overall mean was 0.57). On the other hand, the
differential induction of bodily sensations was
consistent with what could be expected given the
content of each of the
film segments. In this way, the negative segment
induced, to a greater extent
than the positive, an “increase in breathing rate”
(F(1,62)= 36.07, p<.001), “sensations in the
stomach” (F(1,62)= 43.73,
p<.001), “chest tightness” (F(1.62)=
26.94, p<.001), “lump in the throat”
(F(1,62)= 25.76, p<.001), “feeling paralyzed”
(F(1,62)= 23.13, p<.001), “hands sweating”
(F(1,62). )= 20.93, p<.001), “sensation of
coldness” (F(1,62)= 13.48, p<.001),
“nausea” (F(1,62)= 8.91, p<.01), “heat sensation”
(F(1,62)= 6.77, p<.05), “illness
taste in the mouth» (F(1,62)= 5.12, p<.05) and
«tics corporales» (F(1,62)= 4.25, p<.05).
On the other hand, the positive segment induced
greater “muscle relaxation” (F(1.62)=
53.43, p<.001) and “blush” (F(1,62)= 4.13.001).
p<.05). No significant differences were observed
in the induction of “dizziness” before
both segments (F(1,62)= 1.70, p= .197).
Likewise, the positive segment induced,
to a greater extent than the negative, a greater
intensity of the emotions "interest or
curiosity” (F(1,62)= 38.48, p<.001), “cheerfulness”
(F(1,62)= 363.70, p<.001) and “embarrassment
or embarrassment” (F(1). ,62) = 26.79, p < .001).
On the other hand, the film segment with more
unpleasant content primarily induced negative
emotions such as “disgust or disgust” (F(1,62)=
335.33, p<.001),
"anxiety" (F(1,62)= 91.40, p<.001), "mie-do"
(F(1,62)= 71.98, p<.001), "despise"
430
(F(1,62)= 22.57, p<.001), «ira» (F(1,62)=
7.01, p<.01) and “sadness” (F(1,62)= 5.70,
p<.05). No significant differences were observed
in the emotional experience of both
stimuli in the induction of "surprise"
(F(1,62)= 0.02, p=.886), neither of “blame”
(F(1,62)= 0.14, p=.708).
Factor structure and reliability of the scale
WAS
To check the structural validity of
the identification scale with the characters,
separate factorial analyzes were carried out
of principal components (orthogonal rotation) on
each of the scales completed after viewing the
film segment
positive and the negative segment (for reasons
of space, only a summary is presented
of said analyses; items are described
that defined each factor, with the loadings of
each item in the factor appearing in parentheses.
correspondent).
Regarding the factor analysis carried out
on the scale of identification with the characters
of positive film segments,
Four factors were obtained that explained 65.6%
of the variance. It was observed a
first factor that explained most
of the variance (42.4%) and that was defined
by the following items: "I have felt like I am part
of history" (.82), "I have
I had the impression of really living
same the story of the protagonists»
(.79), "I have felt as if I were one
of the protagonists" (.79), "I thought that
I would like to look or act like them
protagonists" (.78), "I have identified
with the protagonists" (.78), "I thought that
I looked or was very similar to the protagonists"
(.68), "I myself have experienced the emotional
reactions of the protagonists" (.66) and "I have
felt involved
affectively with the feelings of the
protagonists” (.66). These items referred to
the dimensions that have theoretically been
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JOHN JOSEPH IGARTUA PEROSANZ AND DARIUS PAEZ ROVIRA
defined as "becoming the protagonist",
"affective empathy", "wanting to be like others"
protagonists” and “perception of similarity”.
The second factor explained a much smaller
percentage of variance than the previous one.
(8.8%); would account for the dimension "cognitive
empathy" and was defined by the items:
«I have understood the way to act, think
or feelings of the protagonists" (.77), "I have tried
to imagine the feelings, thoughts and reactions of
the protagonists"
(.75), «I have understood the feelings or
emotions of the protagonists" (.72), "I
imagined how I would act if I found myself in the
place of the protagonists” (.62)
and "I have tried to see things from the point of view
from the protagonists' point of view" (.60).
The third factor (8.3% of the variance) referred
to the dimension of "positive evaluation"
of the characters ("I liked the way
of being or acting of the protagonists", factorial
weight .71) no longer feeling worried
due to their situation ("I felt worried about what
was happening to the protagonists", factorial
weight -.82). Lastly, the
The fourth factor (6.2% of the variance) referred
to a dimension of distanced observation ("I have
tried to carefully observe each of the actions or
behaviors
of the protagonists”, factorial weight .82) and
the ability to "fantasize" or imagine ("I have been
able to anticipate what
was going to happen to the protagonists”, factorial
weight .52). The internal consistency of the EDI
scale for positive film segments can be considered
high. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was .89 and
the Theta coefficient was .91.
The factor analysis carried out on the EDI
scale for the negative film segments also extracted
four factors and these explained 70.2% of the
variance. In
In general terms, the factor structure obtained with
the EDI scale was reproduced for
the positive segments. There was a first
Psychothema, 1998
factor that explained most of the variance (48.3%),
and that was defined by the
following items: «I have felt like I am part of the
story» (.88), «I have had the impression of really
living the story of the protagonists myself» (.88),
"I have felt as if I were one of the
protagonists" (.82), "I have felt worried about what
was happening to the protagonists" (.79), "I have
identified with the
protagonists" (.78), "I myself have experienced
the emotional reactions of the
protagonists" (.76), "I have felt emotionally involved
with the feelings of
the protagonists" (.54) and "[I have not] tried
Carefully observe each of the
actions or behaviors of the protagonists
(-.40).
The second factor explained 8.5% of the
variance and represented the dimension of
"cognitive empathy", as it was defined by
the items: «I have tried to imagine the feelings,
thoughts and reactions of the
protagonists" (.81), "I have tried to see the
things from the point of view of the protagonists"
(.77), "I have imagined how I would act if I found
myself in the place of the
protagonists" (.76), "I have understood the
way of acting, thinking or feeling of the
protagonists" (.58) and "I have understood the
feelings or emotions of the protagonists"
(.58).
The third factor (7.4% of the variance) refers
to the degree of "personal attraction that is
feel towards the characters", since it was defined
by the items: "I liked the way
of being or acting of the protagonists»
(.82), "I thought I would like to look like
or act like the protagonists" (.56) and
"I thought that I looked or was very similar to the
protagonists" (.48). Fourth
factor (5.9% of the variance) was defined
for a single item that referred to the capacity
of "fantasizing" or imagination ("I have been
able to anticipate what was going to happen to them
the protagonists”, factorial weight .88). The
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VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A SCALE OF EMPATHY AND IDENTIFICATION WITH CHARACTERS
internal consistency of the EDI scale for
negative film segments was again high. The
Cron-bach alpha coefficient was .90 and the
Theta coefficient reached a value of .93.
Effect of exposure instructions on
identification with the characters
Mean differences were analyzed
obtained in the identification with the characters
based on the second experimentally
manipulated factor: the exposure instructions
before the film segments (identification versus
distancing).
These analyzes were carried out with respect to
the scale as a whole; For this purpose, the 17
items that made it up were added, forming a
global indicator of identification with the
characters. In the analyzes of
variance (MANOVA) carried out, the order of
presentation of the
film stimuli as a second independent variable.
No significant differences were observed
depending on the order of presentation of
the stimuli, nor were they significant
the order-by-condition interaction effects in the
identification variables with
the characters of both the positive films
as the negative ones. All F's were
less than 1.40, (with 1 and 60 degrees of
freedom, with p>.10).
Regarding identification with
characters of the positive segments,
found that there were significant differences
between the group of subjects who received
identification instructions (mean=
55.75) and the group that received distanced
observation instructions (mean=
44.34) (F(1,60)= 18.73, p<.001). As soon as
to identification with the characters of the
negative segments, it was also observed
that there were significant differences between
The group that received instructions from
identification (mean = 54.84) and the group
432
with distance-da observation instructions
(mean= 48.00) (F(1,60)= 5.03, p<.05).
Internal analisis
A coherent association was observed
between identification with the characters and
induction of bodily sensations, especially for
negative film segments. In this case, it was
noted that greater identification with the
characters was significantly associated with a
greater perceived intensity of the following
sensations: "increased respiratory rate" (r=
.52, p<.001), “stomach sensations”
(r= .37, p<.001), «sensation of heat» (r=
.36, p<.001), “lump in the throat” (r= .31,
p<.01), “sweaty hands” (r= .30, p<.01),
«feeling of cold» (r= .29, p<.05), «tightness in
the chest» (r= .28, p<.05), «nausea»
(r= .25, p<.05) and “feeling paralyzed” (r=
.24, p<.05). Furthermore, the identification
negatively associated with the perception
of "muscle relaxation" (r= -.35, p<.001).
On the other hand, identification with the
characters of the positive segments was only
associated with perceiving a greater intensity
of the bodily sensations "nausea" (r= .23,
p<.05), "increased of respiratory rate" (r= .22,
p<.05) and "flushing" (r= .19,
p<.10).
Likewise, an association was observed
positive between identification with the
protagonists of excerpts from pleasant films
and the experience of positive emotions
as "interest or curiosity" (r= .34,
p<.01) and “joy” (r= .29, p<.01). In addition, it
was also significantly associated with the
experience of the following negative emotions:
"fear or fear" (r= .29,
p<.01), “embarrassment or shame” (r= .25,
p<.05) and “disgust or disgust” (r= .21.05).
p<.05). Finally, “surprise” was positively
associated with identification (r= .25,
p<.05). It is necessary to remember that the segment
positive film contained a series of scenes
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JOHN JOSEPH IGARTUA PEROSANZ AND DARIUS PAEZ ROVIRA
comics in which there was a certain ridicule of
the characters (who suffered jokes in a
surprising way).
The identification of the subjects with the
characters from the film segments with scenes
of unpleasant content were associated
in a positive way to the experience of emotions
negatives: “distress” (r= .60, p<.001), “re-
disgust or disgust” (r= .56, p<.001), “fearfulness”
(r= .56, p<.001). 001) and “blame” (r= .17.17).
p<.10). It was also significantly associated with
a lower intensity of the emotion of “joy” (r=
-.20, p<.10) and also
to feel “surprise” (r= .48, p<.001) and “interest”
(r= .16, p<.10).
Lastly, the perceived cultural closeness
was positively associated with identification
with the characters both from the pleasant film
segments (r= .40, p<.001), and from
the unpleasant segments (r= .27, p<.05).
Discussion
As the most relevant conclusions of the
This research can point out the
following:
1.– It has been observed that the EDI scale
includes those dimensions theoretically
proposed to define identification with
the characters, that is, the fact of "becoming
the protagonist", the affective and cognitive
empathy, the personal attraction that is
feels towards the characters (positive
evaluation, the fact of wanting to be like the
protagonists and the perception of similarity) and
the ability to “fantasize” or imagine (anticipation
of the narrative). Affective empathy emerged
as a dimension
central to defining this construct. This result is
convergent with what was proposed by
Tan (1996) in relation to the role played by
empathy (the author's preferred term in
place of identification with the characters) in
the reception and impact of the films
fictional.
Psychothema, 1998
2.– The exposure instructions
The film segments induced significant
differences, and in the expected sense,
in identification with the characters. The
subjects who received instructions
identification compared to those who received
distanced observation instructions,
showed a higher overall score in
the identification indicator with the characters
(measured with the EDI scale). This result is
convergent with that obtained by
Davis et al. (1987) and in turn represents a
contrast of the discriminant validity of the
EDI scale.
As a criticism of the present study,
may point out that although the instructions
of exposure generated the expected effect,
It should be noted that the film stimuli used: a)
were of short duration
(less than 5 minutes); b) they consisted of
extracts from assembled films, so they did not
there was a defined plot or argument, which
which made it difficult for subjects to "get hooked"
affectively; and, c) they were stimuli until
certain point new, by showing themselves outside
of its context (of the films to which
the scenes belonged).
3.–The scale of identification with
characters has satisfactory reliability
or internal consistency, for both the positive
and negative stimuli. Likewise, it has adequate
concurrent validity, since identification with the
characters (assessed with said scale) was
coherently associated with the perception of
bodily sensations and the experience of
emotions (in a manner different from the
stimulus
positive and negative); was also associated with
greater closeness or cultural proximity
with film stimuli.
Have reliable instruments
and adequate validity to evaluate the processes
involved in the reception of dramatic audiovisual
communications
(such as empathy and identification with
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VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF A SCALE OF EMPATHY AND IDENTIFICATION WITH CHARACTERS
characters), constitutes a necessity for
advance in the study of the spectatorial process,
a problem addressed from Psychology
of art and from the Psychology of the media
(del Río, 1996; Paez and Adrián, 1993).
A central process to understand
The process of reception (especially emotional
or affective) of audiovisual communications of a
dramatic type is the degree of
empathy and identification with the characters
protagonists (Denis, 1985; Hoffner and Can-tor,
1991). The results of current research in this field
confirm
that identification with the actors and the re-
evocation of personal experiences induces
intense emotions in the spectators
(see Paez, Igartua and Adrián, 1996, for
a general review of the problem of aesthetic re-
action). In this sense, research carried out on the
reception and
aesthetic appreciation showed that the induction
of a negative mood by
ATTACHMENT. EDI SCALE
In relation to the scenes of the video [the movie,
the sequence, the series] that you just watched, in
To what extent have you experienced the
following. Answer by circling the number that
best reflect your answer.
ANYTHING A LOT
1. I liked the way of being or acting of
the protagonists.
12345
2. I have felt emotionally involved with
the feelings of the protagonists.
12345
3. I have felt like "if I were one of the
protagonists”.
12345
434
exposure to films about the Civil War
Spanish of dramatic genre (such as «Ay,
Carmela" or "Bicycles are for summer"), was
associated with greater identification with the
characters (assessed with the EDI scale) and
greater personal resonance. Likewise,
identification with
characters was associated with greater enjoyment
by viewing the films, judging them as entertaining
and valuing them positively (Igartua, 1996).
The previous results support that the
The empathy and identification scale presented
here can also be used in applied research (both
experimental and correlational). By
For example, it can be a scale to use in
program acceptance tests (pilot-tos) to check the
potential for success of
television series (before its definitive broadcast
through this medium) (Wimmer and Dominick,
1996).
4. I have imagined how I would act if I found
myself in the place of the protagonists.
12345
5. I have tried to carefully observe each
one of the actions or behaviors of the
protagonists.
12345
6. I thought I looked or was very similar
to the protagonists.
12345
7. I have felt worried about what was
happening to the protagonists.
12345
8. I have understood the way to act, think or
feeling of the protagonists.
12345
Psychothema, 1998
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JOHN JOSEPH IGARTUA PEROSANZ AND DARIUS PAEZ ROVIRA
9. I have experienced the reactions myself
emotions of the protagonists.
12345
10. I thought I would like to look like or act
like the protagonists.
12345
11. I have been trying to imagine the feelings,
thoughts and reactions of the protagonists.
12345
12. I have had the impression of really living myself
same the story of the protagonists.
12345
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