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The so-called legato touch on the keyboard is one in which the
fingers cling closely to the keys, and by which, therefore, the keys
are pressed down rather than struck. In this way the player actually
eliminates one of the three sounds of attack, namely, that of the
finger hitting the key. To a certain extent he also minimizes the sound
of the key hitting its base, a sound which, moreover, the felt cushion
of the base does much to lessen. At the risk of throwing all
preconceived theories of legato touch into question, it may be said
that this unpleasant sound can be wholly eliminated by a sort of light,
quick, lifting touch, which, without driving the key down even to its
base, will yet cause the hammer to spring up and hit the string above
it.

By such means as these the pianist can at least subdue, if he cannot

silence, the noises which in some measure must inevitably
accompany his playing. The more he can do so, the smoother and
pleasanter his playing will become. In so far as the tone of the
pianoforte can be sensuous and warm, he can make it so in the
measure in which he avoids giving prominence to the blows and
thuds which ever threaten it perilously. The player who pounds is the
player whose ear has not taken into account this harsh and
unmusical accompaniment of noises. The player who can make the
piano sing is he who, in listening to the mysterious vibrations of its
after-sounds, has come to recognize and subdue those noises which
too often interrupt and obscure them.

The value of the piano as an instrument of musical expression will

always be the subject of discussion. It has undoubtedly two great
shortcomings, which place the pianist under serious disadvantages.
It cannot sustain tone, and the tones which can be produced on it will
ever be more or less marred by unmusical noises which cannot often
be avoided. But these very shortcomings make possible some
peculiar beauties and a peculiar vitality which characterize pianoforte
music alone. And, apart from these, in its great power, its
possibilities of dynamic nuances, and its unlimited scope of harmonic
effects, it is not excelled, if, indeed, it is equalled, by any other single
instrument.
Finally, let it be remembered that there is in a great deal of pianoforte
music—in that of Mozart, Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, Brahms and
Debussy—almost unfailingly an intimacy of mood. It is for this quality
of intimacy that pianoforte music will long be cherished
as chamber music. It is a quality of which the player who wishes not
only to interpret great music, but also to win what there is of genuine
musical beauty from his instrument, should ever be mindful.

Harold Bauer

November, 1915.
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME SEVEN

PAGE

Prefatory Note vii

Introduction by Harold Bauer ix

Part I. The Classical Period of Pianoforte

Music
CHAPTER
I. Keyboard Instruments and the Development 1
of Keyboard Technique
Keyboard instruments and their derivation; the
clavichord and its
mechanism; the harpsichord and its relatives,
virginal, cembalo,
etc.; technique and use of the harpsichord—The
beginnings of
harpsichord music; the Gabrielis and Merulo;
early forms; the influence
of harmony and the crystallization of form—
Frescobaldi and other
organist-composers for harpsichord; early English
virginal collections;
John Bull, etc.—Genesis of the suite; influence of
lute-music;
Froberger, Denis Gaultier, etc.; Kuhnau—
Development of the harpsichord
‘style’; great players: Chambonnières, etc.
II. The Golden Age of Harpsichord Music 40
 The period and the masters of the ‘Golden Age’—
Domenico
Scarlatti; his virtuosity; Scarlatti’s ‘sonatas’;
Scarlatti’s technical
effects; his style and form; æsthetic value of his
music; his
contemporaries—François Couperin, le Grand;
Couperin’s clavecin
compositions; the ‘musical portraits’; ‘program
music’—The quality
and style of his music; his contemporaries,
Daquin and Rameau—John
Sebastian Bach; Bach as virtuoso; as teacher; his
technical reform; his
style—Bach’s fugues and their structure—The
suites of Bach: the French
suites, the English suites, the Partitas—The
preludes, toccatas and
fantasies; concertos; the ‘Goldberg Variations’—
Bach’s importance; his
contemporary Handel.
III. The Development of the Pianoforte Sonata 89
Vienna as the home of the sonata; definition of
‘sonata’—Origin
and history of the standard sonata cycle;
relationship of sonata
movements—Evolution of the ‘triplex’ form:
Pergolesi’s ‘singing
allegro’; the union of aria and binary forms; Padre
Martini’s sonatas,
Scarlatti’s true sonata in C; Domenico Alberti; the
Alberti bass; the
transitional period of the sonata—Sonata writers
before Haydn and
Mozart; J. C. Bach; Muzio Clementi—Schubert
 and Wagenseil; C. P. E.
Bach; F. W. Rust.
IV. Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven 131
The ‘Viennese period’ and the three great
classics—Joseph Haydn;
Haydn’s clavier sonatas; the Variations in F minor
—W. A. Mozart;
Mozart as pianist and improvisator; Mozart’s
sonatas; his
piano concertos—Ludwig van Beethoven;
evolution of the modern
pianoforte—Musical qualities of Beethoven’s
piano music; Beethoven’s
technical demands; his pianoforte sonatas; his
piano concertos;
conclusion.
V. Pianoforte Music at the Time of Beethoven 175
The broadening of technical possibilities and its
consequences—Minor
disciples of Mozart and Beethoven: J. N.
Hummel; J. B. Cramer; John
Field; other contemporaries—The pioneers in
new forms: Weber and
Schubert; technical characteristics of Weber’s
style; Weber’s sonatas,
etc.; the Konzertstück; qualities of Weber’s
pianoforte
music—Franz Schubert as pianoforte composer;
his sonatas; miscellaneous
works; the impromptus; the Moments musicals—
The Weber-Schubert era and
the dawn of the Romantic spirit.

Part II. The Romantic Period of Pianoforte

Music
VI. Mendelssohn, Schumann and Brahms 211
Influence of musical romanticism on pianoforte
literature—Mendelssohn’s
pianoforte music, its merits and demerits; the
‘Songs
without Words’; Prelude and Fugue in D minor;
Variations
Sérieuses; Mendelssohn’s influence, Bennett,
Henselt—Robert
Schumann, ultra-romanticist and pioneer;
peculiarities of his
style; miscellaneous series of piano pieces; the
‘cycles’:
Carnaval, etc.—The Papillons, Davidsbündler,
and
Faschingsschwank; the Symphonic Études;
Kreisleriana,
etc., the Sonatas, Fantasy and Concerto—
Johannes Brahms; qualities
of his piano music; his style; piano sonatas,
‘Paganini Variations,’
‘Handel Variations,’ Capriccios, Rhapsodies,
Intermezzi; the Concertos;
conclusion.
VII. Chopin 250
Chopin’s music and its relative value in musical
value; racial and
personal characteristics; influences and
preferences; Chopin’s
playing—His instinct for form; the form of his
sonatas and concertos;
the Polonaise-Fantaisie; the Preludes—Chopin as
a harmonist;
Chopin’s style analyzed: accompaniment figures,
inner melodies,
polyphonic suggestions, passages, melodies and
 ornaments—His works
in general: salon music; waltzes; nocturnes;
mazurkas; polonaises;
conclusion.
VIII. Herz, Thalberg, and Liszt 284
The career of Henri Herz, his compositions and
his style; virtuosity
and sensationalism; means of effect—Sigismund
Thalberg: his playing;
the ‘Moses’ fantasia, etc.; relation of Herz and
Thalberg to the
public—Franz Liszt: his personality and its
influence; his playing;
his expansion of pianoforte technique; difficulties
of his music
estimated—Liszt’s compositions: transcriptions;
fantasia on Don
Giovanni—Realistic pieces, Années de
pèlerinage—Absolute music:
sonata in B minor; Hungarian Rhapsodies;
conclusion.

Part III. Modern Pianoforte Music

IX. Imitators and Nationalists 320
Inevitable results of Schumann, Chopin and Liszt
—Heller, Raff, Jensen,
Scharwenka, Mozkowski, and other German
composers—The influence of
national characteristics: Grieg, his style and his
compositions;
Christian Sinding—The Russians: Balakireff,
Rubinstein, Tschaikowsky,
Arensky, Glazounoff, Rachmaninoff, Scriabin and
others—Spanish traits;
 I. Albéniz; pianoforte composers in England and
the United States.
X. Modern French Pianoforte Music 341
Classical traditions: Saint-Saëns, and others; C.
V. Alkan—César
Franck: his compositions and his style—Vincent
d’Indy; Fauré—The new
movement: Debussy and Ravel; Debussy’s
innovations: new harmonies,
scales, overtones, pianoforte technique; his
compositions—Ravel
differentiated; his compositions; Florent Schmitt
and Eric
Satie—Conclusion.

Part IV. Violin Music

XI. Early Violin Music and the Development of 368
Violin Technique
The origin of stringed instruments; ancestors of
the violin—Perfection
of the violin and advance in violin technique; use
of the violin in
the sixteenth century; early violin compositions in
the vocal style;
Florentino Maschera and Monteverdi—
Beginnings of violin music: Biagio
Marini; Quagliati; Farina; Fontana and
Mont’Albano; Merula; Ucellino
and Neri; Legrenzi; Walther and his advance in
technique, experiments
in tone painting—Giov. Battista Vitali; Tommaso
Vitali and Torelli;
Bassani; Veracini and others—Biber and other
Germans; English and
French composers for the violin; early
 publications of text-books and
collections.
XII. Violin Composers in the Eighteenth Century 396
Corelli, Vivaldi, Albinoni—Their successors,
Locatelli, F. M. Veracini,
and others; Tartini and his pupils; pupils of Somis:
Giardini and
Pugnani—French violinists and composers:
Rébel, Francœur, Baptiste
Anet, Senaillé and Leclair; French
contemporaries of Viotti: Pagin,
Lahoussaye, Gaviniès; Viotti—Violinists in
Germany and Austria
during the eighteenth century: Pisendel, J. G.
Graun, Franz Benda;
Leopold Mozart—The Mannheim school: J.
Stamitz, Cannabich and others;
Dittersdorf, Wranitzky and Schuppanzigh—Non-
violinist composers:
Handel, Bach, Haydn, Mozart—Conclusion.
XIII. Violin Music in the Nineteenth Century 430
The perfection of the bow and of the classical
technique—The French
school: Kreutzer, Rode, and Baillot—Paganini: his
predecessors, his
life and fame, his playing, and his compositions—
Ludwig Spohr: his
style and his compositions; his pupils—Viennese
violinists: Franz
Clement, Mayseder, Boehm, Ernst and others—
The Belgian school: De
Bériot and Vieuxtemps—Other violinist
composers: Wieniawski, Molique,
Joachim, Sarasate, Ole Bull; music of the
 violinist-composers in
general—Violin music of the great masters.

Part V. Chamber Music

XIV. The Beginnings of Chamber Music 467
The term ‘chamber music’; fifteenth-century
dances; lute music, early
suites; vocal ‘chamber music’—Early ‘sonatas’:
Gabrieli; Rossi; Marini;
etc.—Vitali, Veracini, Bassani and Corelli; Corelli’s
pupils; Vivaldi;
Bach and Handel.
XV. The First Period of the String Quartet 486
The four-part habit of writing in instrumental forms
—Pioneers of the
string quartet proper: Richter, Boccherini and
Haydn; Haydn’s early
quartets—The Viennese era of the string quartet;
Haydn’s Sonnen
quartets; his ‘Russian’ quartets; his later quartets
—W. A. Mozart;
Sammartini’s influence; Mozart’s early (Italian)
quartets; Viennese
influences; Mozart’s Viennese quartets—His last
quartets and their
harmonic innovations.
XVI. The String Quartet: Beethoven 509
Beethoven’s approach to the string quartet;
incentives; the six
quartets opus 18—The Rasumowsky quartets;
opera 74 and 95—The
great development period; the later quartets, op.
127 et seq.:
The E-flat major (op. 127)—The A minor (op.
 132); the B-flat major (op.
130); the C-sharp minor (op. 131); the F major
(op. 135).
XVII. The String Ensemble Since Beethoven 534
The general trend of development: Spohr,
Cherubini,
Schubert—Mendelssohn, Schumann and
Brahms, etc.—New developments: César
Franck, d’Indy, Chausson—The characteristics of
the Russian schools:
Tschaikowsky, Borodine, Glazounoff and others—
Other national types:
Grieg, Smetana, Dvořák—The three great
quartets since Schubert and what
they represent; modern quartets and the new
quartet style: Debussy,
Ravel, Schönberg—Conclusion.
XVIII. The Pianoforte and Other Instruments in 573
Chamber Music
The trio—Pianoforte quartets and quintets—
Sonatas for violoncello
and piano—The piano with wind instruments—
Chamber music for wind
instruments by the great composers.
 ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME SEVEN

‘Home Concert’ painting by Fritz von Uhde (in colors) Frontispiece

FACING
PAGE

The Virginal and the Gravicembalo 8

The Clavichord and the Harpsichord 8
Title page of Kuhnau’s ‘Neue Clavier-Übung’ 32
Fac-simile of Bach’s Manuscript of the Prelude in C
80
major (Well-Tempered Clavichord)
Harpsichord Composers (D. Scarlatti, Couperin, C. P.
110
E. Bach, Clementi)
Beethoven’s Broadwood Piano 156
Pianoforte Classics (Moscheles, Czerny, Hummel,
182
Field)
Caricature of Johannes Brahms on His Way to the
238
‘Red Porcupine’
Frédéric Chopin (after painting by Ary Scheffler) 268
Anton Rubinstein’s Hand 332
Famous Pianists (d’Albert, Busoni, Gabrilowitch,
364
Paderewski)
Relatives of the Violin 372
Stradivarius at Work 386
Great Violin Composers (Corelli, Vivaldi, Tartini) 398
Caricature Statuette of Paganini 438
Great Violinists (Wieniawski, Joachim, Vieuxtemps, de 448
Bériot)
Modern Violinists (Sarasate, Kreisler, Ysaye, Thibaut) 464
‘The Concert’; painting by Terborch (in colors) 476
Pioneers of the String Quartet (Boccherini,
488
Haydn,Richter and Dittersdorf)
Ludwig Spohr 536
The Flonzaley Quartet 550
Great 'Cellists (Popper, Gerardi, Casals) 596
Arnold Schönberg 602
PIANOFORTE AND CHAMBER MUSIC
 CHAPTER I
KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF
KEYBOARD TECHNIQUE
Keyboard instruments and their derivation; the clavichord and its
mechanism; the harpsichord and its relatives, virginal, cembalo,
etc.; technique and use of the harpsichord—The beginnings of
harpsichord music; the Gabrielis and Merulo; early forms; the
influence of harmony and the crystallization of form—Frescobaldi
and other organist-composers for harpsichord; early English
virginal collections; John Bull, etc.—Genesis of the suite;
influence of lute-music; Froberger, Denis Gaultier, etc.; Kuhnau—
Development of the harpsichord ‘style’; great players:
Chambonnières, etc.

I
The foundations of pianoforte music were laid during the second half
of the sixteenth century and throughout the seventeenth, with the
foundations of instrumental music in general. Though there were at
this time no pianofortes, there were three keyboard instruments, all
of which not only took their part in the development of instrumental
music, but more especially prepared the way for the great instrument
of their kind which was yet unborn. These were the organ, the
harpsichord, and the clavichord.
The organ was then, as now, primarily an instrument of the church,
though there were small, portable organs called regals, which were
often used for chamber music and even as a part of accompaniment,
together with other instruments, in the early operas. With the history
of its construction we shall not concern ourselves here (see Vol. VI,
Chap. XIV). From the middle of the fourteenth century Venice had
been famous for her organists, because the organs in St. Mark’s
cathedral were probably the best in Europe. Up to the end of the
seventeenth century they were very imperfect. Improvements were
slow. Great as was the rôle taken by the organ all over Europe, from
the basilica of St. Peter’s in Rome to the northern town of Lübeck in
Germany, the action was hard and uneven, the tuning beset with
difficulties. But the organ was the prototype of all keyboard
instruments. Upon the imperfect organs of those days composers
built up the keyboard style of music.

The harpsichords and the clavichords were what one might call the
domestic substitutes for the organ. Of these the clavichord was
perhaps slightly the older instrument. Its origin is somewhat obscure,
though it is easy to see in it the union of the organ keyboard with
strings, on the principle of that ancient darling of the theorists, the
monochord, the great and undisputed ruler over intervals of musical
pitch, from the days of Pythagoras down throughout the Middle
Ages. This monochord was hardly an instrument. It was a single
string stretched over a movable bridge. By shifting the bridge the
string could be stopped off into different lengths, which gave out,
when plucked, different pitches of sound. The relative lengths of the
stopped string offered a simple mathematical basis for the
classification of musical intervals.

The clavichord worked on the same principle. At the back end of

each key lever was an upright tangent, at first of wood, later of metal,
which, when the key was depressed, sprang up against the wire
string stretched above it. The blow of this tangent caused the wire to
vibrate and produce sound; and at the same time the tangent
determined the length of the string which was to vibrate, just as the
finger determines the length of a violin string by stopping it at some
point on the fingerboard. The strings of the clavichord were so
stretched that of the two lengths into which the tangent might divide
them, the longer lay to the left. It was this longer length which was
allowed to vibrate, giving the desired pitch; the shorter length to the
right being muffled or silenced by strips of felt laid or woven across
the strings. Thus the little tangents at the back end of the keys
performed the double function of sounding the string by hitting it and
determining its pitch by stopping it. Thus, too, one string served
several keys. By the middle of the sixteenth century the normal
range was four full octaves, from C to c3. There were many more
keys than strings, which was a serious restriction upon music for the
instrument; for notes which lay as closely together as, let us say, C-
sharp and E could not be sounded at once, since both must be
played upon the same string. Not until practically the beginning of
the eighteenth century were clavichords made with a string for each
key. They were then called bundfrei, in distinction from the older
clavichords, which had been called gebunden.

The clavichord always remained square or oblong in shape, and for

many years had no legs of its own, but was set upon a table like a
box—hence one of its old names, Schachbrett, chess-board. The
case was often of beautiful wood, sometimes inlaid and adorned with
scrolls, and the under side of the cover was often painted with
allegorical pictures and pious or sententious mottoes. The keys were
small, the touch extremely light. The tone, though faint, had a
genuine sweetness and an unusual warmth; and, by a trembling up
and down movement of the wrist while the finger still pressed the
key, the skilled player could give to it a palpitating quality, allied to
the vibrato of the human voice or the violin, which went by the name
of Bebung. This lifelike pulsing of tone was its most precious
peculiarity, one which unhappily is lacking to the pianoforte, in most
ways immeasurably superior. Hardly less prized by players who
esteemed fineness of expression above clearness and brilliance,
was the responsiveness of its tone to delicate gradations of touch.
This made possible fine shading and intimate nuances. On this
account it was highly valued, especially in Germany, as a practice
instrument, upon which the student could cultivate a discriminating
sensitive touch, and by which his ear could be trained to refinement
of perception.

The tone of the clavichord was extremely delicate. Its subtle carrying
quality could not secure it a place in the rising orchestras, nor in the
concert hall. It belonged in the study, or by the fireside, and in such
intimate places was enshrined and beloved by those who had ears
for the finer whisperings of music. But not at once was it so beloved
in the course of the early development of our instrumental music.
Frail and restricted, it was but a makeshift to bring within the circle of
the family the growing music of its powerful overshadowing prototype
—the organ.

The harpsichord was quite different and shared with its weaker sister
only the keyboard and the wire strings. It was in essence a harp or a
psalter played by means of a keyboard. The strings were tuned as in
a harp and were plucked by means of quills attached to the key-
levers. The tone was sharp and dry and could not be influenced by
the player’s touch. Instruments of this nature seem first to have been
made in England. At any rate it was in England that a considerable
literature was first written for them. The English virginals are small
harpsichords. The origin of the quaint name is no longer carried back
to the love of the Virgin Queen Elizabeth for such music as the
instrument could produce. Nor is it likely that it was so named on
account of its size (it could be held on the lap), whereby it
recommended itself to the convenience of young ladies with a
musical turn. Most likely its name is due to its range, which was the
high range of a young woman’s voice, an octave higher than the
centre octave of the organ.

The harpsichord, or, more exactly, instruments which were plucked

by quills attached to key-levers, went by many names besides
virginals. In Italy it was called the clavicembalo, later the
gravicembalo, or merely cembalo; in France the clavecin; in
Germany the Kielflügel. The more or less general name of spinet
seems to be derived from the name of a famous Italian maker
working at the beginning of the sixteenth century, Giovanni Spineta,
of Venice.

These instruments developed side by side with the clavichord but to

much greater proportions. In the course of time several strings were
strung for one note, one or all of which might be used, at the
discretion of the player, by means of stops similar in appearance and
use to organ stops. Sometimes the extra strings of a note would be
tuned at the octave or upper fifth, permitting the player to produce
the mixture effects common to the organ. Many instruments were
fitted with two and even three banks of keys, which operated upon
distinct sets of strings, or might bring some special sort of quill into
play; and these keyboards could be used independently for contrast,
or coupled for volume, or the music might be divided upon them.
There were also pedals for special effects.

There was great need of these numerous sets of strings, these

various sorts of quills, these keyboards and devices for coupling
them, because the mechanism of the harpsichord action was
unsusceptible to the fine gradations of touch. It was essentially a
mechanical instrument; its range of what we may call tone-shading
was defined by the number of purely mechanical adjuncts with which
it happened to be furnished. Variety depended upon the ingenuity of
the player in bringing these means into play. This does not, of
course, imply that there was no skill in ‘touching’ the harpsichord.
The player had to practice hours then as now, to make his touch light
and, above all, regular and even. The slightest clumsiness was
perhaps even more evident to the ear of the listener in the frosty
tones of the harpsichord than it would be today in the warmer and
less distinct tone of the pianoforte. But once this evenness and
lightness attained, the science of ‘touch’ was mastered and the
player proceeded to search out musical effects in other directions.

In the course of these years from 1500 to 1750 it was made more
and more to impress the ear by means of added strings and stops
and sets of quills, till it became the musical keystone of chamber
music, of growing orchestra and flowering opera. At the same time it
was made ever more beautiful to the eye. It grew fine in line and
graceful in shape; its wood was exquisitely finished and varnished; it
was inlaid with mother-of-pearl, and was beautifully decorated and
enscrolled. The keys were small and usually of box-wood, the
diatonic keys often black, the chromatic keys white with mother-of-
pearl or ivory. Artisan and artist lavished their skill upon it. What a
centre it became! How did it sound under the fingers of Count Corsi,
behind the scenes of his private theatre in the Palazzo Corsi at
Florence, while noble men and gentle ladies sang out the story of
Orpheus and Eurydice to a great king of France and Maria de Medici
his bride, when the first Italian opera was sung in public?

The great Monteverdi’s antique orchestra clustered about two

harpsichords, only a few years later in Mantua, when ‘Ariadne’
brought tears to the eyes of princes. How was it in Venice when
Cavalli was of all musicians the most famous, in the public theatre of
San Cassiano? It supported the oratorios of Carissimi in Rome, and
his cantatas as well. And in 1679 the great Bernardo Pasquini,
organist of the people and the senate of Rome, presided at the
harpsichord when the new theatre of Capranica was opened, and
the amiable Corelli led the violins. And so they all presided at the
harpsichord, these brilliant writers of operas now of all music the
most discarded, down to the days of the great Scarlatti in Naples, of
Handel in London, of Keiser and Graun in Hamburg, and Hasse, the
beloved Saxon, in Dresden. Lully the iron-willed, he who watched
alertly the eyebrow of great King Louis XIV of France, sat at his
harpsichord in his lair and spilled snuff on the keys while he wrought
his operas out of them. Then there was Mattheson, who would sing
Antony, and die in the part, yet would come back and play the
harpsichord in the Hamburg opera house orchestra after all the
house had seen him die. He was determined to sit at the
harpsichord, in the centre of the orchestra, and accompany his
Egyptian queen to death, when all knew he should rightfully be
waiting for her in Heaven with a lyre!

The harpsichord was indeed the centre of public music of orchestra

and opera. Even after a race of virtuosi had pulled it to the fore as a