BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Prepared by: Engr. Diana De La Cruz

Faculty Member, College of Engineering
Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
References:
Tonias, D. E., Zhao, J. J. (2017). Bridge
Engineering (4th Ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill Education.
References:
Tonias, D. E., Zhao, J. J. (2017). Bridge
Engineering (4th Ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill Education.

Barker, R. M., Puckett, J. A. (2013). Design of

HighwayBridges (3rd Ed.). Hoboken,
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
References:
Tonias, D. E., Zhao, J. J. (2017). Bridge
Engineering (4th Ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill Education.

Barker, R. M., Puckett, J. A. (2013). Design of

HighwayBridges (3rd Ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:
John Wiley &Sons, Inc.

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials. AASHTO LRFD Bridge
DesignSpecifications (AASHTO 2012).
Washington, DC: AASHTO.
References:
Tonias, D. E., Zhao, J. J. (2017). Bridge
Engineering (4th Ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill Education.

Barker, R. M., Puckett, J. A. (2013). Design of

Highway Bridges (3rd Ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:
John Wiley &Sons, Inc

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials. AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications (AASHTO 2012). Washington,
DC: AASHTO.

Department of Public Works and Highways

Bureau of Design. Design Guidelines, Criteria
and Standards (DGCS Vol. 5 Bridge Design
2015). Philippines: DPWH.
Module 2: Project Inception
The module learning outcomes are as follows:
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. State the principal categories of fund source
2. Explain the different types of design standards
3. Explain the importance of site inspection and site survey
4. Explain the importance of physical testing and the different
methods to conduct it.
Project Inception
There are several important issues
that concern the bridge engineer
prior to commencement of design.
Before any design can begin, there is
the issue concerning how bridge
projects are selected and funded.
Then, there is the issue that pertains
to the standards and references that
an engineer utilizes during design.
Finally, when design begins in
earnest, an engineer must determine
the types of field data, and, in the case
of a rehabilitation project, record
data, are required to commence and
eventually complete the work.
Project Funding
The design and rehabilitation of highway bridges is an activity that has
considerable financial demands. With such huge costs associated with
transportation projects, the obvious question is, "Where does all this money come
from?" Funding for highway projects in general, and bridge projects, comes from a
variety of sources and varies from region to region.
Five Principal Categories of Fund Source
User Fees
→User fees (i.e., taxes imposed on the users of the highway system) imply funds
generated through traditional, highway-related fees such as vehicle registration,
gasoline taxes, and trucking fees.
→Another form of user fee is the toll road.
Toll facility authorities have the advantage of a
relatively precise form of user funding, so they can afford
a rapid and high level of maintenance compared to other
transportation departments. However, toll roads are
typically restricted-access highways that result in
limited availability to users. One drawback to toll roads
is the cost of implementing and maintaining toll
collection facilities. Electronic toll collection has
significantly reduced the operating costs of toll
facilities. Furthermore, by not requiring the vehicle to
stop, the public's acceptance of toll facilities has
increased in recent years.
Project Funding
The design and rehabilitation of highway bridges is an activity that has
considerable financial demands. With such huge costs associated with
transportation projects, the obvious question is, "Where does all this money come
from?" Funding for highway projects in general, and bridge projects, comes from a
variety of sources and varies from region to region.
Five Principal Categories of Fund Source
Nonuser Fees
→Funds obtained from sales taxes, income
taxes, or other general fund sources are
known as nonuser fees. At certain times,
governments may invest extra money in
highway projects to stimulate the economy
during recessions. History has shown that this
type of spending program can help promote economic BGC- Ortigas Center
recovery and produce long-term benefits to the Link Road Project
regional economy, provided that the funds
make their way into infrastructure projects
Project Funding
The design and rehabilitation of highway bridges is an activity that has
considerable financial demands. With such huge costs associated with
transportation projects, the obvious question is, "Where does all this money come
from?" Funding for highway projects in general, and bridge projects, comes from a
variety of sources and varies from region to region.
Five Principal Categories of Fund Source
Special Benefit Fees
→A special benefit fee is a tax placed on those
individuals (usually developers) who benefit from a
new or rehabilitated highway system. The special
benefit fee provides a source of revenue for
improving or expanding facilities to meet the needs
of a growing community. Sometimes this takes the
form of an impact fee that calls for developers to
pay for part of a highway expansion or make a
direct cash contribution to meet a new
development's highway-related needs.

Binondo- Intramuros Bridge

Project Funding
The design and rehabilitation of highway bridges is an activity that has
considerable financial demands. With such huge costs associated with
transportation projects, the obvious question is, "Where does all this money come
from?" Funding for highway projects in general, and bridge projects, comes from a
variety of sources and varies from region to region.
Five Principal Categories of Fund Source
Private Financing
→One form of private financing is for developers to Cebu- Cordova Link
donate to the transportation department in return Expressway (CCLEX)
for changes in zoning, building codes, etc.
Privatization is another form of private financing
that relies on not only private funding but also private
maintenance of constructed facilities. At one end of
the spectrum, privatization allows for a private
organization to entirely fund, build, and maintain
a public facility, such as a transportation project.
Transportation projects, however, often require the
developer to perform activities such as right of-way
acquisition, environmental assessment, and so
on, that public agencies are better suited to handle. In
response to these, agencies have implemented a
privatization scheme known as PPP (Private-Public
Partnership)
Project Funding
The design and rehabilitation of highway bridges is an activity that has
considerable financial demands. With such huge costs associated with
transportation projects, the obvious question is, "Where does all this money come
from?" Funding for highway projects in general, and bridge projects, comes from a
variety of sources and varies from region to region.
Five Principal Categories of Fund Source
Debt Financing
→Debt financing, usually through
revenue bonds, offers a pay-as-you-go
approach to financing highway
projects. This method has the
advantage of providing highway
departments with immediate access to
funds that can be used on major
projects in a timely fashion. An obvious
danger would be in an agency’s Bataan-Cavite Interlink Bridge
overborrowing, leaving transportation
departments with a shortfall in
covering maintenance needs.
The module learning outcomes are as follows:
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. State the Principal Categories of Fund Source
2. Explain the different Types of Design Standards
3. Explain the importance of Site Inspection and Site Survey
4. Explain the importance of Physical Testing and the different
methods to conduct it
Types of Design Standards
The design of a highway bridge, like most any other civil engineering project, is
dependent on certain standards and criteria. Naturally, the critical importance of
highway bridges in a modern transportation system would imply a set of rigorous
design specifications to ensure the safety and overall quality of the constructed
project.
General Specifications
→General specifications are an overall design code
covering most structures in each transportation system.
In the United States, bridge engineers have used AASHTO's
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges or AASHTO's
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, depending on when the
bridges were designed and the state in which the bridges are
located. In a similar fashion, Canadian bridge engineers
utilize the CSA bridge design codes, and British designers
use Eurocodes. In the Philippines, DPWH- Bureau of
Design’s Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards (DGCS)
Volume 5 Bridge Design is used. In general, countries such as
Canada and the United Kingdom, which have developed and
maintained major highway systems for a great many years,
possess their own national or regional bridge standards. As is
the case with the Eurocodes, many nations have accepted the
AASHTO bridge design codes as the general code for the
design of their bridges.
Types of Design Standards
The design of a highway bridge, like most any other civil engineering project, is
dependent on certain standards and criteria. Naturally, the critical importance of
highway bridges in a modern transportation system would imply a set of rigorous
design specifications to ensure the safety and overall quality of the constructed
project.
Material-Related Design Codes
Material design codes are those standards that pertain to bridge components
constructed out of various engineering materials such as steel, concrete, prestressed
concrete, timber, etc. General material specifications are put forth by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Steel→ The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
offers structural steel-related design and detailing manuals.
Where AASHTO is comprised of professionals from member
state transportation departments, AISC standards are
developed by steel fabricators, design professionals, and
manufacturing companies. The principal AISC reference is the
Steel Construction Manual. AISC also publishes design
information based on the allowable stress design (ASD) method,
but it is being phased out since most structural engineers
recognize the advantage of LRFD over ASD. The organization
was founded in 1921 and seeks to advance the use of its
material (i.e., steel) in construction projects
Types of Design Standards
The design of a highway bridge, like most any other civil engineering project, is
dependent on certain standards and criteria. Naturally, the critical importance of
highway bridges in a modern transportation system would imply a set of rigorous
design specifications to ensure the safety and overall quality of the constructed
project.
Material-Related Design Codes
Material design codes are those standards that pertain to bridge components
constructed out of various engineering materials such as steel, concrete, prestressed
concrete, timber, etc. General material specifications are put forth by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Concrete→ The American Concrete Institute (ACI)
offers bridge engineers a set of standards in the analysis
and design of reinforced concrete structures. The
principal design manual is Building Code Requirements
for Structural Concrete and Commentary. The ACI
Detailing Manual is another important publication that
provides the designer with guidelines on how to detail
concrete structures and elements. Although covered by
ACI, prestressed and precast concrete structures are
also covered by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute (PCI) that publishes the PCI Design Handbook
Types of Design Standards
The design of a highway bridge, like most any other civil engineering project, is
dependent on certain standards and criteria. Naturally, the critical importance of
highway bridges in a modern transportation system would imply a set of rigorous
design specifications to ensure the safety and overall quality of the constructed
project.
Material-Related Design Codes
Material design codes are those standards that pertain to bridge components
constructed out of various engineering materials such as steel, concrete, prestressed
concrete, timber, etc. General material specifications are put forth by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Timber→ For bridge structures or
structural components constructed
out of timber, designers can refer to
the Timber Construction Manual
published by the American Institute
of Timber Construction (AITC) and
the National Design Specification for
Wood Construction issued by the
American Wood Council (AWC)
Types of Design Standards
The design of a highway bridge, like most any other civil engineering project, is
dependent on certain standards and criteria. Naturally, the critical importance of
highway bridges in a modern transportation system would imply a set of rigorous
design specifications to ensure the safety and overall quality of the constructed
project.
Material-Related Design Codes
Material design codes are those standards that pertain to bridge components
constructed out of various engineering materials such as steel, concrete,
prestressed concrete, timber, etc. General material specifications are put forth
by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
→It is important to note that although these manuals offer information specific to
various design materials, the AASHTO specifications still provides its own
interpretation and guidelines for the use of the material in highway
bridge structures. Normally, AASHTO specifications adopt the same design
philosophies as those manuals. The AASHTO code, however, takes a more
conservative approach so it may not necessarily use the identical
equations as in other material design manuals.
→One must keep in mind that these material-related codes deal mostly with
building structural design; therefore, they can only be used as references and for
background information. Bridge engineers should always
apply the AASHTO code for their design.
Types of Design Standards
The design of a highway bridge, like most any other civil engineering project, is
dependent on certain standards and criteria. Naturally, the critical importance of
highway bridges in a modern transportation system would imply a set of rigorous
design specifications to ensure the safety and overall quality of the constructed
project.
Use of Design Standards
→It does not take one long to reach the disclaimer in Johnson, J. E., Malhas, F. A., Salmon, C. G.
a set of design standards like those listed here. While, (2009). Steel Structures: Design and
Behavior (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River,
in a way, this may frustrate an engineer looking for New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc
the answer in a reference, it should also serve as a
signal for the responsibility the engineer carries in
any design. Johnson, J. E., Malhas, F. A., Ed.). Upper American Institute of Steel
Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Construction. Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings (AISC
American Institute of Steel Construction. 360-05). Chicago, Illinois: AISC.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (AISC
360-05). Chicago, Illinois: AISC.
→The design should define the boundary
conditions, and the specifications should apply to
those constraints, not the other way around.
→The bridge engineer should also think to
question and improve, upon reference, design
material whenever possible. There is still
considerable room for improvement .
Types of Design Standards
The design of a highway bridge, like most any other civil engineering project, is
dependent on certain standards and criteria. Naturally, the critical importance of
highway bridges in a modern transportation system would imply a set of rigorous
design specifications to ensure the safety and overall quality of the constructed
project.
Specifications and Bridge Failures
→For railroad bridges, this task began in 1899 with the
formation of the American Railway Engineering and
Maintenance of Way Association
→Specifications are constantly changing and adapting to
new developments in the practice of bridge engineering. In
some cases, new information on the performance of
bridges was generated by a bridge failure. Several lessons
have been learned from bridge failures that have resulted
in revisions to the standard specifications.
→Most of the memorable bridge failures and the ones that
most affect bridge engineering practice have occurred in
structures that were in service for many years. However,
in-service bridges are not the source of the most common
occurrence of failures. Most failures occur during
construction and are likely the most preventable kind of
failure.
The module learning outcomes are as follows:
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. State the Principal Categories of Fund Source
2. Explain the different Types of Design Standards
3. Explain the importance of Site Inspection and Site Survey
4. Explain the importance of Physical Testing and the different
methods to conduct it
Site Inspection
Why do we conduct Site Inspection?
For the construction of a new bridge structure → inspection of
geologic conditions, highway alignment orientation, and
underpass crossing features.
To observe and determine the present condition of an existing
bridge and site and to fulfill standard requirements such as
from National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) →
maintenance inspections, conducted to rate a bridge
structure and judge its condition and performance (more
rapidly conducted than the other two) with a
principal intent of meeting standard requirements (such as
NBIS’s), document the structure's condition, provide input
data for the bridge management system (BMS), and assist in
the decision to maintain or rehabilitate the structure.
For the rehabilitation or replacement of a structure from an
existing bridge and site → inspection of existing structure
elements to determine what needs simple maintenance and
what needs extensive rehabilitation or replacement

A bridge inspection can fail if the inspector does not consider important site
features, such as drainage channels, wetland, embankments, utility lines, etc., and
how they function within the confines of the bridge site.
Site Survey
Why do we conduct Site Survey?
→to create a model of topographic
features that detail the surface of the
overpass and underpass roadways as well
as the surrounding site
→to create a model of delineate wetland
and buffer zones if they exist at the vicinity
of the bridge site
→to create a model of planimetric
features that detail various natural and
human-made items such as culverts,
utilities, railing, edge of pavement lines,
vegetation, drop inlets, etc.
→to create a model of water channel cross
sections if the bridge crosses a waterway
→to create a model of structural features
that detail the location and elevation of
bridge structure key points such as bridge
seats, top of walls, and pylons, in the case of
a rehabilitation design.
The module learning outcomes are as follows:
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. State the Principal Categories of Fund Source
2. Explain the different Types of Design Standards
3. Explain the importance of Site Inspection and Site Survey
4. Explain the importance of Physical Testing and the different
methods to conduct it
Physical Testing
Why do we conduct Physical Testing?
to supply needed information concerning the adequacy of materials used in the
construction of the bridge

Methods of Physical Testing

Coring → performed when components of the
bridge are to stay in place to ensure the adequacy
of the material to remain. Structural cores should
be taken at key points in certain concrete elements
such as piers (in pier caps) and abutments (in
abutment stems). Compression tests are then
performed at the testing laboratory to indicate the
strength of the samples taken. For timber
structures, cores are taken to determine the
moisture content and the extent of
decay within the timber element.
Physical Testing
Why do we conduct Physical Testing?
to supply needed information concerning the adequacy of materials used in the
construction of the bridge

Methods of Physical Testing

Delamination Testing → delaminations are
cracks that occur below the concrete surface,
typically at the location of the upper
reinforcing steel. The most basic method of
testing is to use a hammer and sound for
hollow spots. Obviously, such a method is
quite time consuming and, for large surfaces
such as decks, can prove impractical. As an
alternative, a chain can be dragged along the
deck surface to cover a greater area, but
surrounding noises may make it difficult to
detect hollow sounds
Physical Testing
Why do we conduct Physical Testing?
to supply needed information concerning the adequacy of materials used in the
construction of the bridge

Methods of Physical Testing

Testing for Cover → the chances for spalling
greatly increase when there is insufficient cover
between the concrete surface and the reinforcing
steel. Devices, such as a pachometer, can be used
to determine the amount of cover present in an
element. While the pachometer determines the
location of a reinforcing bar via a magnetic field,
other methods are available that utilize
ultrasound to locate the steel and to determine
the concrete cover thickness.
Physical Testing
Why do we conduct Physical Testing?
to supply needed information concerning the adequacy of materials used in the
construction of the bridge

Methods of Physical Testing

Measuring Steel Thickness → while a
micrometer and/or calipers can be used to
determine flange and web thickness at the ends of
members, the problem of picking up web readings
along a stringer requires another method. One
approach is to use an ultrasonic gage. The
ultrasonic gage, a handheld device about the size
of a calculator, has a probe connected to it which,
when placed on the steel, determines the
thickness by sending ultrasonic waves through the
steel.
Physical Testing
Why do we conduct Physical Testing?
to supply needed information concerning the adequacy of materials used in the
construction of the bridge

Methods of Physical Testing

Detecting Fatigue Cracks → unlike
most structural failure mechanisms,
fatigue failure offers almost no warning. A
fatigue crack spends about 95 percent of its
life growing slowly (almost dormant) and
as a barely visible hairline crack, so early
detection is the key to prevent catastrophic
structural failures. Once the crack passes
the dormant period, it
will develop rather rapidly, leaving little
chance that bridge inspectors will detect it.

→Fatigue cracks should be inspected where stress concentrations or weld

connections exist. Because most fatigue cracks are barely visible, special dye
penetrant may be used to assist in visual inspections. If fatigue cracks are
suspected, other advanced methods such as X-ray, magnetic field disturbance, and
ultrasonic testscan be used to detect any discontinuity in steel, and thus detect
fatigue cracks that might not be visible to naked eyes.
The module learning outcomes are as follows:
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. State the Principal Categories of Fund Source
2. Explain the different Types of Design Standards
3. Explain the importance of Site Inspection and Site Survey
4. Explain the importance of Physical Testing and the different
methods to conduct it
Conclusions
→As evidenced by the preceding discussion, there are many factors of which the
bridge engineer must be cognizant before he or she ever lifts a pencil in anger at a
design pad. If bridge engineering teaches us anything as civil engineers, it should
serve to illustrate the dangers of excessive specialization. While there are solid
arguments for professionals to seek a vertical arena of expertise, there are many
compelling reasons for engineers in general, and bridge engineers, to be well versed
in all aspects of the engineering design and
management processes.

→The project inception phase is, for lack of a better term, an information-gathering
period. At the end of this phase, the design team should have most, if not all, of the
information (such as as-built plans and other record data) necessary to create a
sound and professional design of the new or rehabilitated structure. In addition,
they should understand the owner's wishes and desires and how they impact the
eventual design.
Summary of this Discussion
Five Principal Categories of Fund Source
User Fees Special Benefit Fees Debt Financing
Nonuser Fees Private Financing
Types of Design Standards
General Specifications Material-Related Design Codes
Why do we conduct Site Inspection?
For the construction of a new bridge structure
To observe and determine the present condition of an existing bridge and site and to
fulfill standardrequirements such as from National Bridge Inspection Standards
(NBIS)
For the rehabilitation or replacement of a structure from an existing bridge and site
Why do we conduct Site Survey?
→to create a model of topographic features
→to create a model of planimetric features
→to create a model of structural features
Why do we conduct Physical Testing?
to supply needed information concerning the adequacy of materials used in the
construction of the bridge.
Methods of Physical Testing
Coring Testing for Cover
Delamination Testing Measuring Steel Thickness
Detecting Fatigue Cracks