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International Conference on Biomass and Bioenergy (2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1187 (2023) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1187/1/012001

Formulation of Palm Oil Based Fat Replacer and Its

Application on Meat Analogue
Dwi Setyaningsih1,2*, Meilisa Syafrina Siregar 2, Pradinata Yopindo Pasaribu2, Neli
Muna1
1
Surfactant and Bioenergy Research Center, Bogor Agricultural University, Pajajaran Road
No.1, Bogor-Indonesia, 16144
2
Department of Agroindustrial Engineering, Bogor Agricultural University
dwisetyaningsih@apps.ipb.ac.id

Abstract. Fat replacer is food ingredients used to mimic and replace animal fat in food products. The
demand of low saturated fat in food products increase because of health concerns related to
degenerative disease. Vegetable oil in a liquid state must be solidified to mimic animal fat by the
emulsification process. This study aims to create and formulate fat replacer using palm olein and
palm stearin as a source of unsaturated fatty acid. The formula was composed with vegetable oil
concentration of 30% (K1), 35% (K2), 40% (K3), 45% (K4), and 50% (K5). A concentration of 15%
fat replacers emulsion was added to make a meat analogue. Proximate analysis from all treatments
showed that meat analogue has water content in the range of 53.90–57.56%, ash content of 2.87–
3.10%, protein content of 9.04–15.32%, fat content of 13.22–19.13% and carbohydrate content of
2.35–2.53%. Oil concentration in fat replacer affected to the texture and sensory properties of meat
analogue. The results indicate that the five treatments comply with the national quality standards for
meat sausages.

1. Introduction
The current demands of the food industry led to the provision of new and healthier food products.
One of the solutions is to reduce the saturated fatty acid component on the processed food product.
Based on the results of the investigation, repeated consumption of saturated fatty acids and trans fats in
high concentrations causes serious health problems in the human body, especially increasing the risk of
cardiovascular disease and type II diabetes [1]. According to the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey,
meat and meat products contribute to 26% of saturated fat intake on the human body [2].
Reformulation of meat products to reduce saturated fat content is generally done by increasing
the composition of lean (non fat) meat in the product or by using hydrophilic fat replacers [2]. However,
reducing the fat composition causes the food quality to decrease, especially in terms of taste, juiciness,
and undesirable changes in food texture. Solid fat usually has a three-dimensional structure made up of
a network of fat crystals that form the physical properties of the product. Unsaturated fats can be
crystallized through the addition of a compound capable of forming a three-dimensional structure
resembling the structure of solid fat. This new fat is called an organogel, which is viscoelastic, self-
standing, thermoreversible, anhydrous, and its structure is a three-dimensional supramolecular network
with limited solubility in organic solvents [3]. Organogel have wide applications in the food industry.
In addition to replacing saturated fat components, organogels have also been reported as delivery agents
for lipophilic compounds, such as carotenoids and essential unsaturated fatty acids [1].
The use of vegetable oil-based emulsions was evaluated on emulsion stability, nutritional
composition, texture, and sensory quality of low-fat meat products. The addition of this vegetable oil-
based emulsion will reduce the amount of saturated fatty acids in processed meat products. The terms
animal fat replacer or oleogel were then used for the emulsion/pre-emulsion products because of their
function in replacing some components of fat in their derivative products. There are several types of
vegetable oils that have been studied in the manufacture of this animal fat replacer, including canola oil
[4], perilla oil [5], palm oil [6], walnut oil, olive oil or a mixture of them [7]. Palm oil has a high content
of unsaturated fatty acids, which is around 49% so that it can be suitable for producing meat fat replacer.

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International Conference on Biomass and Bioenergy (2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1187 (2023) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1187/1/012001

However, research on the application of palm oil as an oleogel for food ingredients in the form of meat
fat replacer is still limited.
This study aims to create and formulate fat replacer using palm olein and palm stearin as a source
of vegetable oil. Monoacyl glycerol (MAG) from palm oil was used as an organolegator to form a three-
dimensional structure of vegetable fat. MAG has been proven to act as an organogelator of refined-
bleached-deodorized palm olein (RBDPO) and soyabean oil (SBO) with a concentration of 10% [8].

2. Materials and Method

2.1. Materials
The material used for fat replacer and meat analog synthesis was palm olein, palm stearin, MAG,
soy protein isolate (SPI), bovine gelatin, sodium tri poly phospat (STTP), gluten and flavoring agent
(beef extract, salt). Ingredients for meat analogue were gluten, SPI, and beef extract. While in the meat
sausage, the ingredients used included meat, tallow, tapioca starch, flour, egg, ice cube, flavor enhancer,
STTP, agar powder, fresh milk, and seasoning (pepper, salt, and garlic).

2.2. Fat Replacer Formulation

Fat replacer formula consists of two phases, including the oil phase and water phase. The details
of fat replacer formula were described in Table 1. The oil phase consisted of olein, stearin (olein and
stearin weight ratio was 8:2) and MAG which was melted at 70⁰C. The palm oil concentration was varied
in the range of 30-50% w/w of the total formula to obtain a stable emulsion system. The first part of the
water phase consisted of protein (SPI and gelatin) and Tween 80, which was homogenized at 800 rpm.
When the oil phase has completely melted, the first part of the water phase was added gradually to the
oil phase and homogenized with an ultra turrax homogenizer at 8000 rpm for 30 minutes until a
homogeneous and viscous emulsion was formed. At the end of the process, the second part of the water
phase, which was a mixture of water and STTP added to the emulsion system. Fat replacer stored at 1–
3 ⁰C to allow crystallization process.

Table 1. Palm oil based fat replacer formulas.

Fat Replacer Formula (%)
Composition
K1 K2 K3 K4 K5
Olein 23 27 31 35 38
Stearin 5.6 6.6 7.6 8.6 10.6
MAG 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
Gelatin 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0
Soy protein isolate 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Tween 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
STTP 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Aquades for STPP 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Aquades for protein 55 50 45 40 35
Total Formula 100 100 100 100 100

2.3. Meat Analog Formulation

The main ingredients in meat analog dough are high vegetable protein (gluten and soy protein
isolate). A total of 3.5 g of beef extract, 15 g of fat replacers, 1.5 g of salt, 50 g of distilled water, and
10 g of soy protein isolate were mixed with a food chopper. The dough added with 20 g of gluten and
mixed again for 2 minutes. It was then molded and steamed for 45 min.

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International Conference on Biomass and Bioenergy (2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1187 (2023) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1187/1/012001

2.4. Meat Analogue Characterization

The meat analogue characterization included proximate analysis (water, ash, carbohydrate, fat,
and protein content) based on standard for mix sausage (SNI 01-3820-2015) and texture analysis with
texture analyzer.

2.5. Meat Analogue Application on Sausage Product

The obtained meat analog was then used as a meat and fat substitute for sausage processing. The
experiment used two treatments, namely P1 and P2 with meat analog concentrations of 25% and 50%
respectively, of the total meat and fat used in the sausage formula (Table 2). P0 is a control treatment
without the addition of meat analogues. The sausages making began with grinding beef and tallow on a
food chopper. Other ingredients, such as flour, starch, eggs, and spices, were added, and the dough was
mixed for 15 minutes. Ice cubes was added into the dough to maintain the temperature. Sausage dough
was then filled into a collagen casing, dried in an oven at 70⁰C for 20 minutes for the curing process,
and then pre-cooked in a food steamer for 15 minutes. The sausage characterization included fat content
(SNI 01-3820-2015) and organoleptic for color, elasticity, aroma, texture, and flavor attribute.

Table 2. Meat sausage composition

Sausage Formulation
Composition
P0 P1 P2
Beef meat (g) 160 120 80
Beef Tallow (g) 40 30 20
Meat Analogue (g) 0 50 100
Tapioca starch (g) 60 60 60
Flour (g) 20 10 10
Egg (g) 50 50 50
Ice cube (g) 60 60 60
Flavour enhancher (g) 2 2 2
Pepper (g) 1 1 1
STPP (g) 2.2 2.2 2.2
Salt (g) 5 5 5
Garlic (g) 13 13 13
Agar powder (g) 7 7 7
Fresh milk (ml) 100 100 100

3. Result and Discussion

3.1. Characteristics of Meat Analog

Meat analog was characterized by its composition using proximate analysis (Table 3) and
texture by texture analyzer (Table 4).

Table 3. Proximate analysis of meat analog

Proximate Analysis (%) *
Treatment
Water Ash Carbohydrate Fat Protein
K1 57.53 ± 0.05a 3.04 ± 0.05a 2.39 ± 0.01a 17.98 ± 0.22 a 9.63 ± 0.83a
K2 56.14 ± 0.53b 3.05 ± 0.01a 2.51 ± 0.16a 18.40 ± 0.11ab 12.02 ± 0.34b
K3 55.79 ± 0.45c 3.11 ± 0.04a 2.48 ± 0.04a 18.81 ± 0.12abc 14.24 ± 0.75c
K4 54.67 ± 0.20c 3.13 ± 0.05a 2.53 ± 0.01a 19.24 ± 0.15bc 15.04 ± 0.40c
K5 53.78 ± 0.17d 3.04 ± 0.02a 2.33 ± 0.03a 19.74 ± 0.97c 14.72 ± 0.55c
* The value of each parameter followed by the same letter in the column shows no significant difference in the Duncan Multiple
Range test

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International Conference on Biomass and Bioenergy (2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1187 (2023) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1187/1/012001

3.1.1. Water Content

Water content in food products is related to shelf life and determines product freshness. High
water content affects product durability, shortens shelf life, and encourages the growth of
microorganisms. With a decrease in water content, this causes a decrease in the availability of water and
chemical reactions to occur. Therefore, the growth of bacteria and chemical reactions will be inhibited.
The water content obtained in this study for each treatment was in the range of 53.78–57.53%, which
was meet the standard for meat sausage combination SNI 01-3820-2015 (max.67%) referred to this
study. The different results of each treatment are influenced by differences in the fat replacer
composition. The greater the oil content in the fat replacer composition, the smaller water content will
be obtained [9]. The results of the analysis of variance showed a significance value smaller than 5%
(P<0.05), so that the difference in the oil concentration in the fat replacer had a significant effect on the
water content of meat analogue. The water binding ability of meat analogue is also influenced by the
type and protein content. Increasing the protein content in a mixture will increase the water binding
ability. High water binding ability will reduce water loss during cooking. Thus, the obtained product
will have a higher water content [10].

3.1.2. Ash Content

Analysis of ash content is carried out to determine the amount of minerals contained in food
products. The ash content is an important parameter that affects the nutritional and quality attributes of
the ingredients. These minerals come from raw materials or additional seasonings (such as mineral salts).
The ash content of the meat analogue obtained in this study was in the range of 3.04–3.13%, close to
the SNI 01-3820-2015 quality standard, which states a maximum ash content of 3%. The ash content
between treatment was not significantly different (P>0.05) due to the low mineral content of each fat
replacer and meat analogue ingredients. These result in accordance with Martinez et al. [11] which
explained that there was no significant difference in the ash content of frankfurters using a fat replacer
from hemp oil and wheat flour.

3.1.3. Carbohydrate Content

Carbohydrates have a role in determining the characteristics of food such as taste, color, texture,
and others. The carbohydrate content obtained in this study was in the range of 2.33-2.53%. The results
of the analysis of variance showed a significance value greater than 5% (P> 0.05), so that the difference
in oil concentration in the fat replacer did not have a significant effect on the carbohydrate content of
the meat analogue. The method of determining the carbohydrate content in this study was through by
difference between other proximate parameters, so that it will be strongly influenced by water, ash,
protein, and fat content of the meat analogue.

3.1.4. Fat Content

Fat is one of the highest sources of calories and serves as a solvent for vitamins A, D, E and K
needed by the human body. Animal fats contain numerous sterols called cholesterol, while vegetable
fats contain more phytosterols and unsaturated acids [12]. Fat content is an important parameter in meat
products because it affects the final appearance, texture, tenderness, hardness, and taste. The meat analog
obtained in this study has a fat content in the range of 17.98–19.74% which meet the standard quality of
meat sausage based on SNI 01-3820-2015 (max.20%). The different fat content of each treatment was
strongly affected by the concentration of vegetable fat used (P<0.05). The more proportion of vegetable
fat in the emulsion, will increase the measurable fat content. The fat content of meat analog is also
influenced by the emulsifier ability to maintain the emulsion system and prevent fat loss during
processing. According to Liu et al. [13] materials such as gelatin and soy protein isolates that are
involved in fat binding have hydrophobic groups that prevent emulsions from coalescing. Susceptibility
of emulsions to coalescence is determined by oil content and interfacial properties.

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International Conference on Biomass and Bioenergy (2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1187 (2023) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1187/1/012001

3.1.5. Protein Content

Protein is an important ingredient in food that determines the overall texture, such as the
tenderness of meat, fish, or their derivative products. Isolated proteins are commonly used as additives
in processed food because of their unique properties, including the ability to form the desired appearance
or texture stability. The protein content obtained for each treatment was in the range of 9.6–15.04%.
The meat sausage quality standard according to SNI 01-3820-2015 states that the minimum protein
content for meat sausage products is 8%. Thus, all treatments in this study met these quality standards.

Table 4. Texture characteristics of meat analog

Texture Analysis (%) *
Treatment
Hardness Springiness Cohesiveness
K1 818.97 ± 49.5c 0.952 ± 0.02b 0.615 ± 0.003ab
K2 713.77 ± 107.30c 0.937 ± 0.01ab 0.619 ± 0.006ab
K3 691.07 ± 23.09bc 0.909 ± 0.02a 0.606 ± 0.011a
K4 422.50 ± 89.13a 0.928 ± 0.001ab 0.618 ± 0.007ab
K5 568.37 ± 49.26b 0.951 ± 0.02b 0.623 ± 0.004b
* The value of each parameter followed by the same letter in the column shows no significant difference in the Duncan Multiple
Range test

3.1.6. Hardness
Hardness is defined as the force required to compress a substance between the molar teeth for
solid foods to a given deformation or penetration. The added oil in the fat replacer gave a significant
effect on the hardness of the meat analog (P<0.05). The more oil is added in the fat replacer, the hardness
value decreases. The increase in oil causes the compact texture to become softer. This can happen
because the filler is used to fill the empty parts between the fat globules so that the fat and water emulsion
becomes more stable. According to Heck et al. [14], proteins and lipids in an emulsion can affect
hardness. This is because protein has a role in forming a dense protein network that makes the product
have a certain hardness value.

3.1.7. Springiness
Springiness is defined as the rate at which a deformed material goes back to its undeformed
condition after the deforming force is removed. The added oil in the fat replacer gave a significant effect
on the springiness of the meat analog (P<0.05). Springiness of a material is related to its hardness of the
material. Increasing the hardness value causes a decrease in springiness. This is because the harder
analog meat will cause the product to be more easily crushed during the first pressing so that it cannot
return to its original shape. According to Youssef and Barbut [15], the springiness of the material is
related to the size and distribution of fat globules in an emulsion.

3.1.8. Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness is defined as the tendency of a product to cohere or stick together. The added oil
in the fat replacer gave a significant effect on the cohesiveness of the meat analog (P<0.05).
Cohesiveness is determined by the ability of the starch-protein matrix to maintain its structure. There
are still empty spaces between the material matrix so that analog meat cannot maintain its structure.
Changes in the values of cohesiveness and springiness with various variations of solid fat concentration
indicate that fat crystals in the particles have an impact on the ability of the material to respond to
deformation [16].

3.2. Meat Analogue Application on Meat Sausage Product

3.2.1. Fat Content
Sausage is a processed meat product, with the ingredients consists of meat, fat, binder, filler,
water, salt, and seasonings. Application of meat analogue is done by substituting part of the meat and

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International Conference on Biomass and Bioenergy (2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1187 (2023) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1187/1/012001

fat in the sausage. The goal was to produce sausage with lower saturated fat without reducing the quality
attributes of the product.
Based on the results of the fat content analysis, it is known that there is a decrease in the fat
content of sausage along with the increase in meat analog substitution. The control treatment without a
meat analog substitution (P0) had a fat content of 25.63%, P1 had a fat content of 24.40%, while P2 had
a fat content of 22.75% (Fig.1). P1 and P2 was a treatment with meat analogue substitution of 25% and
50%, respectively, of the total meat and fat in the sausage.

26 25.63

25
Fat Content (%)

24.4
24
P0
23 22.75
P1
22 P2

21
Fat Content
Treatment

Figure 1. Fat content of meat sausage with 25% (P1) and 50% (P2) meat analogue substitution compared
to control (P0)

3.2.2. Organoleptic
Sausage products with meat analogue substitution were tested by hedonic test to measure the
panelists’ preference level. The hedonic test is one type of consumer acceptance test of a product. In this
test, the panelists were asked to express their opinion about their preferences. The level of preference
on a hedonic scale is very like, like, neutral, dislike, and dislike very much. Product quality attributes
assessed include color, elasticity, aroma, taste, and texture. Results can be seen in Table 5.

Table 5. Hedonic test results on the color, elasticity, aroma, texture, and taste of sausages

Attributes Treatments*
P0 P1 P2
Color 2.80 ± 1.19a 3.10 ± 1.03 a 2.93 ± 1.05 a
Elasticity 3.73 ± 0.79 a 3.20 ± 0.88 a 2.97 ± 0.99b
Aroma 3.23 ± 0.89a 3.73 ± 0.03b 2.80 ± 0.76c
Texture 3.77 ± 0.82 a 2.97 ± 0.72b 1.90 ± 0.96c
Taste 3.97 ± 0.96 a 3.73 ± 0.78b 2.60 ±1.25 b
* The value of each parameter followed by the same letter in the column shows no significant difference

Color is one of the important sensory attributes of the food industry and is useful for determining
the quality and consumer acceptance of the sausage product. The average results of a hedonic test on
the color attribute are presented in Table 4. The statistical analysis shows that meat analogue substitution
has no significant effect (P=0.05) on the panelists’ acceptance of the sausage color. Sausages were light
brown after cooking. Myoglobin influences the color of this sausage, myoglobin is a pigment in meat
muscle from protein, and at a temperature of 80-85°C, this myoglobin can be oxidized and form
metmyoglobin, which will cause a brown color [17].
Elasticity is one of the rheological properties of food products related to shape deformation due
to mechanical forces. The results of statistical analysis showed that the meat analogue substitution had
a significant effect (P<0.05) on sausage elasticity. Based on the elasticity attribute, the most preferred

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International Conference on Biomass and Bioenergy (2022) IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1187 (2023) 012001 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1187/1/012001

sausage by the panelists was the control without the addition of meat analogue (P0), followed by P1 and
P2. Sausage elasticity can be affected by protein content and water-binding ability. Protein plays an
important role in determining the water binding ability of processed meat products. Higher water binding
capacity will prevent excessive water loss in the cooking process and maintain product elasticity. The
lower consumer preference for sausages added with meat analogue can be caused by a decrease in
protein sources from meat. Protein also acts as an emulsifier in processed meat products. When the meat
proportion is lower, it will directly reduce the stability of the emulsion and reduce the elasticity and
compactness of the sausage [18].
Aroma is one of the attributes that can be used quickly to determine the level of consumer
acceptance. The preferred aroma of sausage is the smell of meat. It can be affected by the ingredients
added during manufacturing and cooking. The results of the statistical analysis showed that the meat
analogue substitution had a significant effect (P<0.05) on the aroma of the sausages. The most preferred
sausage by the panelists was P0, followed by P1 and P2. The increase in the composition of meat
analogues in sausages causes the distinctive aroma of the meat to decrease and be replace by an
unpleasant smell from soy protein isolate.
Texture can affect consumer assessment of the product. Texture provides information about
softness, shape, and food conditions (dry, wet, and moist). According to Capillas et al.[19], the sausage
texture is determined by the composition of the ingredients, the homogenization conditions, and the
sausage production process. The result of statistical analysis showed that meat analog substitution had
a significant effect (P<0.05) on sausage texture. The most preferred sausage texture by the panelists was
P0, followed by P1 and P2. The panelists’ preference about the sausage texture were decreased with the
increase in the meat analogue proportion. Compared to other treatments, the control sausage had a dense,
soft, and compact texture. Sausage texture can be influenced by the quality and quantity of meat,
processing methods, fillers, and other additives used as product ingredients.

4. Conclusion
Fat replacer as a source of vegetable fat in meat analogue was made through an emulsification
process between the oil phase, which consists of palm olein and stearin, and the water phase, which
consists of protein and binding agents. The concentration of the oil phase was varied to see the emulsion
stability and its effect on the proximate value of the meat analog. The proximate value of the meat
analogue has met the quality standard according to SNI 01-3820-2015, which is referred to in this study.
The substitution of meat and fat in sausages with meat analog generally gave a lower preference value
than control sausages without meat analogue addition for the attributes of aroma, elasticity, and taste.
However, the addition of 25% meat analogues to sausages can be recommended to reduce the amount
of saturated fat in the product.

Acknowledgments
The author wants to extend our gratitude to the financial support from the Ministry of Research,
Technology and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia through the PTUPT (Penelitian Terapan
Unggulan Perguruan Tinggi) grant 2022.

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International Conference on Biomass and Bioenergy (2022) IOP Publishing
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