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UNIT 3: Western Art History

3.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
a. Classify the various art movements by citing their important characteristics
b. Present the history and movements of arts through a timeline
c. Appreciate the aesthetic values of soul making

3.1. Introduction
Unit 3 of this module will expose you to the different artworks in the
Western history. Through these various types of artworks and its classifications,
you will get-to-know how the Western civilizations lived in the past. Humans
express deeper thoughts and feelings of their existence in an art form and its
movement tell a story.
Thus, following through the timeline will help develop your understanding
and appreciation of the art’s aesthetic values deeper. The artworks indeed help us
discover how ingenious a human mind is.

3.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

3.2.1 Art in Early Civilizations
Stone Age is a term used to describe a period in history when stones were used to
make tools for survival. The term “conjures an image of men and women dressed in skins,
huddling before a fire in a cave” (Fichner-Rathus, 2013). Though prehistoric humans
would not necessarily possess the complex rational capabilities to tell their story through
written records and accounts, some artifacts in the form of cave paintings and sculptures
would serve as “storytellers”.
In order to talk about prehistoric art, there is a need to situate them within the
context of the three periods of the Stone Age culture (which roughly span the 14,000-2,000
BCE): Paleolithic (the late years of the Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age),
and the Neolithic (New Stone Age).
The unearthing of archeological artifacts and remains provides modern society a
glimpse of the beliefs, practices, and activities of the early civilizations. The motives and
reasons behind the creation of ancient materials such as sculptures, paintings, and
architectural structures may not be clearly defined. Nevertheless, the early people
produced such materials that reflect their attitudes and belief systems on spiritual, social,
political, and economical matters. It can be noted that works of art and architecture were
created from a wide array of materials from limestone to precious gems and metals to
name a few. As the early humans started transition from being nomads to permanent
settlers, their everyday activities also had some changes as a result of adapting to their
environment, there are central themes in their artworks. Most ancient artworks depict
religious symbols, a wide array of organisms from nature and activities of everyday life.

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Let’s Get Down to Business

Prehistoric Art
Archeological explorations reveal that there has been a gradual shift from a nomadic lifestyle of
early humans to that of permanent settlements, paving the way for the rise of early civilizations. The
Stone Age has witnessed how humans were able to lead more stable lives and eventually come up with
permanent shelters and tools for survival. To complement this stability and sense of permanence, early
humans also turned to the creation of paintings and sculptures that depicts humans, animals, and their
natural habitats. It would seem that there were attempts to record the kind of lives they led within that
period of time. Central to the representation of early civilizations would be the establishing of possible
linkages among art, religion, and life.

Paleolithic Art is a product of climate change. As the climate got colder, part of the early humans’
instinct is to look for shelters that would provide them with warmth. Caves became protective havens
for the early humans and these caves paved the way for the birth of their first attempts to create art. One
cave painting can be traced back to Lascaux, France and its discovery came as a surprise. Two boys chased
their dog into a hole where their ball got stuck in. When they followed the dog, they were astonished to
discover a cave with beautiful paintings. The cave paintings would eventually be called the “Hall of
Bulls”.
The figures depicted on the walls
were done with a certain level of crispness
and life that were initial hesitations of the
work’s authenticity. However, evidence
later on pointed out that the cave paintings
were created during the Paleolithic Period.
It is also important to take note that the
paintings evoke naturalism, which is
evidently seen through the contours of the
animal’s body and their dark colors.
Although most people would think that
Figure 1. Hall of Bulls found in a cave in Lascaux, France early humans were primitive, some of their
art techniques were considered advanced
for their time. Some of the early humans already used their own version of spray-painting
techniques by using ground pigments blown through reeds or hollowed-out bones since these
were readily available materials for them. Aside from this spray-painting technique, early
humans also worked with foreshortening and contrasting of lights and shadows. These
techniques created the illusion of three-dimensional forms and seemingly real representation of
animals.
Artworks can be considered ornamental but there is little evidence to fully back up this
notion, that early humans created cave paintings for that very purpose. Most of these works
were discovered inside the deep recesses of caves so they may not necessarily be used as
decorative items. Some would say that these caves with paintings all over the walls and ceilings
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served as a kind of sanctuary for the early humans. As a safe

haven, religious rituals could have possibly transpired
within gr confines of the caves. Some believed that there was
a linkage between what was drawn and what could happen
in real life. For example, drawing or painting the capture of
a prey would translate to an actual capturing of an animal in
real life. In addition, some of the works found reflected some
of the early beliefs of humans especially with life and
fertility. One of the works that reflected such beliefs would
be a sculpture called the “Venus of Willendorf”. This figure
is a highly ab stracted woman from highlighted body parts
associated with fertility. Figure 2 shows that the woman has Figure 2. Venus of Willendorf
oversized breasts, enlarged hips, and round abdomen. The
representation may show the importance of taking care of these body parts for procreation and
consequently the survival of species.
Neolithic art has developed especially when life for the early humans has become more
stable. They have learned to cultivate the land and domesticate animals. By 4000 BCE, there were
several monumental and architectural structures erected. One of them is the Stonehenge located
in Southern England. The purpose of this fascinating edifice remains a mystery up to this day
and age. Some regard it as a temple while others see it as complex calendar the tracked the
movements both the Sun and Moon. Others ascribe some magical element to it by associating it
with Merlin the Magician from King Arthur’s story. For whatever purpose it was built on, it still
remains as one of the architectural wonders the world has ever seen.

Figure 3. Stonehenge

As the Neolithic Period drew to a close, it was evident that different elements of
civilization flourished in various parts of the world. It is also notable that most early civilizations
emerged and flourished in river valleys: the Nile in Egypt, Indus in India, Tigris and Euphrates
in Mesopotamia, and Huang Ho River in China.

Egyptian Art
The Fertile Ribbon starts from the banks of the Nile River, which flows north to Africa
and ventures into the Mediterranean. It is in this very ribbon where early Egyptians recognized
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the integral role of the Nile River to their daily lives. It is this indispensability and utility that
eventually led to the belief that the Nile is to be worshipped as a god. With this came the notion
that art was something that can be ascribed and associated with religion. The Egyptian
civilization can be divided into three periods: Old, Middle, and New Kingdom. Looking at the
three periods, it can be noticed that for Egyptians, arts should be something religious and
spiritual. There may have been differences in the techniques used and style emphasized, but
there are common denominators among the artworks created during their respective time
periods.
During the Old Kingdom, it was evident that religion was bound to the afterlife. A
concrete manifestation of this would have to be the erections of tombs. But the tombs were not
just for keeping the dead bodies of important people, particularly the pharaohs; they also served
as a shelter for the next journey, which is the afterlife. They decorated the tombs with everyday
objects that would reflect day-to-day activities as if the afterlife is a mere continuation of what
transpired on earth. The human figures seen in the tombs were represented in such a way that
the profile of the head was evident, while the pelvis, legs, and upper torso were prominent, and
the eyes are in frontal view. Inside the tombs, the walls were also decorated and carved in very
low relief and incised detail. It can be noticed that the use of color was evident but may have not
been widely utilized because of this relative impermanence.
One if the cosmetic palettes found in Egypt was called the Narmer Palette. It was a palette
that utilized and applied dark colors around King Narmer’s eyes. The palette was also a symbol
that commemorates the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. The unification was significant
because it marked the beginning of their civilization.

Figure 4. Narmer’s Palette

At the back of the palette, King Narmer can be seen wearing the crown of Upper Egypt
looking victorious over a slain enemy. In addition, two more dead warriors can be seen beneath
him. To his right is a falcon, the god Horus perched on papyrus stalks, which is a symbol of
Lower Egypt. The top is sculpted with bull-shaped heads with human features that is a
representation of Hathor. This god symbolizes love and joy. What is very prominent is the king’s
size in comparison with the objects in the palette. Narmer, being the subject, is evidently larger
than the people around him. This is a clear indication and assertion of his royal status. The front
palette on the other hand, shows lion-like figures with intertwined necks bound on leashes and
tamed by two men. King Narmer is still present at the front side and he is shown reviewing the
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captured enemies. In this portrait, he is seen wearing the crown of Lower Egypt and holding
some objects that denote power. The Narmer Palette is one of the artifacts that emphasizes the
King’s supreme and absolute authority. In most cases, the king is not just an authority figure but
can be depicted and be revered as a deity. This common notion among Egyptians is seen in
Egyptian tomb sculptures, which is basically large in dimensions and proportions and made out
of hard materials. The choice of materials is deliberate since they want the sculptures to endure
and withstand any condition. Permanence was important because these sculptures would serve
as the house of the ka or soul once the remains of the mummy disintegrate. One striking feature
of most sculptures is that regardless of the age of death, the ka figures highlight the prime life of
the deceased.
During the Old Kingdom, one of the architectural wonders was also constructed. The
pyramids in Giza served as tombs since their main purpose was to provide a resting place for
the pharaohs. These pyramids are massive in size and were constructed using roughly more
than two million limestone blocks. The stones used for the pyramids were quarried from a
nearby plateau. The construction of the pyramids highlighted the ingenuity and advancement
of the Egyptians for their time. Workers painstakingly moved the stones from the plateau going
to the construction site using wooden rollers. Stonecutters on the site carves the blocks in a fine
way before stacking them. The stacking process also showed the advancement of the Egyptians
since they already used a system of ropes and pulleys. They finished it off by applying the
surface with limestone for a more refined and flawless finish. The construction of the pyramids
did not only show the brilliance of the early Egyptians but it also highlighted the reverence of
the people to their pharaoh at the expense of the citizens. A lot of the workers died or punished
for not reaching the quota in the process of constructing these massive architectural structures.
However, they did not stop ensuring the excellent quality of the outsides. The Egyptians also
ensured that the insides of the pyramids would celebrate the life of their pharaoh by lavishly
decorating them. However, it posed as a problem since thieves usually plundered the valuable
objects used to decorate the insides of the pyramids.
One of the key features of the Middle Kingdom is a shift in the political hierarchy. There
is an emergence of powerful groups of landlords that threatened the authority and the rule of
the pharaoh. Because of the internal struggle between these two influential sides, art taken a
back seat during the Middle Kingdom. In order for art to reemerge and flourish, Egypt needed
to have a more stable situation. This happened during the rule of King Mentuhotep when Egypt
eventually got back on track. Art during the Middle Kingdom had some references from the Old
Kingdom, however there were some experimentation in terms of the style that transpired during
this period. Portrait sculptures and fresco paintings that were freely drawn are some of the styles
that emerged during this period. To solve the problem of thieves that plunder the tombs, the
Egyptians made rock-cut tombs by carving out a living rock. The insides of the tombs were still
filled with chamber and the hallways were lavishly decorated to celebrate the life of the deceased

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Egypt was not immune from

foreign invaders and eventually fell
into the hands of the Hyskos. The
Asiatic Tribe introduced Bronze Age
weapons and horses to the Egyptians.
When these foreign invaders were
overthrown, the Egyptians formed the
New Kingdom. It was a time of
expansionism through territorial
acquisition. Consequently, with the
expansion came an increase in wealth
Figure 5. The Great Pyramid of Giza
leading not only to economic but also
political stability.
The art of the New Kingdom had references from both of the preceding kingdoms.
Monuments and sculptures were still linked with death and reverence of the deceased. During
the previous kingdoms, tombs were just used for worshipping the dead but with the New
Kingdom, they started having mortuary temples. These temples, which were carved out of living
rocks, served not only a sanctuary for the dead but also a place of worship for the living. During
this period, Egypt has established itself as a more advanced and powerful civilization. With this
newly found strength and power comes an inflated ego. Their high regard for their people can
be seen through their sculptures built on massive and monumental scales.
After the New Kingdom, Egypt witnessed the Amarna
Revolution led by King Akhenaton and Queen Nefertiti. He
moved the capital to Tel El-Amarna, thus the name Amarna.
During this reign, King Amenhotep wanted to revolutionize the
arts and religion. He later changed his name to Akhenaton,
which came from Aton who is the sun god. This changing of
names also signified the shift in religion. During this period, the
only god to be revered was Aton. Egypt became monotheistic
and Akhenaton ordered all to tear down all monuments of other
gods. He then fervently ordered the creation and erection of Figure 6. Queen Nefertiti
new monuments in reverence to Aton. Most sculptures during
this period had curving lines and full-bodied forms. There is emphasis to life-like feature of the
face like an elongate jaw and thick-lidded eyes. Most artists created artworks that are natural
and seemingly real, highlighting the features of their subjects. Naturalism was not only used to
depict the pharaoh but was also used for members of the royal family. The bust of Queen
Nefertiti (Figure 6) has a long and sensuous neck. This figure was enhanced by applying paint
to the limestone

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The use of naturalism in artworks was

rather short-lived. When King Akhenaton died,
his successors returned to the more rigid and
conventional styles they employed during the
period of the kingdoms. They also destroyed
images and figures of Aton and subscribed to
monotheism.
Probably one of the greatest discoveries Figure 7. King Tutankhamen
from the Egyptian civilization was the tomb of
Tutankhamen. He became king at a very young age and died at the age of eighteen. Howard
Carter discovered his tomb in 1922. They were astonished to find gold artworks and that the
coffin was made out of solid gold. The body of the young king was covered in linen and a gold
mask covered his face.

Let’s Wrap It Up

During the prehistoric period, the early humans had transitioned from a nomadic lifestyle
to that of a more permanent one, which led to early civilizations. Some of the works discovered
form this period would give modern society a glimpse of what was life like during that period.
One of the early civilizations where art flourished was the Egyptian civilization. Throughout the
three kingdoms all the way to the Amarna Revolution, art has been directly used particularly in
religious and spiritual activities. Through these unearthed and discovered artworks, the modern
world could have a better understanding of the past and how it can affect the present.

Let’s Make It Happen

Make a photo journal of three art pieces discovered during the Stone Age or the Egyptian
civilization that depict their beliefs and practices. For each artwork, identify the key elements
and features consistent with the ones discussed in class. Share your insights as to how these
pieces help people form the modern context to understand the historical past.

3.2.2 Art of Emerging Europe

Art has been an integral part in European history. From the time of the ancient
civilizations like the Greeks and the Romans all the way to the modern times, art has been used
to communicate ideologies and belief systems prevalent within their context. Greek and Roman
civilizations were also known as the Classical World because both cultures aimed to embody the
highest possible standard of quality in all aspects of their societies. When it comes to both art
and architecture, both civilizations intended to promote the possibility of having an objective
and widely accepted standards for beauty. The influence and impact of both classical worlds are
far-reaching. Most art movements have taken inspiration from the certain artistic elements from
the two civilizations. There are different art movements that emerged within the different time

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periods in Europe. Each movement has a distinctive characteristic to them highlighting the
different trends and changes as they transition from one period to the next.

Ancient Greece
The Greeks were known to excel in various fields and aspects of society. For example,
their political ideals eventually became the framework for the democratic form of government
in modern times. They also valued poetry, drama, and philosophy, which remain interesting
fields of study for the contemporary times. For those who want to be involved in the arts–
painting, sculpture, and architecture–one is required to have a certain skill sets and body of
knowledge.
The Greeks were known to place prime importance in the use of reason. For this
civilization, man was at the center of society and how they trained their minds could be the very
foundation of how they lived their lives. The humanist ideals of the Greeks were reflected in
their democratic form of government. This certain level of freedom was also reflected in their
artworks, architecture, literature, and philosophy. The Greeks were notably passionate about
natural phenomenon and believed that nature should be in perfect order. These principles, belief
systems, and ideologies are at the core of Greek art and architecture.

The development of Greek art can be divided into four

periods: Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. The
Geometric Period was a time when Greece was starting to get back
from the onslaught of what seemed to be their Dark Ages. It was a
period when geometric shapes and patterns have taken the
spotlight in most of the artworks. The Archaic Period, on the other
hand, placed importance on human figures. This was primarily a
result of Greece’s trading activities with other civilizations. The
peek of Greek sculpture and architecture was during the Classical
Period. It was during this time when the Greeks found themselves
r ebuilding their temples focusing on creating artworks. The time of
Figure 8. “Lacoon and His Alexander the Great was called the Hellenistic Period. During this
Sons”. This is an example of time, art was primarily focused on showcasing emotions and
work wherein the Greeks
depicting reality. Hellenistic sculptures started to emphasize
emphasized the details of the
body. Most subjects of their balance while showcasing dynamic poses and a number of emotions
work included that of the gods evoked by the subjects. One of the famous Hellenistic sculptures is
from Greek mythology. the “Lacoon and His Sons”. The sculpture depicts Lacoon, a Trojan
priest, and his sons being strangled by serpents. Their position was
a result of Lacoon’s instructions during the Trojan War. He instructed to keep the gates of Troy
locked up because he felt that the wooden horse offered by the Greeks as a gift to Athena was a
trick. Poseidon, the Greek god of the sea was enraged by such action which led him to send
serpents to strangle Lacoon and his sons.

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The origins of theater and drama can be traced back during the Greek civilization. The
followers of Dionysus–the god of fertility–started the Greek theater. People who were devoted
to Dionysus would dance during ceremonies while giving their offerings to their god.
Eventually, the Dionysians devised a more structured form of drama involving dances and
choral songs, which depicted Greek mythologies. Eventually the Greeks organized theatrical
contests where the performances were held in front of large citizens.

Ancient Rome
The Roman Republic was established around 500 BCE, this civilization eventually
transformed into one of Western Europe’s mightiest empires. Since they had expanded and
covered many territories, they interacted with neighboring civilizations, particularly with the
Greeks.
It can be said that Roman civilization came of age during
the Hellenistic Period. As mentioned earlier, it was a period when
the Greek culture’s influence has reached its peak in the
Mediterranean world. The Romans were fond of the Greeks and
their achievements in arts. The fusion of Greek and Roman
cultures can be seen in most Roman artworks. Some would argue
that the Romans merely copied Greek art. This eventually made
the Romans produce artworks that are often looking stern, harsh,
and strong. They also invoked the principle of realism in most of
theirs works, highlighting the features of human beings. Aside
from this, the Romans were also known to be master builders,
which earned their reputation for grand monuments and
architectural infrastructures. One of their architectural
achievements would have to be the Colosseum. The
Figure 9. “Poseidon and Medusa”.
amphitheater was planned and constructed during the reign of Just like the Greeks, the Romans
Emperor Vespasian. One of its main uses was a concrete valued their gods and this was
manifestation of Roman builders’ craftsmanship which focused evident with their sculptures and
artworks
on logical organization of the entire edifice.
Ancient Greece had a huge impact in the formation of Roman culture. There are a lot of
Greek influences evident in Roman theater and drama. Writers of comedy like Platus and
Terence have patterned their works to those Greek works. Since the Roman audience was not as
enthusiastic about theatrical works unlike their Greek counterparts, most plays had to be
included in the Roman games.

Middle Ages
As the term denotes, it is the period between the decline of the Roman Empire and the
Renaissance. It was a period that is characterized by ignorance and darkness. Another dominant
characteristic of the period was that the Church was the central figure and authority of the
period. Since the Church was the most important figure, the most important products of the

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early Middle Ages would have to be copied of the Christian scriptures. The printing press came
later after the Middle Ages, so copies of the scriptures were done by hand. These copies were
also done illustrations and decorations which highlight the religious focus of the period. During
this time, great cathedrals were also built. These cathedrals can be categorized into two periods:
Romanesque (1050-1200), inspired by the old Roman Empire; and Gothic (1200-1500), which had
a more northern flavor from the Goths–vulgar and barbarian.

Renaissance Art
During the Renaissance Period, artists
valued the “individual” as a subject of arts. The
influence of humanism shifted the focus of
some artworks during the Renaissance Period
to empower the “individual”. Most artworks
emphasized naturalism, which was also an
influence of humanism since there was a great
emphasis on the proportionality of the human
body. Most artists also added perspective of
depth wherein spaces where explored in
different artworks. This technique provided a
three-dimensional perspective of most Figure 10. Michaelangelo, “David”. This sculpture is an
Renaissance paintings. This was also brought example of how humanism was a dominant belief system
during the Renaissance. There is emphasis on the details
about by privatizations of the art during the
of the body of the human being.
Renaissance Period, however most artworks
remained religious in its focus and theme.
During the Renaissance Period, there was also a revival of Roman theatrical plays. These
plays were performed during special occasions at the courts of Italian princes. The plays were
done in such a way that showcased grand and lavish entertainment for the audience. Aside from
the song and dance numbers, they invested in elaborate stages and costumes for the actors.
Eventually, this would lead to Italy’s opera, which have greatly influenced their tradition of
popular theater.

Mannerism
Mannerism was a period in art history, which was a product of Renaissance Period.
During the Renaissance, artists would observe nature and try their best to emulate it based n
their observations. As the Renaissance ended, artists started directly copying subjects from
existing works of art. Most artworks during this period displayed distorted figures, two-
dimensional spaces, discordant hues and colors, and lack of defined focal point.

Baroque and the Rococo

The term “baroque” is derived from the Portuguese term barcoco which is translated as
“irregularly shaped pearl”. This is a suitable description that Rome was the birthplace of the

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Baroque Period, which according to some historians was a response to Protestantism. This
period roughly spanned from 1600 to 1750. Although it was a period following the Renaissance,
it can be said that a lot of artists have developed styles and techniques different from their
Renaissance predecessors. Most artists used colorful palettes and ornamentation on their works.
This was a time when Italy in particular, strengthened not only their religion but also other
aspects like politics and art. Expansion was the central theme of this period, which became very
much evident in the artworks produced during this time. Motion and space were taken into
consideration by artists like the use of dramatic lighting and the concept of time.
Aside from art, music also flourished during the Baroque Period. This is because people
believed that music could serve as powerful tool to communicate messages that can evoke
certain feelings among its listeners. Baroque music able to clearly distinguish loud form soft and
solo from ensemble. Since the birthplace if this period was in Rome, it did not come as a surprise
that most composers come from Italy. This include Vivaldi, Corelli, and Monteverdi. Eventually,
the influence of Baroque music spread outside Italy and reached other parts of Europe. Other
well-known Baroque composers include Germany’s Bach and Handel. Since Baroque
composers, through their works, tried to evoke certain emotions from their audience, they began
to make more complex musical compositions and performances, however, it can be noted that
initially, this kind of music was limited only to powerful institutions like Church and individuals
like the patrons. Eventually, such performances would be made accessible to the middle class
and the masses.

Neoclassicism
There seems to be a debate among historians as to the
beginnings of modern art. There are accounts that would attribute
for the emergence of this kind of art during the French Revolution
in 1789. However, other historians claim that it was the year 1863
when there was an emergence of the modern painting exhibitions.
Neoclassicism was a movement in Europe that transpired
during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It was
the dominant art movement that time which basically aimed to
revive and rekindle the influences of Greek and Roman into art
and architecture. The Greeks and Europeans had placed emphasis
on human reason and keeping society in order. These very
principles were also the dominant principles during the Figure 11. “The Assumption of
Enlightenment Period. Some historians would also say that this the Virgin”. A painting by Titian
movement was a reaction to the artworks produced during the located at Venice, Italy. The
Baroque Period. There was a call to veer away from such Biblical event in the painting
shows how the Baroque Period
extravagance in terms of style and form of the Baroque Period.
reverted to having religious
subjects in their works.

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Romanticism
Romanticism, as an art movement, used the
central themes of Neoclassicist artworks as a
springboard. Romanticists have highlighted heroic
elements into their work. During the Age of
Revolutions, there has been a tremendous focus on
patriotic and nationalistic movements. One of the
major revolutions in history would be the French
Revolution. Such revolutionary movements became
the focal point of most Romantic works.
The major and central themes of
Figure 12. Antonio Canova, “Paolina Borghese as Romanticism movement include the emphasis on
Venus Victrix”
the goodness of mankind. Most works also
promoted justice, equality, and social order. Artist also emphasized emotions and feelings of
man, which was a deviation from the humanist principles of rationalism.

Realism
Realism as a style of work focuses on the accuracy of
details that depicts and somehow mirrors reality.
There is little room for imagination in this movement
since emphasis is placed in observable traits that can
concretize through artworks. Realism was heavily
influenced by Hellenistic Greek culture since most
artworks during that period placed emphasis on the
human body.
Figure 13. Theodore Gericault, “The Raft of Medusa”
Realism as a modern movement in art veered away
from traditional forms of art. In a way, it revolutionized these and techniques in paintings. In
addition, this movement also expanded and widened existing notions of what can be considered
as art. Since artists worked within the context of revolutions and social change, artistic works
began to depict real-life events. There is a move to combine both art and life in artistic works
since the modern word were suitable for subjects of art. This movement also reexamined existing
belief systems and traditions.

Impressionism
The Impressionism movement started in France, which led to a break from the tradition
in European painting. Impressionism is a style of painting that emerged in the mid- to late 1800s.
Impressionist artists incorporated scientific principles to achieve a more distinct representation
of color. The distinctive characteristic of this style is that it allows the artist to emphasize
immediate impression he has of a particular event or scene. The said impression is
communicated by the artist through his work and can be seen through the brushstrokes,
distinction of colors, and the lights and shadows used by the artist.

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Figure 14. Gustave Courbet, “Burial at Ornans”

Figure 15. Berthe Morisot, “The

Harbor at Lorient” (1869).
Impressionist artists started moving
art outdoors which aimed to include
the shifting light they wanted to
capture in their works. This work by
Morisot is one of the first few “open
air” paintings under the
Impressionist movement.

Post-Impressionism
It is an art movement that emerged in France, which is a result of both the influence and
rejection of Impressionism. Most artists that belong to this movement started off as
impressionists but later on saw the inherent limitations and flaws of impressionism. This
eventually led to the development of individual style that gave emphasis to defining from the
use of broken colors and short brush stroke. Some of the famous post-impressionism artists
include Paul Cezanne, Georges Seurat, Paul Gauguin, and Vincent van Gogh, among others.
Most of the works of the said painters became the framework of the contemporary techniques
and trends during the twentieth century.

Neo-Impressionism
As an art movement, neo-impressionism is considered as a response to empirical realism
of impressionism. Most painters who subscribe to such movement rely on a systematic and
scientific techniques that have a predetermined visual effect not only on the art work itself but
also how the audience perceive the art. The leading figure in neo-impressionism was George
Seurat who recorded optical sensations on a more scientific manner. His color theories paved

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the way for the technique called pointillism. This art technique basically utilizes discrete dots
and dashes of pure color. These elements are believed to blend with the viewer’s perspective.
Aside from Seurat, other neo-impressionist artists include Henri-Edmond Cross, Maximilien
Luce, and Camille Pissarro, among others.

Art Nouveau
Between 1890 and 1910, countries form Europe and the United Sates witnessed the
emergence and flourishing of a new art style. This ornamental style of art was a break from the
conservative historicism, which was the prevailing and dominant theme of most Western
artworks. This ornamental style uses long and organic lines that are concretely manifested in
architecture, jewelry and glass design, among others. In most works, the defining characteristic
of Art Nouveau is the asymmetrical line that usually is in the form of insect wings or flower
stalks. The line is done in such a graceful and elegant manner that somehow evokes a certain
power to it.

Fauvism
This is a style of painting that emerged in France around the turn of the twentieth century.
What makes fauvists revolutionary is that they used pure and vibrant colors by applying straight
from the paint tubes directly to the canvas. This is done to produce a sense of explosion of colors
in the canvas. The fauves, just like the impressionists, painted directly from nature. The
difference lies with how the fauves have this strong and expressive reaction to how they portray
their subjects. Most fauvist works reject the conservative and traditional renderings of three-
dimensional space. What artists did was they introduced and promoted a picture space that is
defined by the movement of color.

Cubism
Between 1907 and 1914, French artists Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque introduced a
new visual art style called cubism. This style would later on have a huge influence on artists
during the twentieth century. Cubists highlighted the two-dimensional surface of the picture
plane. Focusing on a flat surface was a rejection of the dominant techniques like the use of
perspective foreshortening, and modeling. In addition, one of the things that cubism rejected
was the existing and prevailing notion that art should imitate nature. Cubists emphasized that
they are not in any way obliged to copy texture, form, color, and space. They represented a new
depiction of reality that may appear fragmented objects for viewers.

Futurism
It is an early twentieth century art movement that started in Italy, which highlighted the
speed, energy, dynamism, and power of machines. In addition, common themes for works in
this movement are restlessness and the fast-pace of modern life. Later on, the movement’s
influence branched out not only in Europe but also in Russia. The greatest impact of futurism is
evident in poetry and visual arts.

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Italian poet and editor, Filippon Tommaso Marinetti coined the term “futurism” to reflect
his purpose of disregarding the traditional methods of the art in the past. He believes that art
should embrace and embody change, innovation, creativity and originality.

Let’s Wrap It Up

Throughout history, Europe has seen tremendous changes in its political landscape and
social makeup, witnessed transitions of different art movements on different timeframes. The
use of art as a medium of communication of different cultural elements originated from the
Greek and Roman civilizations. These two civilizations have greatly influenced the succeeding
periods in art history. There were movements like Realism highlights the primacy of
individuality. Man being the focal point of most work is not new since the Greeks and even
during the Renaissance Period highlighted the centrality of man in any society. The evolution of
art in Europe helped them shaped their culture, which was reflected in their societies.

3.2.3 Caught in Between Modern and Contemporary Art

The history of art is one of the most difficult tasks to pin down. As what previous chapters
have shown, significant ideas, canons and tradition, preferences, and dominance of styles,
media, and mode of production were the definitive characteristics that segment art history into
identifiable periods and movements; identifiable, but not necessarily precise. It is important to
note that the periods and movements of art are themselves testament to the connection of art
and culture in the everyday life. As it is examined and analyzed in context, it becomes,
increasingly apparent that art is not detached from; rather, it is embedded in the affairs of the
society in which it exists. It offers a glimpse as to the beliefs of specific eras and how these beliefs
were translated into how people saw themselves and the world and how they chose to come
into terms with it–all in flux.
This lesson attempts to provide a glimpse of contemporary art ad how it was understood,
defined, and represented, not only within the bounds of the art world, but also beyond it.

Defining the Contemporary

The term “contemporary” seems simple and straightforward enough to define. There is
this assumption that it need not be asked; rather, that it must already be understood. But with
an attempt to do so, one finds it a lot harder to grasp. The complexity defining the term is
attributed to the fact that people have dissenting views on the interpretation of the “present”, of
“today”, or what the “now” means– these are often ideas that follow the word contemporary.

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Even more so, when it is hinged on the word “art”and

suddenly it becomes fuzzy.
There are museums, for example, that include name
of artists, art forms, or artworks in their institution’s name,
but seem to champion works that arguably fall under an
earlier period. For example, the Institute of Contemporary
Art in London which was founded in 1947 includes its
mandate “the promotion of art that came to be from that year
onwards.” Clearly the timeline is a bit skewed if the
assumption is that contemporary art started decades later.
For the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York, its
starting point is dated at 1977; while the TATE framed
contemporaneity in a ten-year rolling basis and was placed
under the bounds of their Museum of Contemporary Art. Figure 16. Museum of Contemporary
Art, Chicago
Another source of confusion is the fact that in a
colloquial, “modern” and “contemporary” are considered synonymous. This, however, is not
the case when these terms are used in the context of art. Therein, they refer to two different (but
consecutive) periods qualified by different approaches to artmaking and the functions that art
served. To better make sense of contemporary art, perhaps it is best to dial back to its
predecessor, modern art.
Modern art saw the digression of artists
away from past conventions and traditions
and toward freedom. There is the famous
adage of “anything goes.” With the world
becoming increasingly complex, it required an
art that could accommodate such range and
breadth. Roughly between the 1860s to late
1970s, creatives celebrated the novel
opportunities in art, from the materials to its
manipulation and ways of seeing and thinking
about art. The devotion of artist to a strict
Figure 17. Institute of Contemporary Art, London narrative was often illustrated in their
figurative works; however, these artists gave
their nod to abstraction. The tenets of this period were not only reflected in its art, but it was also
evident in the way people lived and conducted themselves, the social issues that were relevant,
fashion, music and the wide range of images and activities they were engaged in. this period
saw the heavy mass production of goods, along with the encouraging environment made
possible by industrialization, new technology, urbanization, and rise of commercially driven
culture. There was also a palpable secularization of society, interest in nature, and primacy of
the self and individuality. Artists were committed to developing a language of their own –

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original but representative. What this means is that artists drew the world but in his own terms.
It was no wonder that within this period grew vast number of different movements.
The period that ensued was touted contemporary art. In order to move forward, it is
necessary to underscore that this can be better understood after a starting point has been
established. Compared to the dense taxonomy of modern art, contemporary art had fewer –isms
under its wing. Perhaps, this was also due to the fact that it is still unfolding.
Effectively, this period can be traced from the 1970s to the present. There is a reason
behind this cutoff. The cutoff was hinged on two reasons:
1. The 1970s saw the emergence of “postmodernism”. The affix was a cue that
whatever followed was segregated from its precursor.
2. The 1970s saw the decline of the clearer identified artistic movements.

Social Context: In Between Modern and Contemporary Art

Reaping the benefits and drawbacks of the dramatic changes that occurred at the
beginning of the twentieth century, the social, political, and cultural context continued to
provoke the artist to create. There is a potent source of reference for his works so that he may
continue to question the existing and emergent values of society. This multiplicity of
perspectives brought light a more difficult terrain map out in terms of clear and distinct
movements because what compelled artists’ works were not prevailing medium, technique, or
style; rather, it was the themes and concerns they addressed. And the conversation was no longer
limited to geographic locales, but became increasingly a global conversation.
“Art may be spoilt for choice. In a world where nothing is seasonal or regional any more,
there is no home base from which to operate. And so the arts today can be seen as responding
to a number of issues, some from within their own structures of means and techniques, some
more widely understood as issues within society. Typically, none is resolved." (Tamplin, 1991)
Contemporary art was heavily driven by ideas and theories, and even the of blurring of
notions of what is and can be considered as “art,” with the involvement of television,
photography, cinema, digital technology, performance, and even objects of the everyday. It was
the idea that was more important than its visual articulation.
There were several art movements that were caught in between the succession of modern
and contemporary art. These movements laid the groundwork for the transition into
contemporaneity. Reeling after the war, one of the early movements was abstract expressionism
(early 1940s to mid-1960s) which took the basic tenets of abstraction and combined with it with
gestural techniques, mark-making, and a rugged spontaneity in its visual articulation. Often
affiliated with New York painters (hence being called the New York School), some of them
include Clyfford Still, Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Barnett Newman, and Mark Rothko,
who were committed to creating abstract works that had the ability to convey and elicit emotion,
especially those residing in the subconscious. Two major styles emerged from this: that of action
painting and color fields. Action painting underscored the process of creation in that it showed
the physicality, direction and most often, the spontaneity of the actions that made the drips and

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strokes possible. On the other hand, color fields emphasized the emotional power of colors. From
the vivid demarcations to the more toned-down transitions, these bands of color were akin to
the effect of landscapes.
Creating energy was at the center of “op art” or optical art (early 1960s onward). Much
like what was discussed in the lesson on elements of art that dimension can be implied even on
a two-dimensional surface or plane, op art relied on creating an illusion to inform the experience
of the artwork using color, pattern, and other perspective tricks that artists had on their sleeves.
From making it seem like a section was protruding out or receded in the background, to creating
movement, works under this movement showed a certain kind of dynamism. It inspired several
artists in different countries to create their own iteration of op art: Hungarian artist Victor
Vasarely, British artists Bridget Riley and Peter Sedgley, American Richard Anuszkiewicz, and
Israeli Yaacov Agam. Other artists expanded their works to include other materials such as nails,
plexiglass, and metal rods, including Jesus Soto, Guenther Uecker, Enrico Castellani, and Carlos
Cruz-Diez.
The quest for actual movement in the works created were responded to by kinetic art
(early 1950s onward). Harnessing the current and direction of the wind, components of the
artwork which was predominantly sculptural, most were mobiles and even motor-driven
machines, was an example of how art and technology can be brought together. Artists known
for creating kinetic art were Naum Gabo, Alexander Calder, Jean Tinguely, Bridget Riley, and
Nicolas Schoffer. One of the most recent kinetic artist to gain attention is Theo Jansen with his
massive sculptures or beasts, as he likes to refer to them. Using plastic tubes and PVC pipes, he
has created several life forms that took over the sea-side.
In Japan during the post-war, platforms that were grounded on movement and a sense of
dynamism were utilized to convey ideas attached to the new-found freedom, individuality and
openness to the international sphere. Termed gutai (1950s-1970s) which means embodiment or
concreteness, it preceded the later forms of performance and conceptual art. The goal was not
only to explore the materiality of the implements used in the performance, but also to hold a
deeper desire to make sense of the relationship that is struck between the body, the movements,
and the spirit of their interaction during the process of creation. Gutai straddled between
multiple platforms from performance, theatrical events, installation, and even painting. The
founder of the Gutai Art Association or Gutai Group was Yoshihara Jirõ in 1952. Other known
gutai artists were Tanaka Atsuko, Saburõ Murakami, Kanayma Akira, Murakami Saburo, and
Shozo Shimamoto. Entitled “Challenge to the Mud” (1955), Kazuo Shiraga utilized his body,
writhing in a pile of mud. The shapes formed, and the state of the mud were left as is after his
performance, and was kept as part of the exhibition as a kind of action-painting. This is one the
most important examples of gutai.
Another movement was minimalism which cropped up in the early 1960s in New York,
and saw artists testing the boundaries of various media. It was seen as an extreme type of
abstraction that favored geometric shapes, color fields, and the use of objects and materials that
had an “industrial” the sparse.
“The new art favored the cool over the ‘dramatic’: their sculptures were frequently

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fabricated from industrial materials and emphasized anonymity over the expressive excess of
Abstract Expressionism. Painters and sculptors avoided overt symbolism and emotional
content, but instead called attention to the materiality of the works.” (Wolf, n.d.)
Another assumption was that its subtext was deference to truth, as a thing was presented
as itself, without pretensions or embellishments. It also had a very utopic aura about it. Some of
the key figures in this movement were Agnes Martin, Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt, Dan Flavin,
Carl Andre, and Donald Judd.
The other movement is pop art. It first emerged in the 1950s but found its footing in the
1960s. It drew inspiration, sources, and even materials from commercial culture making it one
of the most identifiable and relatable movements in art history. Artists became increasingly
critical about how what was being exhibited in art spaces had no relationship with real life. What
could be more real than what you saw, used, ate, watched, heard, and read! Hence, they turned
to commodities designed and made for the masses, particularly drawing inspiration and
material from ads, packaging, comic books, movies and movie posters, and pop music. The aim
was to also elevate popular culture as something at par with fine art. A defining feature was the
discussions on the hierarchy (and divide between) of “high culture” and “low culture”; “fine
art.” and “low art.”
The following was an excerpt from a letter written by Richard Hamilton, a pop artist,
addressed to his friends Peter and Alison Smithson:
“Pop art is: (designed for a mass audience), transient (short-term solution), expendable
(easily forgotten), low cost, mass produced, young (aimed at youth), witty, sexy, gimmicky,
glamorous, big business.” (Hamilton, 1957)
Perhaps, one of the most critical statements against pop art was its use of very banal and
“low” objects and subject matters, lacking the elevated aura that other believed art required. It
was also seen as an absence of criticality in that objects appeared as it is, seemingly no different
from how they were used in the daily life. If at all, it ironically seemed too “cool” as well that it
also became somewhat detached to the life it purportedly talked about. Some of the artists that
are most identified with pop art is Andy Warhol, James Rosenquist, Claes Oldenburg, Richard
Hamilton, Tom Wesselman, Ed Ruscha and Roy Lichtenstein, with a number of them coming
from careers in the commercial art as illustrators, graphic designers, and even billboard painters.
It is because of this that their works had a seamless quality about it.
But perhaps the most pertinent movement that solidified the move to contemporary art
was postmodernism. By the very name, it was a nudge to formalize the critique toward
modernism and its claim over art for the better of the twentieth century. More than anything, it
was grounded on the shifts in the belief systems that were in place in the 1960s. First used in
1970, the term was difficult to affix to any style or theory and perhaps that was the point.
Postmodernism encroaches on other smaller movements that included conceptual art, neo-
expressionism, feminist art, and the Young British Artists of the 1990s, among others.
Grounded on skepticism about ideals and grand narratives, it was rooted in analytic
philosophy during the mid- to late twentieth century, which highlighted the importance of
individual experience and was often steeped in complexity and contradiction. As an upshot,

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formerly established rules, barriers, and distinctions were abolished. In a sense, the artist’s
creativity was in its most free–with an “anything goes” disposition, artworks fell within the
broad spectrum of the humorous to controversial works that challenged not only taste but also
former sensibilities and styles. Their awareness of styles was not for them to copy or be governed
by them, but to borrow, critique, and even turn on their heads. During this time, some of the
guiding principles were the multiplicity of narratives, relativity, and even interdisciplinary. It is
important to note that there were attempts to overturn the notion that all progress was positive,
the hierarchy of races, and that art has a definitive goal. In relation to the last one, one emergent
aspect was also underscored in the experience and engagement with art and that was the
importance of the viewer. Here, the idea of the sole authorship of the artist is put to the test, that
it is the intention of the artist during the time of creation–the end-all and be-all of the
appreciation of work because it is where the sole meaning lie–is disputed.
Some of the sub-movements under this broad umbrella were minimalism, conceptual art,
video art, performance art, installation art, and even feminist art. Although they were widely
accepted and recognized to be formal movements during the 1970s, they were in fact already in
existence as early as the 1920s.

Contemporary Art
We can observe that there were overlaps with the acceptance and practice of these
movements. They were not only overlapping with each other, but they were embedded in a
social order that was in fact somewhat “disordered.”
One of the main developments during this time was the turn from the traditional notions
of what art is: from paintings and sculptures to the more experimental formats. These included
film, photography, video, performance, installations and site-specific works, and earth works.
Even these formats tended to overlap, leading to interesting and dynamic, and otherwise
“unheard of” combinations of concepts, subjects, materials, techniques, and methods of creation,
experience, and even analysis. Compared to other periods, it can be argued that contemporary
art is the most socially aware and involved form of art. The subject matter of its works was one
of the most pressing, heated, and even controversial issues of contemporary society.

Other Contemporary Art Movements

Neo-Pop Art
In the 1980s, there was a renewed interest in pop art specifically to Andy Warhol's works
and his contemporaries. What made it different from pop art was that it appropriated some of
the first ideas of Dada in which ready-made materials were used for the artwork. Dada was a
movement that was very much against the values of the bourgeois, the colonial and even the
national. It was both anarchic as it was referencing anarchy–the war ensued because of the
values the movement abhors and despises. Aside from this, it does not only reference popular
culture, but more importantly, criticized and evaluated it, often using popular cultural icons as
Marilyn Monroe, Jackie O, Madonna, and Michael Jackson, among many others. Some of the
artists involved in the revival of pop art was Katharina Fritsch, Daniel Edwards, Jeff Koons,

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Keith Haring, Mark Kostabi, and Damien Hirst, to name a few. Compared to their predecessors,
they were more affront about their evaluations about the world through the works.

Figure 18. Jeff Koons, “Puppy” (1992). Stainless Steel, soil
and flowering plants. Guggenheim Bilbao Museoa
Photorealism
The resurgence of figurative art,
where realistic depictions is a choice, is a
proof how varied and fragmented
postmodernism is. In photorealism, a
painstaking attention to detail is aimed,
without asserting an artist’s personal style.
These drawings and paintings are so
immaculate in their precision that it starts to
look like it is a photo without a direct
reference to the artist who created it. Two of
the known photorealist artists are Chuck
Close and Gerhard Richter.

Conceptualism
Other movements were informed and shaped by pop art, such as conceptualism. As
opposed to celebrating commodities as references to real life, conceptualism fought against the
idea that is a commodity. This movement also brought to the force issues brought about by art
institutions such as museums and galleries where works are peddled and circulated. Some of
the major artists are Jenny Holzer, Damien Hirst, and Ai Wei Wei.
“In conceptual art, the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When an
artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are made
beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair.” (LeWitt, 1967)

Performance Art
Performance Art is related to conceptual art, whose rosters of well-known artists include
the likes of Marina Abramović, Yoko Ono, and Joseph Beuys. As a movement, it began in the
1960s and instead of being concerned with entertaining its audience, the heart of the artwork is
its idea or message. Here, the audience may even be an accomplice to the realization of the work.
Performance art may be planned or spontaneous and done live or recorded. Since it is also
durational in nature, it is also considered as ephemeral works of art. An interesting proposition
is that performance is not about the medium or the format; rather, it is how a specific context is
made in which through engagement or interaction, questions, concerns, and conditions will be
fleshed out.

Installation Art
Compared to traditional formats, installation art is kind of an immersive work where the
environment or the space in which the viewer steps into or interacts with (going around

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installative art) is transformed or altered. Usually large-scale, installation art makes use of a host
objects, materials, conditions, and even light and aural components. These works may also be
considered site-specific and may be temporary or ephemeral in nature. Well-known installation
artists are Allan Kaprow, Yayoi Kusama, and Dale Chihuly.
An example of a public
installation art is the “Cadillac Ranch,”
comprised of 10 Cadillacs of different
models ranging from 1949 to 1964.
Buried nose-first into the ground, each
car is seemingly equidistant from each
other and forming a straight line. From
its original site along Interstate 40, it
was moved in 1997 to its new spot two
Figure 19. Ant Farm (Chip Lord, Hudson Marquez, Doug Michels), miles westward along the interstate.
“Cadillac Ranch” (1974) The cars underwent several changes,
from the first time they were installed as they were located in a public space. It didn't take long
before graffiti found its way onto the surfaces of the cars, and was painted different colors such
as gray. It also had a pink phase in the 1990s, wherein all cars were painted pink.

Earth Art
Sometimes considered as a kind or a spin-off of installation art, earth art (or land art) is
when the natural environment or a specific site or space is transformed by artists. It is a kind of
human intervention into a specific landscape or terrain. Earth art is different from environmental
art in a sense that it does not focus on the subject (environmental issues or concerns) but rather
on landscape manipulation and the materials used, taken directly from the ground or vegetation
(rocks or twigs). Artists known for Earth Art are Robert Smithson, Christo, Richard Long, Andy
Goldsworthy and Jeanne-Claude.

Street Art
This art movement is related to graffiti art as it is a by-product of the rise of graffiti in the
1980s. Artworks created are not traditional in format but are informed by the illustrative,
painterly and print techniques and even a variety of media (even video projections). Some of the
examples of this include murals, stenciled images, stickers, and installations or
installative/sculptural objects usually out of common objects and techniques. Since these works
are most commonly found in the public sphere, various people who have access to them have
formed the impression and perception of the artworks themselves.
These works operate under interesting circumstances since they are unsanctioned and do
not enjoy the invigilated environments of museums and galleries. However, these works also
end up in them, as street artists also hold more traditional exhibitionary arts in the white cube.
If it is in the open space, there are no governing rules in formats its production and sometimes,
in the interaction. Known street artists include Michel Basquiat, Keith Haring, Shepard Fairey,

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and Banksy. Banksy's popularity is evidenced by the creation of a film documentary that spoke
about him and his works. Gordon Matta-Clark, Jenny Holzer, and Barba Kruger are some of the
known street artists.

Let’s Wrap It Up

Some of the artists and movements

Figure 20. Banksy, “Sweeping it Under the Carpet.”
(Hoxton)
be confronted with even more diverse movements that attempt to come into terms with himself,
society, and the world in which he lives.
discussed are examples of the rich array of works
produced and are still being produced today. The
twenty-first century is steeped in promise and
excitement. Although some of the movements
discussed may have waned or are no longer being
practiced, new artists with their own creative
imagination and ways of producing art are
changing the landscape once again. It would not be
surprising if in the future, art students like you will

3.2.4 Soul Making: Making and Deriving Meaning from Art

What is Soulmaking?
Soulmaking (artmaking) is an alternative venue for knowing ourselves and looking into
the depths and real meaning of what we are doing for everyday life.
It is a form of crafting stories or transforming brief moments into images or symbols. It is
connecting people, understanding culture and tolerance and peace
Soulmaking is an exploration and application of the in an active way. Soulmaking can be
an innate gift or a learned skill, or a combination of both.
In order for humans to make sense of language and derive meanings from words,
semantics and grammatical rules are important elements to be considered. Aside from this,
context and symbolisms are also considered to interpret and analyze verbal or written works.
When it comes to art, in order for people to make sense of the work, it would require
understanding the visual elements where art was grounded on, especially the principles of
design. It is important to note that the audience of the artwork must have a certain level of
awareness to the style, form, and content of the said work. Without such understanding, it would
be difficult to appreciate the visual arts in its fullness and entirety.
Style refers to the distinctive handling of elements and media associated with the work
of an individual artist, a school, a movement, or a specific culture or time period (Fichner-Rathus,
2013). Throughout history, there have been developments in art styles that depict different and
varied methods of expression. Artworks also have a certain form. This form is what the audience

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sees–a finished product put harmoniously (or not) according to the different principles of design.
In essence, form is the totality of the artwork, which includes the textures, colors, and shapes
utilized by the artist. The content of an artwork includes not only its form but also its subject
matter and underlying meanings or themes (Fichner-Rathus, 2013). The perceiver of the artwork
must take into consideration the totality of elements, underlying themes and motifs, and
composition.

3.2.5 Narratives, Appropriation, and Improvisation

Improvisation
Improvisation can be defined as doing something without prior preparation. There is a
decision to act upon something that may not necessarily be planned. Within the present context,
improvisation has become an integral part of the arts. Some would say that it is a reaction against
the stiffness in the arts during the twentieth century. There is a call for liberation from monotony
that aims to rekindle the creative spirits of people in the arts.
For some artists, infusing spontaneity and improvisation adds up to the totality of the
work of art. The unexpectedness of the changes brought about by improvisation makes the
artwork to have a distinctive quality that creates its individuality and identity. Some artists
subscribe to the idea of allowing chances in the process of producing about the work. For
example, artists would want to capture the gloom brought about by necessarily have absolute
control over natural phenomena, their reliance on chances may not necessarily produce their
expected outcome. Artists allowing their subjects do improvisation may have totally different
results as well.
When an artist makes his work, he has already an idea of the elements that will be
included in his work. As he begins to craft his work, he may have deviated from his original
plan. So in essence, improvisation is evident in the process of making the painting. During the
1960s, art improvisation has taken form in the galleries around New York City. Performance
arts, dance, and visual arts were combined to create new
forms of artworks using a new medium. These
performances were known as the “Happenings” which
later on paved the way for modern body art and
performance art. One of central figures in the
improvisation movement was Georges Mathieu. He
started the “action painting” wherein the process is seen
real-time. In this scenario, the process is more important
than the finished product.
Figure 1 shows how improvisation allows for a
certain extent of freedom for the artist to improvise and
allow the Subject to perform and embody the artwork Figure 1. Marta Minunjin Performance Art
itself. To a certain extent, it allows the artist to explore
and think about how the audience can actually be a part of the work in itself. Improvisation may
have been a revolutionary concept when it comes to art because it blurs the line of reality and
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that of imagination.

Appropriation
If, for example, an artist created a
painting and displayed it in a museum, who do
you think owns the artwork: the artist or his
intended audience? During the twentieth
century, people started raising the question
whether or not the act of deriving meaning
gives the ownership of the artwork to the
viewer rather than the artist himself. This
notion paved the way for the emergence of
appropriation artists who seem to promote the
Figure 2. An example of an action painting
idea that the authorship relies on the viewer. If
this is the case, then appropriation artists can
take as much as he wants from an existing artwork.
Appropriation of art has been a common practice throughout history. In the past, if an
apprentice painter needs to hone his skills in his craft, he would be allowed to use his master's
work to copy. It is as if the apprentice is trying to explore his personal application of techniques
to something he is more familiar with. However, there are some people who go to the extreme
by believing that copying the exact artwork of an artist and attributing it to his own. This could
pose a problem especially with authorship. The problem arises when the appropriation artist
would get bits and pieces from other works and incorporate these elements into his own work.
In addition, when appropriation artists eschew the responsibility for putting up the details of
other works and integrating them into their own, their voices and perspectives of the other artists
get lost with that of the appropriation artist. There seems to be a very thin demarcation line
between appropriation art and forgery. Traditionally, forgery can be classified into two forms:
outright copies of existing works and pastiches, which are works that bring together elements
from a work and infusing them to a new work. But in contemporary times, forgery can be in the
form of creating an approximate of what an artist would do by prediction. This can be done by
observing the techniques and style the artist employed and even the focal points highlighted in
his previous and existing works.
The intentions of the appropriation artists are often questioned since issues of plagiarism
or forgery sometimes arise. Some would argue that the reason behind the appropriation is that
they want the audience to recognize the images they copied. There is a hope on the part of the
artist for the viewers to see the original work in a new perspective. That appropriation would
bring about a new context to the original work. One of the most famous works of appropriation
would have to be Andy Warhol's “Campbell's Soup Cans” (1962). Warhol copied the original
labels of the soup can but deliberately filled up the entire picture plane. The idea of putting
together of the soup cans is something new for the audience. Just like any product, the brand is
integral to Campbell's identity. As an artist, Warhol decided to isolate the image of the product.

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This attempt could in turn stimulate product recognition. A common viewer would associate
the Campbell soup with the portraits of the soup cans. This association would bring about a
certain kind of craving for the said product. In a way, it is a subtle form of advertising that would
entice the consumer to buy and patronize the product

When an artist creates something,

there is a desire for him or her to elicit a
certain Kind of response from his
audience. To a certain extent, the artist is
considered as the first and primary
audience of the work. There is this notion
that art should be perceived as something
that would engage and enrich the
experience of the audience as the artist
tries to piece together all the elements
Figure 3. Andy Warhol, “Campbell’s Soup Cans” (1962) grounded on design rules. However,
there have been art movements
throughout history that tried to break away from the norms of visual arts. Improvisations have
led artists to find other medium and avenues to showcase their creative expression. The certain
level of freedom and creativity experienced in art can also lead to appropriations. When it comes
to art appropriation, there seems to be a debate whether or not something is just an
appropriation of an existing work or just plain forgery.

Activity (Class participation for 50 points)

Using a pre-existing image or picture of an art, make your own version of the
image with little transformation of the original. You may copy or imitate the subject in
the image and take a picture of your output. Then make a layout of the original image
with your output beside it.

Unit 3 Assessment
A link to access a 35-item quiz via google form will be announced two (2) weeks after LP2
distribution.

3.3 References
Daniel, R.T. (n.d.). Western Music.” In Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed
December 18, 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/art/Western- music.

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Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). “Cubism”. Accessed December 18, 2017.

Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/art/Cubism.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). “Fauvism.” Accessed December 18, 2017.
Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/art/Fauvism.
Fichner-Rathus, L (2017). Understanding Art. 11th Ed. Boston: Cengage
Learning.
Gilbert R. (2005). Living with Art. New York: McGraw-Hill. Getlein, M. (2005).
Gilbert’s Living With Art. 7th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Guggenheim. (n.d.). “Dada.” Accessed December 10, 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/movement/Dada.
Hamilton, R. (1982). Collected Words: 1953-1982. London: Thames and Hudson.
Harris, W. (n.d.). “Improvisation: The New Spirits in the Arts.” In Middlebury.
Accessed October 30, 2017. Retrieved from http://community.middlebury.edu/
~harris/improvisation.html.
Irvin, S. (n.d.). “Appropriation and Authorship in Contemporary Art.” In Academia.
Accessed October 13, 2017. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/
3085695/Appropriation-_and_Authorship_in_Contemporary_Art.
Jenkins, S. (2017). “Postmodern Art Definition Overview and Analysis.” In The Art
Story: Modern Art Insight. Accessed November 3, 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.theartstory.org/definition-postmodernism.htm.
Panisan, W., et.al, (2015) Art Appreciation. 1st Ed. Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
Pantelić, K. (2016). “What Is Contemporary Art And How Can We Define It Today?”
In Widewalls. Accessed November 3, 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.widewalls.ch/what-is-contemporary-art/
Richman-Abdou, K. (2017). “Art History: What Is Contemporary Art?” In My Modern
Met. Accessed May 11, 2017. Retrieved from http://mymodernmet.com/what-is-
contemporary-art-definition/.
Smith, S. (2014). “Forty Years of the Cadillac Ranch.” In Texas Monthly. Accessed
November 13, 2017. Retrieved from http://www.texasmonthly.com/travel/forty-
years-of-the-cadillac-ranch/.
Tamplin, R. (Ed.). (1991). The Arts: A History of Expression in the 20th Century. England:
Harrap Ltd.
Tate. (n.d.). “Art Term: Minimalism.” Accessed November 3. 2017. Retrieved from
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/m/minimalism.
Tate. (n.d.). “Art Term: Performance Art.” Accessed November 3. 2017. Retrieved from
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/performace-art.
Tate. (n.d.). “Art Term: Pop Art.” Accessed November 3. 2017. Retrieved from
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/pop-art.
Tate. (n.d.). “Art Term: Postmodernism.” Accessed November 3. 2017. Retrieved from
http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/postmodernism.
Tate. (n.d.). “Art Term: Street Art.” Accessed November 3. 2017. Retrieved from

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http://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/s/street-art.
The Art History Archive. (n.d.). “Neo-Pop Art.” Accessed November 3, 2017. Retrieved
from http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/popart/Neo-Pop-Art.html.
The J. Paul Getty Museum (n.d.). “About Contemporary Art.” Accessed November 3,
2017. Retrieved from http://www.getty.edu./education/ teachers/classroom
_resources/ curricula/contemporary_art/background1.html.
White, J.J (n.d.). “Futurism”. In Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed December 18,
2017. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/art/Futurism.
Wolf, J. (n.d.). “Minimalism Movement Overview and Analysis.” In The Art Story:
Modern Art Insight. Accessed November 3, 2017. Retrieved from
http://www.theartstory.org/movement-minimalism.htm.

3.4 Acknowledgment
The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay