UNIT II: Western Art History

Lesson 7: Art in Early Civilizations

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to

1. Discuss how art was used by pre-historic people to depict everyday life;
2. Identify the central themes of pre-historic art;
3. Differentiate the techniques used during the three kingdoms of early
Egypt, and
4. Explain how art is linked with religion in early Egyptian civilization.

Stone Age is a term used to describe a period of history when stone stones were used to
make tools for survival. The term “conjures an image of men and women dressed in
skins, huddling before a fire in a cave” (Fitchner-Rathus, 2013). Though pre-historic
humans would not necessarily possess the complex rational capabilities to tell their story
through written records and accounts, some artifacts in the form of cave paintings and
sculptures would serve as the “storytellers.”

In order to talk about pre-historic art, there is a need to situate them within the context of
the three periods of the Stone Age culture (which roughly span the 14,000-2,000 BCE):
PALEOLITHIC (the late years of the Old Stone Age), MESOLITHIC (Middle Stone
Age), and the NEOLITHIC (New Stone Age).

The unearthing of archeological artifacts and remains provides modern society a glimpse
of the beliefs, practices, and activities of early civilizations. The motives and reasons
behind the creation of ancient materials such as sculptures, paintings, and architectural
structures may not be clearly defined. Nevertheless, the early people produced such
materials that reflect their attitudes and belief systems on spiritual, social, political, and
economic matters. It can be noted that works of art and architecture were created from a
wide array of materials from limestone to precious gems and metals to name a few. As
the early human started to transition from being nomads to permanent settlers, their
everyday activities also had some changes, which is evident through the materials and
even the works of art they have created. Despite changes as a result of adapting to their
environment, there are central themes in their artworks. Most ancient artworks depict
religious symbols, a wide array of organisms from nature and activities of everyday life.
Prehistoric Art

Archeological explorations reveal that there has been a gradual shift from a nomadic
lifestyle of early humans to that of permanent settlements, paving the way for the rise of
early civilizations. The Stone Age has witnessed how humans were able to lead more
stable lives and eventually come up with permanent shelters and tools for survival. To
complement this stability and sense of permanence, early humans also turned to the
creation of paintings and sculptures that depict human, animals, and their natural habitats.
It would seem that there were attempts to record the kind of lives they led within that
period of time. Central to the representation of early civilizations would be the
establishing of possible linkages among art, religion, and life.

Paleolithic Art is a product of climate change. As the climate get colder, part of the
early humans’ instinct is to look for shelters that would provide them with warmth. Caves
became protective havens for the early humans and these caves paved the way for the
birth of their first attempts to create art. One cave painting can be traced back to Lascaux,
France and its discovery came as a surprise. Two boys chased after their dog into a hole
where their ball got stocked in. When they followed the dog, they were astonished to
discover a cave with beautiful paintings. The cave paintings would eventually be called
“Hall of Bulls.”

The figures depicted on the walls were done with a certain level of crispness and life
that there were initial hesitations of the work’s authenticity. However, evidence later on
pointed out that the cave paintings were created during the Paleolithic Period. It is also
important to note that the paintings evoke naturalism, which is evidently seen through the
contours of the animals’ body and their dark colors. Although most people would think
that early humans were primitive, some of their art techniques were considered advanced
for their time. Some of the early humans already used their own version of spray-painting
techniques by using ground pigments blown through reeds or hollowed out bones since
these were the readily available materials for them. Aside from this spray-painting
technique, early humans also worked with foreshortening and contrasting of lights and
shadows. These techniques created the illusion of three-dimensional forms and seemingly
real representation of animals.
 Artworks can be considered ornamental but there is little evidence to fully back up
this notion, that early humans created these cave paintings for that very purpose. Most of
these works were discovered inside the deep recesses of caves so they may not
necessarily be used as decorative items. Some would say that these caves with paintings
all over the walls and ceilings served as a kind of sanctuary for the early humans. As a
safe haven, religious rituals could have possibly transpired within the confines of the
caves. Some believed that there was a linkage between what was drawn and what could
happen in real life. For example, drawing or painting the capture of a prey would
translate to an actual capturing of an animal in real life. In addition, some of the works
found reflected some of the early beliefs of humans especially with life and fertility. One
of the works that reflected such beliefs would be a sculpture called the “Venus of
Willendorf”.” This figure is highly abstracted woman from highlighted body parts
associated with fertility. Figure 2 shows that the woman has oversized breasts, enlarged
hips and round abdomen. The representation may show the importance of taking care of
these body parts for procreation and consequently the survival of species.
 At the back of the palette, King Narmer can be seen wearing the crown of Upper
Egypt looking victorious over a slain enemy. In addition, two more dead warriors can be
seen beneath him. To his right is a falcon, the god Horus perched on papyrus stalks,
which is a symbol of Lower Egypt. The top is sculpted with bull- shaped heads with
human features that is a representation of Hathor. This god symbolizes love and joy.
What is very prominent is the king’s size in comparison with the objects in the
palette. Narmer, being the subject, is evidently larger than the people around him. This is
a clear indication and assertion of his royal status. The front palette, on the other hand,
shows lion-like figures with intertwined necks bound on leashes and tamed by two men.
King Narmer is still present at the front side and he is shown reviewing the captured
enemies. In this portrait, he is seen wearing the crown of Lower Egypt and holding some
objects that denote power. The Narmer Palette is one of the artifacts that emphasizes the
king’s supreme and absolute authority. In most cases, the king is not just an authority
figure but can be depicted and revered as a deity. This common notion among Egyptians
is seen in Egyptian tomb sculptures, which are basically large in dimensions and
proportions and made out of hard materials. The choice of materials is deliberate since
they want the sculptures to endure and withstand any condition. Permanence was
important because these sculptures would serve as the house of the KA or SOUL once the
remains of the mummy disintegrate. One striking feature of most sculptures is that
regardless of the age of death, the KA figures highlight the prime life of the deceased.

During the Old Kingdom, one of the architectural wonders was also constructed. The
Pyramids in Giza served as tombs since their main purpose was to provide a resting place
for the pharaohs. These pyramids are massive in size and were constructed using roughly
more than two million limestone blocks. The stones used for the pyramids were quarried
from a nearby plateau. The construction of the pyramids highlighted the ingenuity and
advancement of the Egyptians for their time. Workers painstakingly moved the stones
from the plateau going to the construction site using a wooden rollers. Stonecutters on the
site carved the blocks in a fine way before stacking them. The stacking process also
showed the advancement of the Egyptians since they already used a system of ropes and
pulleys. They finished it off by applying the surface with limestone for a more refined
and flawless finish. The construction of the pyramids did not only show the brilliance of
the early Egyptians but it also highlighted the reverence of the people to their pharaoh at
the expense of the citizens. A lot of the workers died or punished for not reaching the
quota in the process of constructing these massive architectural structures. However, they
did not stop ensuring the excellent quality of the outsides. The Egyptians also ensured
that the insides of the pyramids would celebrate the life of their pharaoh by lavishly
decorating them. However, it posed as a problem since thieves usually plundered the
valuable objects used to decorate the insides of the pyramids.
 One of the key features of the Middle Kingdom is a shift in the political hierarchy.
There is an emergence of powerful groups of landlords that threatened the authority and
rule of the pharaoh. Because of the internal struggle between these two influential sides,
art has taken a back seat during the Middle Kingdom. In order for art to reemerge and
flourish, Egypt needed to have a more stable situation. This happened during the rule of
King Mentuhotep when Egypt eventually got back on track. Art during the Middle
Kingdom had some references from the Old Kingdom, however there were some
experimentation in terms of style that transpired during this period. Portrait sculptures
and fresco paintings that were freely drawn are some of the styles that emerged during
this period.
To solve the problem of thieves that plunder the tombs, the Egyptians made rock-cut
tombs by carving out a living rock. The insides of the tombs were still filled with
chamber and the hallways were lavishly decorated to celebrate the life of the deceased.

Egypt was not immune from foreign invaders and eventually fell into the hands of the
HYKSOS. This Asiatic tribe introduced BRONZE AGE weapons and horses to the
Egyptians. When these foreign invaders were overthrown, the Egyptians formed the New
Kingdom. It was a time of expansionism through territorial acquisition. Consequently,
with the expansion came an increase in wealth leading not only to economic but also
political stability.

The art of the New Kingdom has references from both of the preceding kingdoms.
Monuments and sculptures were still linked with death and reverence for the deceased.
During the previous kingdoms, tombs were just used for worshipping the dead but with
the new kingdom, they started having mortuary temples. These temples, which were
carved out of living rocks, served not only a sanctuary for the dead but also a place of
worship for the living. During this period, Egypt has established itself as a more
advanced and powerful civilization. With this newly found strength and power comes an
inflated ego. Their high regard for their people can be seen through their sculptures built
on massive and monumental scales.

After the New Kingdom, Egypt witnessed the Amarna Revolution led by King
Akhenaton and Queen Nefertiti. He moved the capital to Tel El-Amarna, thus the name
Amarna. During his reign, King Amenhotep wanted to revolutionize the arts and religion.
He later on changed his name to Akhenaton, which came from Aton who is the sun god.
This changing of names also signified the shift in religion. During this period, the only
god to be revered was Aton. Egypt became monotheistic and Akhenaton ordered all to
tear down all monuments in reverence to Aton. Most sculptures during this period had
curving lines and full-bodied forms. There is emphasis to life-like features of the face like
an elongate jaw and thick-lidded eyes. Most artists created artworks that are natural and
seemingly real, highlighting the features of their subjects. Naturalism was not only used
to depict the pharaoh but also was used for members of the royal family. The bust of
Queen Nefertiti has a long and sensuous neck. This figure was enhanced by applying
paint to the limestone.

The use of naturalism in artworks was rather short-lived. When King Akhenaton died,
his successors returned to the more rigid and conventional styles they employed during
the period of the kingdoms. They also destroyed images and figures of Aton and
subscribed to monotheism.

Probably one of the greatest discoveries from the Egyptian civilization was the tomb
of Tutankhamen. He became king at a very young age and died at the age of eighteen.
Howard Carter discovered his tomb in 1922. They were astonished to find gold artworks
and that the coffin was made out of solid gold. The body of the young king was covered
in linen and a gold mask covered his face.
Let’s Wrap It Up

During the prehistoric period, the early humans had transitioned from a nomadic
lifestyle to that of a more permanent one, which led to early civilizations. Some of the
works discovered from this period would give modern society a glimpse of what was the
life like during that period. One of the early civilizations where art flourished was the
Egyptian civilization. Throughout the three kingdoms all the way to the Amarna
Revolution, art has been directly used particularly in religious and spiritual activities.
Through these unearthed and discovered artworks, the modern world could have a better
understanding of the past and how it can affect the present.
LESSON 8: Art of Emerging Europe

Learning Outcomes

1. To have the knowledge to identify the major periods in Western art

history.
2. Can compare and contrast the artworks produced during the
different time periods and art movements.
3. To discuss the importance of art to the development of Western
Culture

Art has been an integral part in European history. From the time of ancient
civilizations like the Greeks and the Romans all the way to the modern times, art has
been used to communicate ideologies and belief system prevalent within their
context. Greek and Roman civilizations were known as the classical World because
both cultures aimed to embody the highest possible standard of quality in all aspects
of their societies. When it comes to both art and architecture, both civilizations
intended to promote the possibility of having an objective and widely accepted
standards for beauty. The influence and impact of both classical worlds are far-
reaching. Most art movements have taken inspiration from the certain artistic
elements from the two civilizations. There are different art movements that emerged
within the different time periods in Europe. Each movement has a distinctive
characteristic to them highlighting the different trends and changes as the transition
from one period to the next.

Ancient Greece

The Greeks were known to excel in various fields and aspects of society. For
example, their political ideals eventually became the framework for the democratic
form of government in modern times. They also valued poetry, drama, and
philosophy, which remained interesting fields of study for the contemporary times.
For those who want to be involved in arts-painting, sculpture, and architecture-one is
required to have a certain skill sets and body of knowledge.
 The Greeks were known to place prime importance in the use of reason. For this
civilization, man was at the center of society and how they trained their minds could
be the very foundation of how they lived their lives. The humanist ideals of the
Greeks were reflected in their democratic form of government. This certain level of
freedom was also reflected in their artworks, architecture, literature, and philosophy.
The Greeks were notably passionate about natural phenomenon and believed that
nature should be in perfect order. These principles, belief systems, and ideologies are
at the core of Greek art and architecture.

The development of Greek art can be divided into four periods: Geometric,
Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. The Geometric Period was a time when Greece
was starting to get back from the onslaught of what seemed to be their Dark Ages. It
was a period when geometric shapes and patterns have taken the spotlight in most of
the artworks. The Archaic Period, on the other hand, placed importance on human
figures. This was primarily a result of Greece’s trading activities with other
civilizations. The peak of Greek sculpture and architecture was during the Classical
Period. It was during this time when the Greeks found themselves rebuilding their
temples and focusing on creating artworks. The time of Alexander the Great was
called the Hellenistic Period. During this time, art was primarily focused on
showcasing emotions and depicting reality. Hellenistic sculptures started to
emphasize balance while showcasing dynamic poses and a number of emotions
evoked by the subjects. One of the most famous Hellenistic sculptures is the “Lacoon
and His Sons.” The sculpture depicts Lacoon, a Trojan priest, and his sons being
strangled by serpents. Their position was a result of Lacoon’s instructions during the
Trojan War. He instructed to keep the gates of Troy locked up because he felt that the
wooden horse offered by the Greeks as a gift to Athena was a trick. Poseidon, the
Greek god of the sea was enraged by such action which led him to send serpents to
strangle Lacoon and his sons.

The origin of theater and drama can be traced back during the Greek civilization.
The followers of Dionysus-the god of fertility-started the Greek theater. People who
were devoted to Dionysus would dance during ceremonies while giving their
offerings to their god. Eventually, the Dionysians devised a more structured form of
drama involving dances and choral songs, which depicted Greek mythologies.
Eventually the Greeks organized theatrical contests where the performance were held
in front of large citizens.

Ancient Rome

The Roman Republic was established around 500BCE. This civilization eventually
transformed into one of Western Europe’s mightiest empires. Since they had
expanded and covered many territories, they interacted with neighboring civilizations,
particularly with the Greeks.
It can be said that Roman civilization came of age during the Hellenistic Period.
As mentioned earlier, it was a period when the Greek culture’s influence has reached
its peak in the Mediterranean world. The Romans were fond of the Greeks and their
achievements in the arts. The fusion of Greek and Roman cultures can be seen in
most Roman artworks. Some would argue that the Romans merely copied Greek art.
This eventually made the Romans produce artworks that are often looking stern,
harsh, and strong. They also invoked the principles of realism in most of their works,
highlighting the features of human beings. Aside from this, the Romans were also
known to be master builders, which earned their reputation for grand monuments and
architectural infrastructures. One of their architectural achievements would have to be
the Colosseum. This amphitheater was planned and constructed during the reign of
Emperor Vespasian. One of its main uses was for entertainment purposes like public
events and gladiator games. This structure was a concrete manifestation of Roman
builder’s craftmanship which focused on logical organization of the entire edifice.
 Ancient Greece had a huge impact in the formation of Roman culture. There are a
lot of Greek influences evident in Roman theater and drama. Writers of comedy like
Platus and Terence have patterned their works to those of Greek works. Since the
Roman audience was not as enthusiastic about theatrical works unlike their Greek
counterparts, most plays had to be included in the Roman games.

Middle Ages

As the term denotes, it is the period between the decline of the Roman Empire and
the Renaissance. It was a period that is characterized by ignorance and darkness.
Another dominant characteristic of the period was that the Church was the central
figure and authority of the period. Since the church was the most important figure, the
most important products of the early Middle Ages would have to be copied of the
Christian scriptures. The printing press came later after the Middle Ages, so copies of
the scriptures were done by hand. These copies were also done with illustrations and
decorations which highlight the religious focus of the period. During this time, great
cathedrals were also built. These cathedrals can be categorized into two periods:
Romanesque (1050-1200), inspired by the old Roman Empire, and Gothic (1200-
1500), which had a more northern flavor from the Goths-vulgar and barbarian.

Renaissance Art

During the Renaissance Period, artists valued the “individual” as a subject of arts.
The influence of humanism shifted the focus of some artworks during the
Renaissance Period to empower the “individual.” Most artworks emphasized
naturalism, which was also an influence of humanism since there was a great
emphasis on the proportionality of the human body. Most artists also added
perspective of depth wherein spaces were explored in different artworks. This
technique provided a three-dimensional perspective of most Renaissance paintings.
Renaissance artist also gave importance to non-religious themes or subjects. This was
also brought by the privatizations of the art during the Renaissance Period, however
most artworks remained religious in its focus and theme.
 During the Renaissance Period, there was also a revival of Roman theatrical plays.
These plays were performed during special occasions at the courts of Italian princess.
The plays were done in such a way that showcased grand and lavish entertainment for
the audience. Aside from the song and dance number, they invested in elaborate
stages and costumes for the actors. Eventually, this would lead to Italy’s opera, which
have greatly influenced their tradition of popular theater.

Mannerism

Mannerism was a period in art history, which was a product of the Renaissance
Period. During the Renaissance, artists would observe nature and try their best to
emulate it based on their observations. As the Renaissance ended, artists started
directly copying subjects from existing works of art. Most artworks during this period
displayed distorted figures, two-dimensional spaces, discordant hues and colors, and
lack of defined focal point.

Baroque and the Rococo

The term “baroque” is derived from the Portuguese term barocco which is
translated as “irregularly shaped pearl.” This is a suitable description that Rome was
the birthplace of the Baroque Period, which is to some historians was a response to
Protestantism. This period roughly spanned from 1600 to 1750. Although it was a
period following the Renaissance, it can be said that a lot of artists have developed
styles and techniques different from their Renaissance predecessors. Most artists used
colorful palettes and ornamentation in their works. This was a time when Italy in
particular, strengthened not only their religion but also other aspects like politics an
art. Expansion was the major theme of this period, which became very much evident
in the artworks produced during this time. Motion and space were taken into
consideration by artist like the use of dramatic lighting and the concept of time.
Aside from art, music also flourished during the Baroque Period. This is because
people believed that music could serve as powerful tool to communicate messages
that can evoke certain feelings among its listeners. Baroque music was able to clearly
distinguish loud from soft and solo from ensemble. Since the birthplace of this period
was in Rome., it did not come as a surprise that most composers come from Italy.
This include Vivaldi, Corelli, and Monteverdi. Eventually, the influence of Baroque
music spread outside Italy and reached other parts of Europe. Other well-known
Baroque composers include Germany’s Bach and Handel. Since Baroque composers,
through their works, tried to evoke certain emotions from their audience, they began
to make more complex musical compositions and performances. However, it can be
noted that initially, this kind of music was limited only to powerful institutions like
the church and individuals like the patrons. Eventually, such performances would be
made accessible to the middle class and the masses.

Neoclassicism

There seems to be a debate

among historians as to the beginning
of modern art. There are accounts
that would attribute for the
emergence of this kind of art during
the French Revolution in 1789.
However, other historians claim that
it was the year 1863 when there was
an emergence of modern painting
exhibitions.
Neoclassicism was a movement
in Europe that transpired during the
late 18th and early 19th centuries. It
was the dominant art movement that
time which basically aimed to revive
and rekindled the influences of
Greek and Roman into art and
architecture. The ancient Greeks and
 Europeans had placed emphasis on
human reason and keeping society in
order. These very principles were
also the dominant principles during
the Enlightenment Period. Some
historians would also say that this
movement was a reaction to the
artworks produced during the
Baroque Period. There was a call to
veer away from such extravagance in
terms of style and form of the
Baroque Period.

Romanticism

Romanticism, as an art movement, used the central themes of Neoclassicist artworks as a

springboard. Romanticists have highlighted heroic elements into their work. During the age of
Revolutions, there has been a tremendous focus on patriotic and nationalistic movements. One of
the major revolutions in history would be the French Revolution. Such revolutionary movements
became the focal point of most Romantic works.

The major and central themes of Romanticism movement include the emphasis on the
goodness of mankind. Most works also promoted justice, equality, and social order. Artist also
emphasized emotions and feelings of man, which was a deviation from the humanist principles
of rationalism.
Realism

Realism as a style of work focuses on the accuracy of details that depicts and somehow
mirrors reality. There is little room for imagination in this movement since emphasis is placed in
observable traits that can concretize through artworks. Realism was heavily influenced by
Hellenistic Greek culture since most artworks during that period placed emphasis on the human
body.
Realism as a modern movement in art veered away from the traditional forms of art. In a way,
it revolutionized themes and techniques in painting. In addition, this movement also expanded
and widened existing notions of what can be considered as art. Since artists worked within the
context of revolutions and social change, artistic works began to depict real-life events. Idealistic
concepts and images were replaced by real manifestations of society. There is a move to combine
both art and life in artistic works since the modern world were suitable for subjects of art. This
movement also reexamined existing belief systems and traditions.

Impressionism

The impressionism movement started in France, which led to a break from the tradition in
European painting. Impressionism is a style of painting that emerged in the mid-to late 1800s.
Impressionist artists incorporated scientific principles to achieve a more distinct representation of
color. The distinctive characteristic of this style is that it allows the artist to emphasize the
immediate impression he has of a particular event or scene. The said impression is
communicated by the artist through his work and can be seen through the brushstrokes,
distinction of colors, and the lights and shadows used by the artist.
Post-Impressionism

It is an art movement that emerged in France, which is a result of both the influence and
rejection of Impressionism. Most artist that belong to this movement started off as impressionist
but later on saw the inherent limitations and flaws of impressionism. This eventually led to the
development of individual style that gave emphasis to defining from with the use of broken
colors and short brush stroke. Some of the famous post-impressionism artist include Paul
Cezanne, Georges Seurat, Paul Gauguin, and Vincent van Gogh, among others. Most of the
works of the said painters became the framework of the contemporary techniques and trends
during the 20th century.

Neo-Impressionism

As an art movement, neo-impressionism is considered as a response to empirical realism of

impressionism. Most painters who subscribe to such movement rely on a systematic and
scientific techniques that have a predetermined visual effect not only on the art work itself but
also how the audience perceive the art. The leading figure in neo-impressionism was Georges
Seurat who recorded optical sensations on a more scientific manner. His color theories paved the
way for the technique called POINTILLISM. This art technique basically utilizes discrete dots
and dashes of pure color. These elements are believed to blend with the viewer’s perspective.
Aside from Seurat, other neo-impressionist artists include Henri-Edmond Cross, Maximillien
Luce, and Camille Pissaro, among others.
Art Nouveau

Between 1890 and 1910, countries from Europe and the United States witnessed the
emergence and flourishing of a new art style. This ornamental style of art was a break from the
conservative historicism, which was the prevailing and dominant theme of most Western
artworks. This ornamental style uses long and organic lines that are concretely manifested in
architecture, jewelry and glass design, among others. In most works, the defining characteristic
of Art Nouveau is the asymmetrical lines that usually is in the form of insect wings or flower
stalks. The line is done in such a graceful and elegant manner that somehow evokes a certain
power to it.

Fauvism

This is a style of painting that emerged in France around the turn of the 20 th century. What
makes fauvists revolutionary is that they used pure and vibrant colors by applying straight from
the paint tubes directly to the canvas. The fauves, just like the impressionists, painted directly
from nature. The difference lies with how the fauves have this strong and expressive reaction to
how they portray their subjects. Most fauvist works reject the conservative and traditional
 renderings of three-dimensional space. What artists did was they introduced and promoted a
picture space that is defined by the movement of color.

Cubism

Between 1907 and 1914, French artist Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque introduced a new
visual arts style called CUBISM. This style would later on have a huge influence on artist during
the 20th century. Cubists highlighted the two-dimensional surface of the picture plane. Focusing
on a flat surface was a rejection of dominant techniques like the use of perspective,
foreshortening, and modeling. In addition, one of the things that cubism rejected was the
existing and prevailing notion that art should imitate nature. Cubists emphasized that they are not
in any way obliged to copy texture, form, color, and space. They presented a new depiction of
reality that may appear fragmented objects for viewers.

Futurism

It is an early 20 th century art movement that started in Italy, which highlighted the speed,
energy, dynamism, and power of machines. In addition, common themes for works in this
movement are restlessness and the fast-pace of modern life. Later on, the movement’s influence
branched out not only in Europe but also in Russia. The greatest impact of futurism is evident in
poetry and visual arts.
Italian poet and editor Filippon Tommaso Marinetti coined the term “futurism” to reflect his
purpose of disregarding the traditional methods of the art in the past. He believes that art should
embrace and embody change, innovation, creativity, and originality.

LESSON 9: Caught in between: Modern and Contemporary Art

Learning Outcomes:

1. To differentiate modern and contemporary art.

2. To show the interrelation of modern and contemporary art.
3. Isolate and discuss significant historical events that informed and inspired the
different movements under contemporary art.
4. To classify specific artworks into the different movements under
contemporary art.

The history of art is one of the most difficult tasks to pin down. As what previous chapters
have shown, significant ideas, canons and tradition, preferences and dominance in styles, media,
and mode of production were the definitive characteristics that segment art history into
identifiable periods and movements; identifiable, but not necessarily precise. It is important to
note that the periods and movements of art are themselves testament to the connection of art and
culture in the everyday life. As it is examined and analyzed in context, it becomes increasingly
apparent that art is not detached from; rather, it is embedded in the affairs of the society in which
it exists. It offers a glimpse as to the beliefs of specific eras and how these beliefs were translated
into how people saw themselves and the world and how they chose to come into terms with it-all
influx.
This lesson attempts to provide a glimpse of contemporary art and how it was understood,
defined, and represented, not only within the bounds of the art world, but also beyond it.

Defining Contemporary

The term “contemporary” seems simple and straightforward enough to define. There is this
assumption that it need not to be asked; rather, that it must already be understood. But with an
attempt to do so, one finds it is a lot harder to grasp. The complexity of defining the term is
attributed to the fact that people have dissenting views on the interpretation of the “present,” of
“today,” or what the “now” means-these are often ideas that follow the word contemporary. Even
more so, is when it is hinged on the word “art” and suddenly it becomes a bit fuzzy.

There are museums, for example, that include name of artists, art forms, or artworks in their
institution’s name, but seem to champion works that arguably fall under an earlier period. For
example, the Institute of Contemporary Art in London which was founded in 1947 includes in its
mandate “the promotion of art that came to be from that year onwards.” Clearly the timeline is a
bit skewed if the assumption is that contemporary art stated decades later. For the New Museum
of Contemporary Art in New York, its starting point is dated at 1977; while the TATE framed
contemporaneity in a ten-year rolling basis and was placed under the bounds of their Museum of
Contemporary Art.
 Another source of confusion is the fact that in the colloquial, “modern” and “contemporary”
are considered synonymous. This, however, is not the case when these terms are used in the
context of art. Therein, they refer to two different (but consecutive) periods qualified by different
approaches to artmaking and the functions that art served. To better make sense of contemporary
art, perhaps it is best to dial back to its predecessor, modern art.

Modern Art saw the digression of artist away from the past conventions and traditions and
toward freedom. There is the famous adage of “anything goes.” With the world becoming
increasingly complex, it required an art that could accommodate such range and breadth.
Roughly between the 1860s to late 1970s, creatives celebrated the novel opportunities in art,
from the materials to its manipulation and ways of seeing and thinking about art. The devotion of
artists to a strict narrative was often illustrated in their figurative works; however, these artists
gave their nod to abstraction. The tenets of this period were not only reflected in its art, but it
was also evident in the way people lived and conducted themselves., the social issues that were
relevant, fashion, music and the wide range of images and activities they were engaged in. This
period saw the heavy mass production of goods, along with the encouraging environment made
possible by industrialization, new technology, urbanization, and rise of commercially driven
culture. There was also a palpable secularization of society, interest in nature, and primacy of the
self and individuality. Artists were committed to developing a language of their own-original but
representative. What this means is that artists drew the world but in his own terms. It was no
wonder that within this period grew a vast number of different movements.

The period that ensued was touted contemporary art. In order to move forward, it is necessary
to underscore that this can be better understood after a starting point has been established.
Compared to the dense taxonomy of modern art, contemporary art had fewer-isms under its
wing. Perhaps, this was also due to the fact that it is still unfolding.

Effectively, this period can be traced from the 1970s to the present. There is a reason behind
this cutoff. The cutoff was hinged on two reasons:

1. The 1970s saw the emergence of “postmodernism.” The affix was a clue that whatever followed
was segregated from its precursor.

2. The 1970s saw the decline of the clearer identified artistic movements.

Social Context: In Between Modern and Contemporary Art

Reaping the benefits and drawbacks of the dramatic changes that occurred at the beginning of
the 20th century, the social. Political, and cultural context continued to provoke the artists to
create. There is a potent source of reference for his works so that he may continue to question the
existing and emergent values of society. This multiplicity of perspective brought to light a more
difficult terrain to map out in terms of clear and distinct movements because what compelled
artist’s works were not prevailing medium, technique, or style, rather, it was the themes and
concerns they addressed. And the conversation was no longer limited to geographic locales, but
became increasingly a global conversation.

“A may be spoilt for choice. In a world where nothing is seasonal or regional any more, there
is no home base from which to operate. And so the arts today can be seen as responding to a
number of issues., from within their own structures of means and techniques, some more widely
understood as issues within society. Typically, none is resolved.” (Tamplin, 1991).
Contemporary art was heavily driven by ideas and theories, and even the blurring of notions of
what is and can be considered as “art,” with the involvement of television, photography, cinema,
digital technology, performance, and even objects of the everyday. It was the idea that was more
important than its visual articulation.

There were several art movements that were caught in between the succession of modern and
contemporary art. These movements laid the groundwork for the transition into contemporaneity
Reeling after the war, one of the early movements was abstract expressionism (early 1940s to
mid-1960s) which took the basic tenets of abstraction and combined with it gestural techniques,
mark-making, and a rugged spontaneity in its visual articulation. Often affiliated with New York
painters) hence being called the New York School), some of them include Clyfford Still, Jackson
Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Barnett Newman, and Mark Rothko, who were committed to
creating abstract works that had the ability to convey and elicit emotion, especially those residing
in the subconscious. Two major styles emerged from this: that of action painting and color fields.
Action painting underscored the process of creation in that it showed the physicality, direction
and most often, the spontaneity of the actions that made the drips and strokes possible. On the
other hand, color fields emphasized the emotional power of colors. From the vivid demarcations
to the more toned-down transitions, these bands of colors were akin to the effect of landscapes.

Creating energy was at the center of “op art” or optical art (early 1960s onward). Much like
what was discussed in the lesson on elements of art that dimension can be implied even on a two-
dimensional surface or plane, op art relied on creating an illusion to inform the experience of the
artwork using color, pattern and other perspective tricks that artists had on their sleeves. From
making it seem like a section was protruding out or receded in the background, to creating
movement, works under this movement showed a certain kind of dynamism. It inspired several
artists in different countries to create their own iteration of op art: Hungarian artist Victor
Vasarely, British artists Bridget Riley and Peter Sedgley, American Richard Anuszkiewicz, and
Israeli Yaacov Agam. Other artists expanded their works to include other materials such as nails,
plexiglass, and metal rods, including Jesus Soto, Guenther Uecker, Enrico Castellani, and Carlos
Cruz-Diez.

The quest for actual movement in the works created were responded to by kinetic art (early
1950s onward). Harnessing the current and direction of the wind, components of the artworks
which was predominantly sculptural, most were mobiles and even motor-driven machines, was
an example of how art and technology can be brought together. Artists known for creating
kinetic art were Naum Gabo, Alexander Calder., Jean Tinguely, Bridget Riley, and Nicolas
Schoffer. One of the most recent kinetic artists to gain attention is Theo Jansen with his massive
sculptures or beast, as he likes to refer to them. Using plastic tubes and PVC pipes, he has
created several life forms that took over the sea-side.

In Japan during the post-war, platforms that were grounded on movement and a sense of
dynamism were utilized to convey ideas attached to the new-found freedom, individuality and
openness to the international sphere. Termed GUTAI (1950s-1970s) which means embodiment
or concreteness, it preceded the later forms of performance and conceptual art. The goal was not
only to explore the materiality of the implements used in the performance, but also to hold a
deeper desire to make sense of the relationship that is struck between the body, the movements,
and the spirit of their inter action during the process of creation. Gutai straddled between
multiple platforms from performance, theatrical events, installation, and even painting. The
founder of the Gutai Art Association or Gutai Group was Yoshihara Jiro in 1952. Other known
gutai artists were Tanaka Atsuko, Saburo Murakami, Kanayma Akira, and Shozo Shimamoto.
Entitled “Challenge to the Mud” (1955). Kazuo Shiraga utilized his body, writhing in pile of
mud. The shapes formed, and the state of the mud were left as is after his performance, and was
kept as part of the exhibition as a kind of action-painting. This is one of the most important
examples of GUTAI.

Another movement was minimalism which cropped up in the early 1960s in New York, and
saw artists testing the boundaries of various media. It was seen as an extreme type of abstraction
that favored geometric shapes, colored fields, and the use of objects and materials that had an
“industrial” the sparse.

“The new art favored the cool over the “dramatic”: their sculptures were frequently fabricated
from industrial materials and emphasized anonymity over the expressive excess of Abstract
Expressionism. Painters and sculptors avoided over symbolism and emotional content, but
instead called attention to the materiality of the works.” (Wolf, n.d.)

Another assumption was that its subtext was deference to truth, as a thing was presented as
itself, without pretensions or embellishments. It also had a very utopic aura about it. Some of the
key figures in this movement were Agnes Martin, Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt, Dan Flavin, Carl
Andre, and Donald Judd.

The other movement is POP ART. It first emerged in the 1950s but found its footing in the
1960s. It drew inspiration, sources, and even materials from commercial culture, making it one
of the most identifiable and relatable movements in art history. Artists became increasingly
critical about how what was being exhibited in art spaces had no relationship with real life. What
could be more real than what you saw, used, ate, watched, heard, and read! Hence, they turned to
commodities designed and made for the masses, particularly drawing inspiration and materials
from ads, packing, comic books, movies and movie posters, and pop music. The aim was to also
elevate popular culture as something at par with fine art. A defining feature was the discussion
on the hierarchy (and divide between) of “high culture” and “low culture”; “fine art” and “low
art.”
 The following was an excerpt from a letter written by Richard Hamilton, a pop artist,
addressed to his friends Peter and Alison Smithson:

“Pop art is: popular (designed for a mass audience), transient (short -term solution),
expendable (easily forgotten), low cost, mass produced, young (aimed at youth), witty, sexy,
gimmicky, glamorous, big business.” (Hamilton, 1957)

Perhaps, one of the most critical statements against pop art was its use of very banal and
“low” objects and subject matters, lacking the elevated aura that other believed art required. It
was also seen as an absence of criticality in that objects appeared as it is, seemingly no different
from how they were used in the daily life. If at all, it ironically seemed too “cool” as well that it
also became somewhat detached to the life it purportedly talked about. Some of the artists that
are most identified with pop art is Andy Warhol, James Rosenquist, Claes Oldenburgh, Richard
Hamilton, Tom Wesselman, Ed Ruscha and Roy Lihtenstein, with a number of them coming
from careers in the commercial art as illustrators, graphic designers, and even billboard painters.
It is because of this that their works had a seamless quality about it.

But perhaps the most pertinent movement that solidified the move to contemporary art was
POSTMODERNISM. By the very name, it was a nudge to formalize the critique towards
modernism and its claim over art for the better of the 20th century. More than anything, it was
grounded on the shifts in the belief systems that were in place in the 1960s. First used in 1970,
the term was difficult to affix to any style or theory and perhaps that was the point.
Postmodernism encroaches on other small movements that included conceptual art, neo-
expressionism, feminist art, and the Young British Artists of the 1990s, among others. Grounded
on skepticism about ideals and grand narratives, it was rooted in analytic philosophy during the
mid-to late 20th century, which highlighted the importance of individual experience and was
often steeped in complexity and contradiction. As an upshot, formerly established rules, barriers,
and distinctions were abolished. In a sense, the artist’s creativity was in its most free-with an
“anything goes” disposition, artworks fell within th broad spectrum of the humorous to
controversial works that challenged not only taste but also former sensibilities and styles. Their
awareness of styles was not for them to copy or to be governed by them, but to borrow, critique,
and even to turn on their heads.

During this time, some of the guiding principles were the multiplicity of narratives, relativity,
and even interdisciplinary. It is important to note that there were attempts to overturn the notion
that all progress was positive, the hierarchy of races, and that art has definitive goals. In relation
to the last one, one emergent aspect was also underscored in the experience and engagement with
art and that was the importance of the viewer. Here, the idea of the sole authorship of the artist is
put to the test, that is the intention of the artist during the time of creation-the end-all and be-all
of the appreciation of work because it is where the sole meaning lie-is disputed.

Some of the sub-movements under this broad umbrella were minimalism, conceptual art,
video art, performance art, installation art, and even feminist art. Although they were widely
accepted and recognized to be formal movements during the 1970s, they were in fact already in
existence as early as the 1920s.

Contemporary Art
 We can observe that there were overlaps with the acceptance and practice of these
movements. They were not only overlapping with each other, but they were embedded in a social
order that was in fact somewhat “disordered.” One of the main developments during this time
was the turn from the traditional notions of what art is: from paintings and sculptures to the more
experimental formats. These included film, photography, video, performance, installations and
site-specific works, and earth works. Even these formats tended to overlap, leading to interesting
and dynamic, and otherwise “unheard of” combination of concepts, subjects, materials,
techniques, and methods of creation, experience, and even analysis. Compared to other periods,
it can be argued that the contemporary art is the most socially aware and involved form of art.
The subject matter of its works was one of the most pressing, heated, and even controversial
issues of contemporary society.

Oher Contemporary Art Movements

Neo-pop Art

In the 1980s, there was a renewed interest in pop art specifically to Andy Warhol’s works and
his contemporaries. What made it different from pop art was that it appropriated some of the first
ideas of DADA in which ready-made materials were used for their artwork. DADA was a
movement that was very much against the values of the bourgeois, the colonial and even the
national. It was both anarchic as it was referencing anarchy-the war ensued because of the values
the movement abhors and despises. Aside from this, it does not only referenced popular culture,
but more importantly, criticized and evaluated it, often using popular cultural icons such as
Marilyn Monroe, Jackie O, Madonna, and Michael Jackson, among many others. Some of the
artists involved in the revival of pop art was Katharina Fritsch, Daniel Edwards, Jeff Koons,
Keith Haring, Mark Kostabi, and Damien Hirst, to name a few. Compared to their predecessors,
they were more affront about their evaluation about the world through the works.
 In Koon’s “Puppy” he uses computer modelling to create a behemoth of a sculptural work- a
giant topiary-that refers back to saccharine ideas of sentimentality, security and banality: flowers,
a puppy (West Highland terrier), Hallmark greeting cards, and Chia pets. This work articulates
his exploration of the limits that exist between the mass or popular and the elite culture.

Photorealism

The resurgence of figurative art, where realistic depictions is a choice, is a proof how
varied and fragmented postmodernism is. In photorealism, a painstaking attention to detail is
aimed, without asserting an artist’s personal style. These drawings and paintings are so
immaculate in their precision that it starts to look like it is a photo without a direct reference to
the artist who created it. Two of the known photorealist artists are Chuck Close and Gerhard
Richter.

Conceptualism

Other movements were informed and shaped by pop art, such as Conceptualism. As opposed
to celebrating commodities as references to real life, conceptualism fought against the idea that
art is a commodity. This movement also brought to the fore issues brought about by art
institutions such as museums and galleries where art works are peddled and circulated. Some of
the major conceptual artists are Jenny Holzer, Damien Hirst, and Ai Wei Wei. “In conceptual
art, the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When an artist uses a
conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are made beforehand and
the execution is a perfunctory affair.” (LeWitt, 1967)

Performance Art

Performance art is related to conceptual art, whose rosters of well-known artists include the
likes of Marina Abramovic, Yoko Ono, and Joseph Beuys. As a movement, it began in the 1960s
and instead of being concerned with entertaining its audience, the heart of the artwork I its idea
or message. Here, the audience may even be an accomplice to the realization of the work.
Performance art maybe planned or spontaneous and done live or recorded. Since it is also
durational in nature, it is also considered as ephemeral works of art.

An interesting proposition is that performance is not about the medium or the format, rather, it
is how a specific context is made in which through engagement or interaction, questions,
concerns, and conditions will be fleshed out.

Installation Art

Compared to traditional art formats, installation art is a kind of an immersive work where the
environment or the space in which the viewer steps into or interacts with (going around
installation art) is transformed or altered. Usually large-scale, installation art makes use of a host
of objects, materials, conditions, and even light and aural components. These works may also be
considered site-specific and may be temporary or ephemeral in nature. Well-known installation
artists are Allan Kaprow, Yayoi Kusama, and Dale Chihuly.
 An example of a public installation art is the “Cadillac Ranch,” comprised of 10 Cadillacs of
different models ranging from 1949 to 1964. Buried nose-first into the ground, each car is
seemingly equidistant from each other and forming a straight line. From its original site along
interstate 40, it was moved in 1997 to its new spot two miles westward along the Interstate. The
cars underwent several changes, from the first time they were installed as they were located in a
public space. It didn’t take long before graffiti found its way onto the surfaces of the cars, and
was painted different colors such as gray. It also had a pink phase in the 1990s, wherein all cars
were painted pink.

Earth Art

Sometimes considered as a kind or a spin-off of installation art, earth art (or land art) is when
the natural environment or a specific site or space is transformed by artists. It is a kind of human
intervention into a specific landscape or terrain. Earth art is different from environmental art in a
sense that it does not focus on the subject (environmental issues or concerns) but rather on
landscape manipulation and the materials used., taken directly from the ground or vegetation
(rocks or twigs). Artists known for Earth Art are Robert Smithson, Christo, Richard Long, Andy
Goldsworthy, and Jeanne-Claude.

Street Art

This art movement is related to graffiti art as it is a by-product of the rise of graffiti in the
1980s. Artworks created are not traditional in format but are informed by the illustrative,
painterly and print techniques and even a variety of media (even video projections). Some of the
examples of this include murals, stenciled images, stickers, and installations or
installative/sculptural objects usually out of common objects and techniques. Since these works
are most commonly found in the public sphere, various people who have access to them have
formed the impression and perception of the artworks themselves.

These works operate under interesting circumstances since they are unsanctioned and do not
enjoy the invigilated environments of museums and galleries. However, these works also end up
in them, as street artists also hold more traditional exhibitionary formats in the white cue. If it is
in the open space, there are no governing rules in its production and sometimes, in the
interaction. Known street artists include Michel Basquiat, Keith Haring, Shepard Fairey, and
Banksy. Banksy’s popularity is evidenced by the creation of a film documentary that spoke about
him and his works. Gordon Matta-Clark, Jenny Holzer, and Barba Kruger are some of the known
street

artists.